FUNDAMENTALS OF WRITING

April 3, 2014

What is the author trying to argue?

How does he/she support his/her point?

What kind of evidence is used?

Do you think the author presents an effective argument overall?

TodayArgumentative writing (continued)

- Logical fallacies

- opposing arguments + rebuttals

ArgumentOne of the keystones of university learning

- Expressing a point of view & supporting it w/evidence

- Involves use of research, critical thinking, & logic

A good piece of argumentative writing:

- Demonstrates your understanding of material

- Demonstrates ability to use or apply the materiali.e.) critique, apply it to something else, explain it in a different way.

ArgumentIt is something you do on a daily basis

- Academic- Non-academic

The more you improve your skill in argument, the better you are at:

- critical thinking- reasoning- making choices- negotiating- weighing evidence

Argument – a group of statementsAn argument consists of:

- Claim: Drinking water daily is good for your health (i.e., thesis statement)

- Support : as it cleans out your liver and reduces the level of toxins in your blood.

(i.e., evidence and reasoning throughout an essay)

Example: Drinking water daily is good for your health as it cleans out your liver and reduces the level of toxins in yourblood.

Argumentative Writing - ExampleBody paragraph 1:

Cake increases study performance. Elementary school students have increasing pressures to do well in school as expectations of what they should learn and how much they should learn change. As a result, elementary school students now study more difficult subjects, such as math, for longer periods of time. By increasing study performance, cake can help students cope with these new demands. First, cake has been proven to increase concentration. A study found that children who eat just one piece of cake per day have 30% better concentration than children who have no cake (Wonka, 2011). An increase in concentration can allow students to cope with increased class demands, especially in more difficult classes, such as math, which require concentration to solve complex problems. Cake also has a positive effect on reaction time. The chemicals in cake improve the function of the reticular formation, allowing cake eaters to more quickly process visual and auditory information (Jones, 2009). Increased reaction times allow students to answer questions faster and to more readily understand explanations and examples. By providing a much needed increase in study performance, cake should clearly be included on the daily menu of elementary school cafeterias.

Reaching Logical ConclusionsExample 1

Premise 1: Non-renewable resources do not exist in infinite supply.

Premise 2: Coal is a non-renewable resource.

Conclusion: ?

- Coal does not exist in infinite supply.

Logic – What is it?“A formal system of analysis that helps writers invent, demonstrate, and prove arguments.” (O.W.L.: Para 2)

In logic:

- Test propositions against each other to determine accuracy.

Logic is not simply the absence of emotion in an argument, or “common sense”.

Logic - SyllogismMost famous type of logical sequence.

- Developed by Aristotle.

Aristotle’s most famous syllogism:

Premise 1: All men are mortal. Premise 2: Socrates is a man. Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Premise 2 tested against Premise 1 to reach conclusion.

Since both premises are valid, there is no other logical conclusion.

LogicIn logic:

Argument = The assertion of a conclusion based on logical premises.

Premise = Proposition used as evidence in an argument.

Conclusion = Logical result of the relationship between the premises

Reaching Logical ConclusionsExample 2: It can often take several premises to reach a conclusion.

Premise 1: All monkeys are primates.

Premise 2: All primates are mammals.

Premise 3: All mammals are vertebrate animals.

Conclusion: Monkeys are vertebrate animals.

Using logic in writingSimply creating a syllogism…

Premise 1Premise 2Conclusion

…is not enough to convince all readers.

1. Not all readers will automatically follow your line of reasoning.

2. The elements of the argument needs to be expanded.

Using logic in writingTo convert a logical syllogism into a written argument:

- Present each premise clearly

- Provide evidence to support each premise

- Draw a clear connection to the conclusion

Using logic in writing – ExampleContext:

The government in Moronville wants to use taxpayer money to construct a new stadium.

The author of the following argument is opposed to this.

Using logic in writing – Example 1Author’s logic:

Premise 1: Projects funded by taxpayer dollars should benefit a majority of the public.

Premise 2: The proposed stadium constructions benefits very few members of the public.

Conclusion: Therefore, the stadium construction should not be funded by taxpayer dollars.

Using logic in writing – Example 1Author’s logic:

Premise 1: Projects funded by taxpayer dollars should benefit a majority of the public.

Premise 2: The proposed stadium constructions benefits very few members of the public.

Conclusion: Therefore, the stadium construction should not be funded by taxpayer dollars.

This conclusion is logical. However, if there is no elaboration, it may not be persuasive to the audience.

Using logic in writing – Example 1The author elaborates on the premises (explains them adequately) and provides evidence to support each premise.

Logical Fallacies- When creating an argument, be careful with using “faulty

logic”.

