FYP Midterm 2- February 2013

Works- M.W.FFrancis Bacon-The New Organon, AphorismsMain Points-Short Answer

Bacon's project: o Progress (start again in order to get further)- was not a Renaissance revival of ancient

sources, he felt we had to move on, the ancients didn't have enough materialo First real advocate of the new experimental method- the discovery of new facts,

broadening experience of the worldo Practical knowledge- Bacon denied truth to any knowledge that wasn't productive of

new knowledge o From arcane learning to public knowledge o New Structure for Scientific Inquiryo Philosophy is not something you should do alone- collective enterprise

Proposed a college built for this purpose (like in New Atlantis) You can only understand what you have experienced Understanding alone doesn’t get you very far; experiments further knowledge Nature must be understood to be commanded; once this is accomplished, it is possible to

dominate it The sciences we have now do not help create new ideas- we need new sciences Syllogisms are not applied to the first principles of sciences There are two ways of finding truths

o Deduction- going from axioms to particularso Induction- going from particulars to general axioms

Anticipations of nature: ‘the conclusions of nature as ordinarily applied in matter of nature’ (Aphorism 26)

If there are errors in the first principle, all that is built on it will be wrong 4 classes of idols:

o Idols of the tribe: foundations in human nature (Aphorism 41) human understanding is inherently flawed; ex. See more order than exists in nature

o Idols of the cave: prejudices of the individualo Idols of marketplace: emerge out of our interactions with one another; our need to use

languageo Idols of theatre: arising from the dogmas of philosophyo The idols show that we need a method to rise above mental corruptiono Also shows an emphasis on the need for objectivity

Quotation Recognition PromptsStatues, natural philosophy as static, ancients, knowledge, experience, rational, instruments, Nature, command, experiments, axioms, syllogism, anticipations, idols (tribe, cave, theatre, marketplace)

Francis Bacon- New AtlantisMain Points-Short Answer

The crew of a ship comes to the island of Bensalem, where they find a Christian people

They received Christianity when a pillar of light rising from the sea appeared, and a natural philosopher from Solomon’s House was allowed to approach and received a chest with the New and Old Testament

There used to be much more navigation, and America (Atlantis) was very powerful, but it was leveled by Divine Revenge, only a few escaped destruction

People are allowed to land in Bensalem, and can stay if they wish (most do) Solomon’s House: dedicated to the study of ‘the Works and Creatures of God’ (p.?) They have

various means to create artificial conditions of nature to study them Every two years Solomon’s House sends out emissaries to go to the other lands and seek out

new knowledge There are some Jewish people in Bensalem, although they are not numerous Information is published that will do the public good

Quotation Recognition PromptsFeast of families, House of Solomon, robes, free, ships, navigation, study, kindness, natural philosophy, Strangers’ House, being “twice paid” (bribery), Christians, Bensalem, Renfusa, pillar of light, chest, Tirsan (father), various fields of study, places for study

René Descartes- Meditations on First PhilosophyMain Points- Short Answer All that we have known all our lives is based in senses that cannot be trusted The first thing you can be sure about is that you exist- this cannot be disproved God must exist;

o the effect must contain as much reality or more as the cause, God is our causeo The idea of God comes from within us; couldn’t be invented

If God exists, then the outside world must exist, because God would never want to deceive uso Error comes from misuse of the faculties

He favoured the solitary thinker, believed that everyone should go through these meditations All ideas are true in that they are considered as ideas- they are disproved by outside world Three kinds of ideas

o Innate ideas: given (like the idea of self)o Adventitious ideas: appear to have external origins (sky, tree)o Factitious ideas: that we have invented ourselves (gryphons, unicorns)

Quotation Recognition PromptsEvil genius, God, ideas, reason, wax experiment, dressing gown (winter), existence, trust, doubt

Hobbes-LeviathanMain Points- Short Answer Knowledge comes from sense experience alone; there are no innate ideas Senses are caused by pressures and counter-pressures Ideas are represented by signs (words) Nothing is universal except for names

Reasoning is a system of the names of things- it is a type of addition, not natural process, the servant of appetite (desire)

God is inconceivable, because we have no idea of him (pure matter, insubstantial)- we can still believe in him

The world exists (obvious), but that doesn’t mean we can conceive of the Creator We have no idea of the soul There are not multiple forms of thinking Imagination: taking things we have seen and putting them together Leviathan: the strong head of state that Hobbes envisions. Behemoth: may represent army,

parliament, forces of civil war All humans have similar passions, they just have different objects Coherence is not the difference between regulated and unregulated (daydreams) thought

o Difference is desire: regulated discourse is by desire (means to end) Two kinds of mental discourse

o Effects to causes [common to man and beast]o Causes to effects [found only in human beings]

Human beings are essentially sensuous beings, but more so than animals in all ways Social construct is based on words Power: present means to a future apparent good (Hobbes)- temporal

o Natural and Instrumental Natural consists of body and mind (strength, prudence, good looks, etc.) Instrumental- external things that give you more power (riches, friends, reputation, etc.)

Value: the price one would pay for the use of your power (Hobbes)o Type of market where buyer determines the priceo Value is relative, economic in its content

The natural condition of man is the state of war, there is no right or wrong Hobbes= all human beings are essentially equal in nature

o Always able to compensate for deficiencieso Cannot have the upper hand permanently

Hobbes= natural equality leads to war (13.3)o If two people want the same thing, we both expect to get what we want, go to waro Why not share? Natural conceit of our own abilityo We are fighting for the other person to recognize our superiority

Desire for ease, love of arts, fear of death= passions that make you want to obey lawso Also can escape natural condition with reason

Laws of nature: immutable and eternal rights, although less safe in a world like thiso First law of nature: seek peace as far as possibleo Second law of nature: lay down all our natural rights as far as others do sameo Justice (3rd law of nature): that we perform our covenants made

You can never be forced to give up a right that is self-preservation Social contract: transferral of natural rights to the sovereign, who represents everyone, can enforce

contracts, protect the state Justice is only where there is a contract, commonwealth Fool- what if you could get away with injustice?

o Not against reason to act justly; any benefit from injustice is accidental, lose mutual protection of society, you're undoing what you originally did

o Cannot live in civil society and in natural condition at same time Punishment should be for future good of state, not for past evils We may not be naturally equal, but must acknowledge equal rights of all Person: the mask that actor wears; persona

o Natural Persons: Who we areo Artificial Persons: person who represents another- author

Politicians are actors, because they represent us, the authors Quotation Recognition promptsNames, words, reason, senses, pressure, state of war, natural condition, laws of nature, passions, sovereign, covenant, commonwealth, self-preservation, inconceivable, leviathan, rights, persona, author, actor, words in all capitals

Jonathan Swift-Gulliver’s TravelsMain Points- Short Answer Lilliputians: Beautiful, corrupt ideology, short sighted, bad government, call themselves great but are

not good, egotistical, petty, engineers, fallen from Utopia, MODERNS: slaves to discourseo They use Gulliver as a slave though he is much larger, try to kill him

Brobdingnagians (Giants): Ugly (to G) but wise, workable government, risen from Dystopia, practical, reasonable, ANCIENTS: do not rule by force/discourse, do have paradise myth, they are good not great, sense of perspective

Houyhnhnms: horse-people, masters of the Yahoos, Stoic form of reason, perfected nature but emotionally barren, disgusted by the human race, makes Gulliver disgusted too, do not understand Love

Yahoos: humanoid figures that are purely ruled by passion, no reason, Gulliver compares humans to them

Gulliver: Traveler, works for the people he encounters, is good with languages, otherwise useless; bad narrator (becomes unreliable) and terrible husband/father

Quotation Recognition PromptsGulliver, Lilliputian, Brobdingnagians, criticism of society, esp. British, giant, difference in size, mention of size, horses, Yahoos, stables, travelling-box, kissing a hoof, sailing, raft, master, Blefuscu, Captain Mendez

David Hume-An Enquiry into Human Understanding Main Points-Short Answer

Mind at time of birth= a blank slateo If all ideas have source in senses, there can be no innate ideas

There are certain ideas that are of reason alone Denies Cartesian view that reason should/can guide us in practical/ theoretical life Humans are creatures of 'custom' (habit), reason is a follower, slave of passions There are no ideas without impressions Hume → sentiment and not reason is the foundation of morality What are impressions? Sense experiences, feelings of pain/pleasure, emotions

o Can be either simple (one element) or compound (multiple qualities)

An idea= faint image, copy of impression (Hume)o Every idea is either memory or construction of memories

Difference between idea/impression is matter of degree, not kind (Hume) Appears that human mind has no limit of production of ideas Hume argues that when sense organs are defective then there are no corresponding ideas 3 principles of relation of ideas

o Resemblance: if A resembles B, thinking of one will bring up othero Contiguity: If A is situated near B in space or time, will make you think of othero Cause and effect: If A is cause of B, thinking of one may think of other

All propositions of statements can be in 2 kindso Relations of ideas: analysis of our ideas, determination of relation between them, a priori,

analytical propositionso Matters of fact: truth of these is dependent on senses, world- empirical claim

Characteristic of analytical propositions: opposite is inconceivable Empirical claim: the contradictory can be possible There is no absurdity in claiming the opposite of an empirical claim Relation of cause and effect is so intrinsic we don't even think about it Most of our claims about the world are not direct reporting, but indirect or influential, are about

things that we are not experiencing, beyond present (cause and effect) No rational justification for the principle of cause and effect Custom or habit, not reason, is guide of our empirical inferences No a priori knowledge of cause and effect, must be a posteriori A cause and an effect are independent; without experience, cannot deduce effect

Quotation Recognition PromptsIdeas, impressions, cause, effect, copy, reason, simple, compound, shade of blue argument, resemblance, contiguity, claims, custom, habit, sceptical discussion

Jean-Jacques Rousseau- Origin of InequalityMain Points-Short Answer Two kinds of inequality- natural, dealing with physical and mental differences, and social inequality,

which is constructed by society, unnatural and fundamentally untrue Man in natural state- solitary, self-determining, no language, property or family, everyone is equal Had two qualities animals didn’t; self-perfectibility, pity Difficult to explain where the above came from; property is where inequality came from They have no morality, no sense of justice When people had time for leisure, got to the point where they lived in groups, various amusements

(singing, dancing) began the process of inequality Three stages of development- savage man in the natural state, second state where things are

balanced, small family groups (likened to aboriginals), and civilized man Agriculture, metallurgy are true signs of civilization- meant there had to be a system where some

worked in mines, others in the fields, began the need for foresight In the system we have, it is of masters and slaves, but even the masters are somebody’s slaves. Origin of society- to give ‘additional fetters to the rich, new forces to the rich’ (p.79)

Body politic- a contract between the populace and its leaders where they both agree to the rules laid out in it.