- At times, a writer may go off course with his/her logic or may write an argument that has no logical support.

- In the next few slides, we will examine some common logical fallacies

Logical FallaciesSlippery Slope

Problem: based on the premise that if A happens a series will follow: B, C…X, Y, Z.

Basically saying A = Z.

Topic: banning SUVs.

If we ban SUVs because they are bad for the environment, eventually the government will ban all cars; therefore, we should not ban SUVs.

Logical FallaciesHasty Generalization

Problem: The conclusion is based on insufficient or biased evidence.

Basically: Rushing to the conclusion.

Even though this is only the first episode, this TV show is clearly going to be terrible.

Logical FallaciesPost hoc ergo propter hoc (after this, therefore, because of this)

Problem: Conclusions that assumes that if ‘A’ occurred after ‘B’, then ‘B’ must have caused ‘A’.

Basically: Assuming that if one event follows another, the first event must have caused the second.

I ate some pizza and got sick. Thus, the pizza must have made me sick.

Logical FallaciesGenetic Fallacy

Problem: Conclusion is based on an argument that the origins of an idea, person, theory, etc. determine its value.

Basically: Drawing a conclusion based on premises that are not inherently related.

Volkswagen cars are evil because they were used by Hitler’s army.

Logical FallaciesBegging the Claim

Problem: The conclusion that needs to be proven is already validated in the claim.

Filthy and polluting oil should be banned.

Logical FallaciesCircular Argument

Problem: Instead of proving the argument, the writer re-states the argument.

Basically A is B because B.

Barack Obama is a great communicator because he speaks effectively.

Logical FallaciesEither/Or

Problem: The conclusion over simplifies the argument by reducing it to only two sides or choices.

We can either stop using cars or destroy the earth.

Logical FallaciesAd hominem

Problem: An attack on the character of a person (or organization, etc.) rather than on opinions or arguments of that person.

Basically: Because you’re bad, your argument is invalid.

Green Peace’s strategies are not effective because they are all dirty, lazy idiots.

Logical FallaciesRed Herring

Problem: A diversionary tactic that avoids the key issues, often avoiding opposing arguments instead of addressing them.

The level of mercury in seafood may be dangerous, but what will fishermen do to support their families if we cut down on fishing?

Logical FallaciesMoral Equivalence

Problem: Comparing a minor misdeed with a major atrocity.

The parking attendant who gave me a ticket is as bad as Hitler.

Spot the fallacyPhysical education classes are regularly opposed by

policy makers who want to promote more traditional academic class in school. These policy makers are not the most qualified people to promote these changes. The issue with policy makers opposing physical education classes is that most policy makers tend to be promotion-seeking workers whose primary interest is moving ahead of everyone else. They will often resort to using unethical methods to attain advancement.

ad hominem

Spot the fallacySchools must ensure that enjoyable and health-

promoting physical education class is part of the curriculum. Since students, even young students, spend most of their time in the classroom, they may become bored or distracted by the lack of physical activity. Many students, as a result, look forward to physical education (gym) class as something fun to break the tedium of the classroom. While having fun, the students are also becoming more health conscious through knowledge provided by gym teachers and activities in gym class.

begging the claim

Spot the fallacyParties insisting on a decrease in physical education

classes support their views with research data that indicate students’ math and language skills have dropped drastically since more physical education classes were added to the curriculum. While this may have some value, the parties calling for less physical education classes ignore the fact that gym teachers have studied just as hard as other teachers and are a valuable component of the education system. What they teach has significant value.

red herring

Spot the fallacyMany people argue that sports should not be part of

the school curriculum. However, removing sports from the curriculum will have dangerous consequences. Sports are one of the best ways to encourage children to be physically active. Removing sports from the curriculum will decrease children’s interest in exercising and will lead to more obese children.

slippery slope

Spot the fallacyWhile eager parents often assert that more

academic classes, like math and science, should take precedence over physical education class because those classes have more value, they ignore the fact that physical education class has real-world value for students by teaching team work. Team work is a skill required in most jobs because it is a necessary skill at work. Students learn this skill through playing team sports like basketball and soccer in gym class.

circular argument

Argumentative Writing – How toOrganizing your ideas – Make an outline

Organization type A:

Introduction (thesis statement)

Pro argument 1

Pro argument 2

Pro argument 3

Counterargument(s) and refutation [2 paragraphs]

Conclusion

Argumentative Writing – How toOrganizing your ideas – Make an outline

Organization type B:

Introduction (thesis statement)

Counterargument(s) and refutation [2 paragraphs]

Pro argument 1

Pro argument 2

Pro argument 3

Conclusion

Opposing arguments (counter-arguments)

A view/opinion/idea OPPOSED to your position.