Quotation Recognition PromptsInequality, natural state, savage man, perfectibility, contract, pity, language as unknown, property as source of society, agriculture, metallurgy, masters, slaves, origin, acquire, development

Jean-Jacques Rousseau- The Social ContractMain Points-Short Answer Amour-propre: construction, gets you into world of desire and construction, self-love Amour de soi: authenticity, love of self, existence, true to yourself 160- cannot renounce liberty- you are giving away everything 161- men are not naturally enemies- property makes them so In social contract, everyone gives away their rights to one another, so you’re not really giving up

anything Will of all: considers private interests, sum of private wills General will: considers only the general interest, private wills cancelled out There is no representation in this form of government- only for small city-states We are turned into human beings by the moral state; brought back into integration with others

o Rousseau: 'I feel, therefore I am'-contented, positive about existence Religion will be civic, based on principles of good society- the only thing it doesn’t tolerate are people

who go against these principles Everybody is free in willing the general will Legislator= figure who is already related to the universal by some gift, miracle, divinity

o Rousseau sees need for figure- but offers it only as hope, ambivalent about its existenceQuotation Recognition PromptsGeneral will, free, liberty, social contract, amour-propre, legislator, hating on Hobbes, morality, renouncing, civic religion

Immanuel Kant- Prolegomena to Future MetaphysicsMain Points-Short Answer We cannot prove metaphysical judgements within experience, because they deal with things

outside of experience All judgements are either analytic or synthetic Analytic- merely analyze the content of a given concept, are a priori

o 'All bachelors are unmarried men'- analyzing the concept of 'bachelor'o They are a priori because when you contradict an a priori statement, you contradict truth

Synthetic-synthesize ideas and concepts (combine)o 'All bachelors are meanies'- putting ideas together of 'bachelor' and 'meanie'o These can be contradicted and still make sense

Synthetic a priori- we put certain ideas together, make connections outside of experience (cause and effect)

Just as reason is capable of analyzing concepts, it also synthesizes them a priori Nature understood as appearances, what appears, appearances that follows certain laws If you do not impose a priori concepts on world (ex. Gravity), you can see nothing

You cannot prove metaphysics, but that doesn’t mean you should just give up on it Reason has a moral, essential end; can take concepts of understanding that far

o Find these ideas because Reason looks for completeness, wants these ideas o Causality- continue chain of cause and effect to first cause (freedom)

p.101, 86, 96- synthetic a priori judgements can be validated in another wayo You know it not because you perceive it, but because you enact/practice freedom, God, soul,

etc. that has nothing to do with experiencing it, they contribute to experience All judgements about metaphysics are synthetic a prioriQuotation Recognition PromptsAnalytic, synthetic, a priori, cause and effect, judgements, metaphysics, freedom, ideas

Immanuel Kant- Groundings for the Metaphysics of Morals(this is from notes from Gwendolyn Moncrieff-Gould and Jake Norris)Main Points- Short Answer

All knowledge is either material (concerned with objects) or formal (concerned with understanding)

Ethics is part of material philosophy All philosophy founded on experience is empirical All objects are subject to causality, but morals teach us that we ought to act a certain way Good will is good in itself, doesn’t need anything else to make it good, meant to be produced by

Reason Duty includes a good will- an action must be done from duty in order to have any moral value The motivations of actions are what matter Categorical imperative: present in human reason, allows you to know good from evil, recognize

dutyo Act as if what you will is a universal law ex. Can’t lie because then you’re willing that all

are lying, which means that no one believes anyone, which defeats the purpose of lying Other people should always be treated as ends in themselves Hypothetical imperative: What you ‘ought’, not duty or moral, the things you do to get to ends,

not because they are ends in themselves Metaphysics of morals is a priori (p.22) Self-legislation creates the kingdom of ends

Duties To Oneself To Others

Perfect Preserve oneself Keep promises

Imperfect Cultivate one’s talents Benefit or assist others

Quotation Recognition PromptsImperative, universal, morals, categorical, particular, murderer looking for your friend, material, formal, ethics, will, ends, means, duty, hypothetical

Lynn Hunt-French Revolution and Human RightsMain Points-Short Answer

Three Estates in France pre-Revolutiono First Estate: the clergyo Second Estate: the nobleso Third Estate: everybody else

Many wanted to create a declaration of human rights after the French Revolution to form a constitution; some argued that a constitution should come before rights

Some argued for the inclusion of women in the definition of citizen, most didn’to Same deal for slaves, but there was a revision of this idea after the slaves revolted in San

Domingue. After this, they started freeing the slaves. Quotation Recognition PromptsDeclaration, rights, Maroon, slaves, inclusion of women, exclusion of women, Nation, Third Estate, nobles, liberty, freedom

Mary Wollstonecraft- Vindication of the Rights of WomenMain Points- Short Answer Wollstonecraft is not advocating a bloody revolution against husbands (Rights of Women)

o Should be a fairly peaceful revolution because it benefits others Traditional role of women ('gentle, domestic brutes') is bad for women, marriages, childrearing Women contribute to state, democracy, as mothers (Republican mother) Having a gentle wife would give a man a wrong idea of himself, virtue is corrupted Predictable failure of marriage because of inequality structured into romance 'Romantic love promotes flattery', doesn't last, disappointing for women

o This lead s to affairs, gossip, jealousyo Without any mutual appreciation of qualities, the marriage crumbles

If you take away conventions that prevent women from having equal rights, then the sexes will be in their proper placeo Might be a natural thing for women to have traditional role, but we don't know (too many

conventions) Wollstonecraft acknowledges that in present state of affairs, women are feeble, stupid, etc. because it is in their best interests to be this way To men- you could have better wives if that's what you asked for True marriage can only be attained through intimacy between equalsQuotation Recognition Prompts Women, female, spirit, marriage, conventions, rights, gentle, manners, mothers, trashing Rousseau, feeble, stupid, equality.

Mary Wollstonecraft-Views of the French RevolutionMain Points-Short Answer

People who think for themselves are stronger; if governments don’t understand this, they will fall

As civilization progresses, people become more interested in society As knowledge increases, happiness and misery increase

two axioms (constant): freedom is a necessary condition of reason, make society more reasonable; and the privileged will be healed in reason by losing that privilege

The French way of life makes its people lively France was a good place for the collection of information ‘Every political good carried to the extreme must be productive of evil’ (p.363) The splendour of Paris was mostly due to the old government, regime French were unqualified for the work they undertook in the Revolution Only excuse for the ferocity of the Terror is that they have no confidence in their laws Barbarians are better than people in civilized life as far as violence and cruelty goes.

Quotation Recognition PromptsNations, influence, descriptions of the state, of the capital, long lists/sentences, frenchmen, french in general without capital, overturn, France is awesome), arts, courts, domineering, ferocity

Edmund Burke- Reflections on the French RevolutionMain Points-Short Answer His country operates by the principal of entailed inheritance; everything comes from their ancestors Spirit of innovation is selfish People will never look forward who cannot look back Freedom in adherence to traditional systems- choosing your nature French people have ignored tradition in the Revolution, and so are going to fail If they had sought the nobler freedom of the past, before the bad kings, fine; but they chose to

ignore all of the past Because of this, no king will ever listen again to their people; they have broken any trust. It was too furious a revolution for the circumstancesQuotation Recognition PromptsInheritable, posterity, liberty, family, ancestors, transmit, constitution, address to ‘You’, freedom, France sucks.

Mary Shelley-FrankensteinMain Points- Short Answer

Victor Frankenstein goes to Ingolstadt to study, becomes reclusive after a brief interest in alchemy, discovers the secret of life and creates a ‘monster’

The creature briefly watches a poor human family, learns about kindness but is treated like a freak when they discover him, he is rejected

The creature kills Frankenstein’s brother; Justine, the nurse, is hung for the crime The creature finds Frankenstein, demands a bride; Frankenstein refuses after beginning the

project, in revenge, the creature kills his friend Clerval and later Elizabeth when they marry. Frankenstein goes after the creature, chases him far north, where he encounters Walton on his

ship where they are stuck in the ice, tells him the story Frankenstein dies on the ship- the monster leaves, never seen again.

Quotation Recognition Prompts

Frankenstein, Victor, Justine, William, Delacey (Felix, Agatha, old man), family, creature, Elizabeth, demon, devil, lightning, alchemy, life, creation, ice, ship, Walton, Clerval, Ingolstadt, study, science, monster, descriptions of nature, master, slave, hideous, deformed, obsessed, bride, foul, murder, Waldman, lonely, isolated, rejected, violent

G. W.F Hegel-Introduction to the Philosophy of HistoryMain Points Three kinds of history

o Original History- history written at the time, in the spirit of the timeo Reflective History- reflecting on historical events, using primary sources to build a picture of

events that happened years before, the causes and effectso Philosophical History- viewing history as rational

Basic insight: humans are only truly free when in community, significance, meaning is found in a collective for individualo Man only develops mind, personality of own through interchange with otherso Makes idea that people can find freedom on your own absurd

All is objective and subjective, held together by reason (p.64)oWord for history in German= objective + subjective, denotes events and the narration of these

events Spirit is not unknowable abstraction; can see temporal flow in world history Spirit is alignment of infinite subject and infinite substance; God is nowhere else, task of philosophy

is to show Him Hegel- freedom is not a thing, but it is not unknowable; it is a worldly movement out of self and back

to itself Humans are aware of own activity- because of that self-consciousness, so Spirit recognizes itself in

them, in historyo World history is both human (human history of freedom) and divine (Spirit recognition)

All the ingredients of history are there before Spirit, but only potentiallyo Spirit does not fully know itself until it actualizes itself in world

Relationship between human intentions and actions is highly limited o Not because we are flawed in perspective, but because in world of human affairs, there are

other people, actions tend to get away from agento Only through thought, memory, after the fact can we make the action our own, close the gap

between action and consequence World-historical individual= one whose actions unleash events over which they have little control

o Combines passion with ideas, in their own time firmly Emphasis on individuality- situates historical events in their cultural contexts, all of our passions,

interests are situated in a historical context Our subjective actions have an objective reality How does W-H.I actions create new worlds when most people don't?

o Question of passion's role Passion: has no limits of law, morality (could be theatre of violence)

o Is not, because of interest- not self-interest, but those in which one takes interest, has a passion for

Passion is not a blinding desire that outstrips thoughtfulness, rationality

o This creates people who are well aware of norms they smash, but don't care, exceeds the demands of morality, customs, conventions (World-historical individuals)

o These individuals arise in a world that Spirit has outgrown (weary, bored)o They are means for spirit

Quotation Recognition PromptsSpirit, world-historical individual, history, Reason as force, passion, philosophy, Alexander, Caesar, time

Karl Marx-German IdeologyMain Points- Short Answer

Productive forces; what creates and what is our way of life The celebration of man and nature has always been present in industry History is in actual production Labour: an object is created that stands independent of produce

o Marx: the objectification of labour In producing the needs of production, new needs arise (p.116)

o Production of new needs= first historical act Origins of family=division of labour= beginning of inequality In first relationships= origin of consciousness Consciousness produced labour divide, language, family Ideology- projection of a state onto normality Rise of bourgeoisie- new ideology (freedom, rights, etc.)

o The very nature of this production came up against old order French Revolution was not of ideologies, but a class revolution There are no categories of history, historical events are tied to time Marx concentrates on the conditions of possible/ actual productions Mass, technological production comes into contact with private property

o Abstract labour of the machine, their workers is a uniformity of labour Distribution network is socialized not individualized, so is science

o But acquisition of these products remains private- WHAT?!o New class is produced- the proletariat (those without property)

Proletariat threaten to topple the bourgeoisie order Capital= revenue (for older) the means of production you own

o For Marx: other people's time, turned into objects Quotation Recognition PromptsIdeology, proletariat, Spencer, bourgeoisie, production, consciousness, capital