Some may ask: “Wouldn’t this WEAKEN the argument?”

- If used improperly,

OF COURSE.

• BUT…

Opposing arguments (counter-arguments)

If chosen well, counter-arguments make YOUR argument stronger:

1. It gives the writer the chance to respond to the readers’ possible objections to the writer’s ideas BEFORE they even finish reading.

2. It also demonstrates that the writer is a reasonable person who has considered both sides of the

argument.

How to present an opposing argumentYou should express the counter-argument objectively. (do not present it using overly negative language)

i.e., “Some people foolishly believe that…”

“For some crazy reason, it is thought that…”

“Unbelievably, some assert that…”

Remember: The point is to show the reader that you have considered both sides carefully (and seriously).

How to present an opposing argumentAn opposing argument can usually be presented in a sentence (or a few sentences).

The important thing is to make sure you have presented the opposing argument clearly and with enough detail that it is understandable to the reader.

- If an opposing argument is not describedadequately, it will weaken the rebuttal.

- Doing so also makes the writer appear overly biased or under-prepared to argue the issue.

To present an opposing argument in writing:

Here are some typical introduction phrases:

Many people [believe/argue/feel/think/suppose/etc.] that [opposing argument].

i.e., “Many people argue that chocolate ice cream should be banned from the KMU campus because it makes students too happy, which creates a disruptive environment.”

“Many people assert that chocolate ice cream should be banned from the KMU campus because…”

To present an opposing argument in writing:

Here are some typical introduction phrases:

It is often [thought/imagined/supposed/etc.] that [opposing argument]

i.e., “It is often supposed that chocolate ice cream is dangerous because it makes students too happy, which creates a disruptive environment.”

“It is often thought that chocolate ice cream is dangerous because it makes students too happy.”

To present an opposing argument in writing:

Here are some typical introduction phrases:

[It would be easy to/One could easily] [think/believe/imagine/suppose/etc.] that [opposing argument]

i.e., “One could easily believe that chocolate ice cream is dangerous because it makes students too happy, thus creating a disruptive environment”

“It would be easy to suppose that chocolate ice cream is dangerous because it makes students too happy.”

To present an opposing argument in writing:

Here are some typical introduction phrases:

It might [seem/appear/look/etc.] as if [opposing argument ]

i.e., “It might seem as if chocolate ice cream is dangerous because it makes students too happy.”

“It might appear as if chocolate ice cream is dangerous because it makes students too happy.”

Refuting an opposing argument (rebuttal)

One of the most effective ways to refute/rebut an opposing argument is to show that it is based on faulty assumptions, logic, or ideas.

- The facts are wrong

- The analysis is incorrect.

- The argument is based on values that are notacceptable.

Rebuttals - ExamplesNOTE: These examples are related to a claim from James Loewen’s book, Lies My Teacher Told Me (1995).

Our position: “To function adequately in society, students must learn what causes racism.”

Thesis: Despite objections to this claim, to function adequately in society, students must learn what causes racism.

Opposing argument: Racism is a thing of the past; therefore, students don’t need to bother with it.

“Some people argue that racism is a thing of the past; therefore, students don’t need to bother with it.”

- This is faulty factual assumption.

What is the faulty (wrong) assumption here?

“Racism is a thing of the past”.

Opposing argument : “Some people argue that racism is a thing of the past; therefore, students don’t need to bother with it.”

This is faulty factual assumption.

“Racism is a thing of the past”.

Possible rebuttal:

One response could be to give facts (evidence) that show that racism continues to be a problem.

Opposing argument : “Some people argue that racism is a thing of the past; therefore, students don’t need to bother with it.”

A second faulty assumption here:

- Student’s don’t need to think about what was is in the past.

Possible rebuttal:

- Another possible response could be to show that students must understand that past as well as the present “to function adequately in society.”

RememberYou may also look for logical fallacies in opposing arguments.

- i.e,. Red herring, ad hominem, either/or, slippery slope.

How to present a rebuttalNow that you have:

a) identified an opposing argument

b) determined how to refute it

it is now time to persuade the reader away from the opposing argument by writing an effective rebuttal (refutation).

How to present a rebuttalIf an opposing argument requires clear signaling, then so does the rebuttal (perhaps even more importantly!).

In stating a counter-argument, your essay has made a 180° turn away from your claim, for the rebuttal, it is time to do another 180° to complete your circle (return to YOUR claim).

The readers will benefit from a clear signal that the rebuttal will begin.