Karl Marx- Theses on FeuerbachMain Points-Short Answer

The problem with materialism is that the object is only conceived in perception, not as human activity or practice (praxis)

Human activity is itself objective Man has to prove the truth in practice; whether thinking is actual is a ‘scholastic question’ (99) Circumstances are changed by men Secular theory must be revolutionized as well Religious feeling is a product of society

“All social life is essentially practical” (p. 100) Philosophers need to figure out how to change the world, not just interpret it

Quotation Recognition PromptsPraxis, materialism, Feuerbach, practice, truth, abstract, revolution, religious feeling, alienation, change, rational, perception, society

John Stuart Mill- On Liberty Main Points- Short Answer

In old days, liberty was the protection of the subjects against the rulers Two ways to do this

o To establish rights that were inalienableo Establishment of constitutional power (such as Parliament)

Eventually, the demand grew for elected leaders, for the rulers to be the Nation itself In ‘self-government’ the people who exercise the power are not always those on whom it is

imposed Limitation of government power is just as important when the government is held accountable

regularly There needs to be protection ‘against the prevailing opinion and feeling’ (p.3) Rules of conduct must be established; but no one can agree on what they should be. Everyone’s standard of judgement is to their own liking People want to avoid governmental control of their lives at all costs The only true reason that power can be used over an individual is to prevent harm to others.

(Adults, not children) Liberty cannot happen until a people have developed so they can be ruled this way No opinion should be silenced, however unpopular If you deny true opinion because you think it’s false, you deny others the right to judge Man’s errors are corrigible due to his natural rational capacity Keeping an open mind is the only way to gain a reputation of wisdom Challenging thoughts, people is the only way to test their truth Falsehood that truth always survives persecution ; it does eventually get brought up again To find truth, you have to go as far as your intellect can take you To have a strong argument, you have to know the opposite side, be able to refute it entirely Many doctrines are held but not practiced Many truths can’t be realized until experienced Some seemingly conflicting doctrines both contain a part of the truth, and should therefore both

be heard Opinions can be rightly censored if the circumstances can cause harm Acts that without justification do harm to others are BAD. The End. In things that don’t concern others, people have freedom to be themselves ‘The human faculties of perception, judgement, discriminative feeling, mental activity, and even

moral preference, are exercised only in choice’ (p.40)

Human nature needs to develop, and because of that it cannot be a slave of custom Stronger passions may be a sign of being capable both of more evil and more good If your desires and impulses are your own, and they are the expression of your own nature, then

you have a character Society is in danger of controlling too much of people’s individuality; people are more interested

in conformity More in line with religious belief to think that the Being wants us to develop our self as much as

possible, rather than limiting what we can be ‘Originality is a valuable element in human affairs.’ (p.44) There aren’t many geniuses, but it’s important to have conditions of freedom to let them

develop Unoriginal people do not see the point of originality Mediocrity seems to be the general trend of the ruling power of mankind No democracy has ever been able to escape mediocrity because it is ruled by popular opinion,

unless it is guided by a genius figure Whole nations have lost some of their individuality because of the power of Custom- need to

get rid of this Europe has been spared total uniformity because of the numerous cultures, but it is in danger

of becoming like China, where everyone is alike, and little progress is made Everyone living under the protection of society should then act in proper conduct to the rest People may be justly punished by opinion if not by law if they are prejudicial against others Everyone should encourage each other to act for the best, but have no right to enforce it

(except kids and barbarians) We can stay away from people who aren’t good people or who make us feel bad; but we don’t

have the right to make their lives uncomfortable In cases of obvious self-harm, this freedom should be revoked (criticism)

o Mill's response- the greater good of freedom is more important than people continuing to ruin their lives

o Only when this self-harm can cause harm to others in a direct way can people interfere, punish

These rules should be applied to all levels of social life Parents have moral obligation to children to ensure education, at least the necessities of life

Quotation Recognition promptsLiberty, Authority, limitations, rulers, subjects, tyranny, master, constitution, magistrates, servility, government, actions, harm to others, opinion, truth, persecution, Socrates, Rousseau, doctrines, custom, individual, genius, mediocrity, prohibition

Charles Darwin-Origin of the Species Main Points- Short Answer

Men can only act upon outward/ obvious changes, nature is concerned only with survival Natural selection can modify at any age and time and way Natural selection cannot modify a species for the good of another species

Natural selection can modify one sex in terms of the other sex Sexual selection: struggle of males for females; if fail, less/no offspring. In most organic being, a cross between two is necessary to produce a child, even among

hermaphrodites Better to have a large group of the same kind, so less variety for natural selection Isolation is important for natural selection Natural selection is a very slow process, but cannot be stopped As newer, stronger species form, the older ones will become extinct 'the greatest amount of life can be supported by great diversification of structure' p.165 As species become more diverse through adaptation, they diverge in character from their

species, eventually becoming a distinct sub-species Competition will always be more fierce between species that are similar because they have

similar needs Natural selection entails extinction Complex organisms can indeed be formed by a succession of variations Fertility of varieties when crossed is not universal, depends on many factors Why do we not see numerous intermediary forms? They’ve probably become extinct The geographical record is imperfect, fragmented We see variability in domesticity because of human selection Natural selection occurs mostly because of competition for females, resources, etc.

Quotation Recognition PromptsPigeons, descent, species, variations, varieties, geography, geology, history, intermediary, chaos, extinction, examples involving animals, allied species, imperfect record, fossil, link, domestic, struggle for existence, competition

Charles Darwin- The Descent of ManMain Points-Short Answer

Fundamental intuitions of man are same as the lower animals (509) More complex instincts are independent of instinct Most of the 'intelligent work' of man is due to imitation and not reason (building, making, etc.)

while animals can do most of this through instinct (beavers, spiders) Imitation is found in both man and animal Monkeys especially, but most animals have some level of attention, memory, imagination and

even reason Even language is used by some animals (mostly monkeys- I'm sensing a pattern here…) Animals possess a sense of beauty 'There is no evidence that man was aboriginally endowed with the ennobling belief in the

existence of an Omnipotent God' (522) Animals may even possess a degree of religious devotion towards their masters (524) Animals could probably develop a moral conscience if their intelligence became as developed as

man's. Most people argue that man is a social animal 'A moral being is one who is capable of comparing his past and future actions or motives, and of

approving or disapproving of them' (530) For savages, actions were good or bad based on how they affected the tribe Man is the most dominant animal on earth, mostly due to reason (534)

Unlikely that bravery, loyalty would be passed on (these people don't often live to tell the tale) (536)

Habits, however, would be passed on Has anyone truly witnessed remorse? (537) We are degenerating the human race by allowing the weak to live and propagate. This is an

accident born of sympathy Struggle for existence follows from a rapid rate of increase Man comes from Old World monkeys (541) Man has 'a pedigree of prodigious length, but not, it may be said, of noble quality' (541) There are extinct races of men 'Women are the constant cause of war both between members of the same tribe and between

distinct tribes' (546) Women are gentler and kinder than man; men are bolder and fiercer than women Men can rise higher in intellectual disciplines than women

Quotation Recognition PromptsMonkeys, primates, descent, morality, religion, species, comparisons between humans and animals, examples involving animals (esp. pigeons), sympathy, sexual selection

Nietzsche- On the Advantage and Disadvantage of History for LifeMain Points-Short Answer

Animals have no memory of the past nor a conception of the future; man is envious of this but doesn’t know how to acquire this type of happiness

Humans are constantly tied to the past Animals live unhistorically- they live fully as they are in the moment Man lives under the weight of the past, tries to deny parts of it When we learn the phrase ‘it was’, we understand our life as an imperfect tense; death then

robs us of the present Lower, constant happiness is better than great happiness that only lasts a little while Until you learn how to live unhistorically (living fully in the moment, as yourself), you will never

know happiness A degree of historical sense, sensing everything as becoming, not being, can destroy a man, a

people, a culture Plastic power: The power to grow out of itself, heal what is past and broken and create new

(applies to man, people, culture)o The stronger this power, the more the person will control and appropriate the past

People can only become strong within a horizon, either limits it drew itself or others drew for them

You need both the historical and the unhistorical to be healthy Without the unhistorical feeling, it is impossible for any great deed to be done Superhistorical standpoint: seeing how the past, future and present are one, living eternally in

the unhistorical perspective Historical men: believe that the future will be better, look to the past only to wish for the future

more, think that meaning is found in existence in its process. They actually live very unhistorically.

Superhistorical men: They believe that the world is complete at every moment, achieves its end, view that the past and the present are the same

History should be used for life, not life for history

History belongs to living man in three wayso As far as he is active (Monumental)o As far as he strives (Antiquarian)o As far as he suffers, needs to be made free (Critical)

Monumental- the active man wants to be remembered in history because they believe that anything that helped the race of man must be preserved for it to keep helping

o The great however only live on through the existence of ordinary people, timeso Monumental history is only helpful if you believe that similar events can occur again;

otherwise, just a bittersweet reminder , hides other events in the past People who want to persist in the traditional, venerable will be antiquarian historian People who hate the present, are oppressed will be critical historians Too much history of an age is dangerous

o It can lose its personalityo Make it think that it possesses justiceo Impairs the instincts of the people o The belief occurs that this is the old age of humanityo Cynicism about the age is produced

Modern man has lost its personality; has become like a spectator of a showo Lost their instincts and their integrity; everyone is wearing a mask of who they think

they should be. Philosophy in modernity seems lost amid artificiality, no one is allowed to live philosophically “Only strong personalities can withstand history” (section 5, page unknown) There is no one more worthy of respect than the just man When it comes to recording history, objectivity and justice have nothing to do with each other It is a weakness of history to generalize “Only from the standpoint of the highest strength of the present may you interpret the past” Historical sense can destroy the future Every living thing needs to be surrounded by some sort of veil, or it is diminished Being able to tolerate everything (influences of the past, present)- historical sense We should look upon past as inheritance to be proud of, but we are still descendants Some living men have less right to be alive than most dead ones- need to be aware of this fact,

not smooth it over Firstcomer: goal is to create a new generation Seeing the view of history as the becoming of man is stupid The goal of humanity is in its highest specimens Masses are only blurred copies of great men, and the tools of the great It is in youth that we will escape the fate of history becoming too important- must stop the

historical education of the youth- they should only learn enough to use it for the life they lead Life, culture has to be understood by experiencing, creating it Superhistorical turns people towards art and religion

Quotation Recognition PromptsForget, remember, scroll, animals, humans, past, present, future, ‘it was’, pursuit of happiness, historical sense, plastic power, horizon, superhistorical, progress, wisdom/unwisdom, active, monumental, antiquarian, critical, habit, age, personality, honesty, eternal feminine, justice, religion, Christianity, German, firstcomer, world process, masses, history

Works: ThursdayBaroque Art Works

(M1)- Wölfflin’s Principles

Renaissance Baroque

Linear: clearly defined contour lines Painterly: Relies on colour, edges are not clear, form is loose (blurred) shows movement, connectivity

Plane: pictures laid out, parallel, side to side, size is compressed

Depth: object comes to viewer, more diagonals, vanishing point is deeper, off to one side, more dynamic, darker palette