Your argument opposing argument

Transition from opposing argument into rebuttal

Here are some typical introduction phrases:

What this argument [overlooks/fails to consider/does not take into account] is ...

i.e., “What this argument fails to consider is that racism continues to be a problem in school and in everyday life (SOURCE).”

Transition from opposing argument into rebuttal

Here are some typical introduction phrases:

This view [seems/looks/sounds/appears.] [convincing/plausible/persuasive/etc.] at first, but ...

i.e., “This view appears plausible at first, but the reality is racism continues to be a problem in school and in everyday life (SOURCE).”

Transition from opposing argument into rebuttal

Here are some typical introduction phrases:

While this position is popular, it is [not supported by the facts/not logical/impractical/etc.]

i.e., “While this position is popular, it is not supported by the facts.

Transition from opposing argument into rebuttal

Here are some typical introduction phrases:

Although the core of this claim is valid, it suffers from a flaw in its [reasoning/application/etc.]

i.e., “Although the core of this claim is valid, it suffers from a flaw in its reasoning.

Opposing argument: “Some people argue that racism is a thing of the past; therefore, students don’t need to bother with it.”

- Faulty assumption

Rebuttal: provide evidence that demonstrates that racism continues to be a problem.

“What this argument fails to consider is that racism continues to be a problem in school and in everyday life (SOURCE). Every year, hundreds of news stories report on conflicts that arise due to racial issues. In addition, hate groups, such as the Ku Klux Klan continue to exist…”

RebuttalsOpposing argument: Learning about racism might make students more racist.

“One could believe that learning about racism might make students more racist.”

Problem? – faulty analytical assumption.

- Assuming that learning ABOUT racism can MAKE you racist.

Rebuttals“One may believe that learning about racism might make students more racist.”

This is faulty analytical assumption.

- Assuming that learning ABOUT racism can MAKE you racist.

Response:The response could state that understanding the causes of a problem is not the same as causing or creating the problem.

RebuttalsOpposing argument: Who cares if students are racist?

Some people may ask the question, “who cares if students are racist?”

Problem? - This is an example of faulty values.

What is the faulty value here?

- Assuming that people don’t care about students being racist.

RebuttalsSome people may ask the question, “who cares if students are racist?”

This opposing argument is based on an assumed value that the majority of readers probably do not share.

The response would be to point out this value, and state why it is not believed that most readers share this value.

The key is to base your arguments on values that MOST readers are likely to share (there are bound to be a few racists out there, sadly).

RebuttalsOpposing argument: Previous generations didn’t study the causes of racism, so why should we start now?

“Some people may assert that previous generations didn’t study the causes of racism, so why should we start now?”

Response:

The response here would be to show that previous generations did not “function adequately in society,” because they had a lot of problems with racism (i.e., segregation and more hidden forms of discrimination).

RebuttalsOpposing argument: Previous generations didn’t study the causes of racism, so why should we start now?

Response:

The response here would be to show that previous generations did not “function adequately in society,” because they had a lot of problems with racism (i.e., segregation and more hidden forms of discrimination).

Therefore, the fact that previous generations did NOT learn about causes of racism (evidence) supports the claim that students DO need to learn what causes racism.

RebuttalsOpposing argument: Students are already familiar with racism; they don’t need to study it in school.

“It is often stated that students are already familiarwith racism; they do not need to study it in school.”

Problem? – While this may be true, it is irrelevant.

Our claim is not that students need to learn ABOUT racism (that is assumed: many students already know about racism); our claim is that students need to learn what CAUSES racism.

Choosing opposing argumentsObviously, some counter-arguments are better than others.

You want to use ones that are at least somewhat persuasive.

You don’t gain anything by rebutting counter-arguments that no one believes!

Choosing opposing argumentsTwo things to look for in counter-arguments are:

1. Plausibility (could a reasonable person possibly believe this opposing argument?)

2. Popularity (is it a well-known argument?)

Choosing opposing argumentsFrom our previous examples, which would be strongest?

Some people argue that racism is a thing of the past; therefore, students don’t need to bother with it.

Learning about racism might make students more racist.

Who cares if students are racist?

Previous generations didn’t study the causes of racism, so why should we start now?

Students are already familiar with racism; they don’t need to study it in school.

Simple rebuttal formOpponents say …[opposing argument]

However…[begin rebuttal]

Because [reason + evidence]

Therefore…[connect reason to rebuttal]

Simple rebuttal form

Opponents to public smoking say that smoking is harmful

for nonsmokers. However, this argument assumes that

smokers are responsible for the health of non-smokers. If

nonsmokers want to avoid cigarette smoke, they can walk

away from it because nonsmokers should look out for their

own health, as health is a personal responsibility.

Therefore, it is not the responsibility of smokers to protect

nonsmokers.