Closed: space is closed off by edges of frame, self-contained, all fits

Open-formed: Space continues beyond edge of canvas , figures are cut off

Multiplicity- distinct parts, each part is unique, collection of independent forms

Unity: strong directed light, all elements are joined, figures/ colours blend and mingle

Clarity- objects are represented explicitly and naturally, perspective, everything is recognizable

Unclearness/Complexity: sensed optically and not geometrically, blended together, more loosely defined

(M2)- The Council of Trent Council of Trent (1545-1563)- charged with defining Catholic belief, reform of clergy for next 150

years Catholics launched propaganda campaign to get back to early principles

o Defended the 'cult of saints', religious images against Protestants Catholics: saints, Virgin Mary were necessary for proper connection with God Pictures should not be lustful

(M3)- The Idea/ Caravaggio, Bellori Caravaggio: figures are almost claustrophobic in frame, light in key spots (David and Goliath)- later

one shows effort, graphic Caravaggio: inventive, influential painter, painted a la prima ( at the moment) sort of still life,

invented lighting technique Hierarchy of subjects: history (religious, mythological, historical), portraits, scenes from life,

landscapes, still life (sucks) Caravaggio gave new dignity to still life, naturalism; showed imperfections Bellori: Art ought to surpass nature Caravaggio was admired above all for his use of colour Invented tenebrism- colour emerging from dark background, light comes from single source,

reveals inner emotional states of the figures The Idea of something is what is important to paint, go beyond nature

(M4)- On the Imitation of Statues, Peter Reubens Some statues are terrible, avoid these, but good statues can teach us a lot People of his age are different than ancients mainly because

Quotation Recognition PromptsArt, statues, saints, painting, Caravaggio, styles, masters, ancients, exercise

Newton- Letter to OldenburgMain Points- Short Answer Experimentum crucis- the prism experiment White light is made up of all the coloursQuotation recognition PromptsOdd capitals, prisme not prism, italics, spectrum, colour, refracted, Rays, refrangible, transmutations, reflection

Newton-PrincipiaMain Points-Short Answer Newton is a genius- subject of opening poem Practical mechanics= all the manual arts Time flows uniformly, independently Absolute space is always immovable Place is the part of space that a body occupies Relative quantities= measures of the absolutes they correspond to. Law 1: All objects remain in the state they are in (either moving or at rest) until an outside force is

imposed Law 2: A change in motion is relative to the amount of force imposed Law 3: Any action has an equal and opposite reaction Rules for study of Natural Philosophy 1: No more causes than necessary Rules 2: Causes assigned to similar effects must be the same Rules 3: Qualities of bodies that cannot be changed must be considered universal (extension,

hardness, impenetrability, movable, capable of inertia, submit to gravity) Rules 4: Experimental proof cannot be disproved by hypothesis alone Resistance that falling objects encounter= air Such an elegant system must have a creator We cannot truly know the substance of God Don’t know what gravity is exactly Quotation Recognition PromptsBehold, Jove, secrets, geometry, mathematics, mechanics, forces of nature, time, absolute, space, velocity, relative, motion, force, reaction, causes, vortices are stupid, gravity, God as unknowable

Diderot-D’Alembert’s DreamMain Points- Short Answer

Diderot claims that there is only one substance (against Descartes' dualism mind/body) Diderot-human beings are not metaphysically unique Matter has latent sensibility that reacts to stimulus (p.150)

o Only difference between non-living and living bodies is that latent never turns to activeo This easy explanation prevents chasm of uncertainty (159); doesn't know exactly what

sensitivity is

217/218- Virtue and vice have to be transformed into doing good/harm o Can't be rationally reprimanded for actions; must use reward/punishment to turn

people the right way Difference between humans and animals is a matter of organization (complexity) Self-consciousness (Diderot): sensitivity, bodies made up of contiguous particles

Quotation Recognition PromptsD’Alembert, Doctor, dialogue style, bees, morality, bestiality, goats, sleeping

Beaumarchais –The Marriage of FigaroMain Points-Short Answer

The opera of this play was written by Mozart Suzanne and Figaro want to get married, but Suzanna is afraid that the Count will want to sleep

with her (droit-de-seigneur) even though he abolished it ; Figaro declares he won’t let that happen

Marceline plans to marry Figaro because of an old debt, the doctor Bartholo promises to help her (he once fathered a child of hers)

Chérubin gets fired (at first) for messing around with Fanchette; he hides from the Count in Suzanne’s room, the Count comes in to ‘woo’ Suzanne, then tries to hide too

Chérubin is made a soldier in the Count’s regiment; he is teased about it by Figaro Figaro, Suzanne and the Countess plan to deceive the Count The Count almost catches them, but Chérubin and then Suzanne hide in the closet- ashamed of

suspecting her, the Count asks forgiveness Suzanne pretends to promise to meet the Count in the garden Figaro discovers that he is the child of Marceline and Bartholo; after some persuasion, Bartholo

agrees to marry Marceline The meeting in the garden is almost called off, but the Countess decides to go in Suzanne’s place The Count attempts to woo Suzanne (who is really the Countess) and when the deception is

discovered, he is ashamed and asks pardon, which the Countess grants. Quotation Recognition PromptsSuzanne, Figaro, marriage, Count, Countess Rosine, infidelity, grief, disguises, letters, mother, son, Chérubin, Marceline, castle, dialogue, droit-de-seigneur, thwarting the master, servants, Doctor, Bartholo, women, stage directions, Fanchette, page, folly, jealous, ‘God damn!’, Seville, criticizing nobility, ‘what did you do other than being born’

Ludwig van Beethoven – Heilgenstadt Testament Main Points-Short Answer His lack of hearing was agony to him Has to be alone; both to help his hearing and because of what he will accomplish He is not afraid of deathQuotation Recognition PromptsAccomplishment of great things, deaf, misunderstood, must be alone, wretched existence, Carl, Johann, brothers, love of mankind, misery

Schiller-Ode to JoyMain Points-Short AnswerNot really any to speak of- it is a happy poem, the end.Quotation Recognition PromptsIt’s poetry, joy, brotherhood, Elysium, joy, pleasure, Creator, virtue, endure, sky imagery, forgiveness

Karl Marx- Capital, The CommodityMain Points- Short Answer

Use-value= The utility of a produced object Exchange value= The purchasing value, what other commodities it can get you Commodity- external object that because of its qualities satisfies human needs either by being

consumable or used to get more commodities Basis of any exchange- the value of labour Socially necessary labour time: amount of time it takes people working under the same

conditions to produce the same thing Bourgeois splits people up into workers and owners

o Problem- the Industrial Revolution and the rise of the machineo Allows people to own means of production

Marx + Engels- private property= means of productiono Proletariat: sell their labour power, then they mix labour with resources but don't own

what they produce or the resources, but they should- only get wage Commodity fetishism- commodities present distorted reflection of amount of labour, people

focus only on the commodities themselves, a form of ideology Bourgeois production- money is what stands as equivalent for all commodities, universal

Quotation Recognition PromptsUse-value, exchange-value, labour, proletariat, machines, production, mass, product, bourgeoisie, commodity

Karl Marx- Communist ManifestoMain Points- Short Answer

Everyone is freaking out about Communism- what they don’t realize is that through the process of capitalism, we will produce Communism.

o The proletariat will rise up eventually, because we’re putting a lot of people who have nothing in a place together; they will eventually not take it anymore and fight back

Communism wants to tear the ‘bourgeoisie nuclear family’ apart- but it’s already breaking down (affairs, children leaving, very few real bonds between them anyways)

History is class struggle- how you move from system to system Communism is not something we try, it is inevitable, not an idea Capitalism is different because you mix labour with capital Capital is stuff like factories, part of the means of production Freedom= exercising labour in unalienated form

Quotation Recognition Prompts

Muck, rubbish, socialist, Communist, manifesto, spectre, education, communal, capitalism, nonsense, utopia as dumb idea, list of points, workers, proletariat, bourgeoisie, nuclear family

Nietzsche- The Gay ScienceMain Points-Short Answer

When we pass through various states of health, we experience just as many philosophies Everyone is constantly trying to do things for the good of the human race, not out of love, but

instinct Once people realize that the race is what matters, not the individual, there will be ‘gay science’;

for now we are still trapped in morals and religion People who teach ethics (design) are always thwarted by ‘laughter and reason and science’ (p.

19) People who are not curious, and who do not have a passion for reason are contemptible, even if

they are virtuous; it is not a true virtue Ignoble people cannot trust noble actions; they always think there is something in back of them The wicked are the ones who have advanced society the most- the “new” that is advanced is

always seen as evil for the old regime There is an unconditional duty that people have to the categorical imperative There have been no studies of common human actions, passions, relationships; and there

should be. This is something for the laborious to do, as it will take a huge amount of work Unconscious virtues follow different paths than the conscious virtues, have different

development Sometimes things seem to be hidden in men, but when descendants come you can see it plainly Powerful, unique people may be offshoots of former cultures Consciousness is still not fully developed, thinking that we already have it hinders its

development. Goal of Science: to cause at once the greatest pain and the greatest pleasure (can’t have one

without other) Power over others; either by doing them harm or by doing them good Noble presence: a way in which those in command have a bearing that makes people want to

obey them (like leaders in the army), rather than despise them (like managers of factories) People who are “realists” are merely passionate about the idea of reality Names of things have sometimes become what the things actually are We can only destroy the world if we are creators The greatest danger= insanity, the “enjoyment of the unruliness of the mind” (p.58) Collective belief, agreement has preserved the discipline of the mind, mankind Art is important because it gives us an escape from honesty, from rationality God is dead- have to escape his shadow The world is not organic or a machine; general character is chaos, there are only necessities It seems hard to ‘get along’ with the truth; our organisms seem to be developed in opposition to

it o The impulse to truth is actually a life-saving power

Logic springs from a struggle of illogical impulses Cause and effect represents a small part of a large continuum, in which there is no true

conditionality Many impulses that should be combined in science are not, so act as poisons to each other Only experiences we have in any field are moral experiences Four Errors of Man

o Saw himself as always imperfecto Gave himself imaginary qualities o Found himself in false position in relation to nature, animalso Always developing new, ‘eternal’ tables of values

We have an instinct to become a function in a herd In modernity, we value independence, but before to be independent was the worst thing ever Benevolence is covetousness on the side of the strong, and wanting to be coveted on the side of

the weak People who want to be simply functions to others cannot be alone or they destroy themselves To have healthy soul, must know your own virtue, limits, etc. Life is not an argument Christianity has promoted moral scepticism by making its own right and all others wrong Knowledge is more than a means ‘Do not flatter thy benefactor’ destroys Christianity Polytheism lets people set up their own ideals in a nobler way Origin of religion- concept of another world Renunciation of God may bring us higher Only one thing is necessary: that you are satisfied with yourself If people thought that they would have to relive their lives over and over again, with no

changes, would they strive to improve them or despair? Some people are gloomy when they think that ‘God is dead’; others are happy; things can finally

start Romanticism responds to people who either want respite from the world or else release in

madness We need to pursue the new, the exciting, to find a new healthiness

Quotation Recognition PromptsSickness, race, instinct, conservation, the individual is unimportant, gay science, laughter, comedy of existence, noble/ignoble, wicked, virtue, volcanoes, eruptions, tempo, consciousness, realists, Art, God is dead, continuum, poison, impulse, Dionysian, health