fundamentals - tobyrush.com

Fundamentals

Music Theory for Musicians

tobyrush.com

and Normal People

coming up with terminologydoesn’t just help us talk to

others about music, though...it actually helps us learn!

What is Music Theory?

licensed under a creative commons BY-NC-ND license - visit tobyrush.com for more

music theory for musicians and normal people by toby w. rush

Chances are there’s a piece of musicthat moves you in a profound way...

so then thebassoon choir

comes in like flaminghoneydew melons

from on high

a way that is frustratingly difficultto describe to someone else!

Like other forms of art, music often has the capabilityto create emotional reactions in the listener that

transcends other forms of communication.

though a single piece of musicmay elicit different reactionsfrom different listeners, anylover of music will tell you that

those feelings are real!

pleasebradleyit’s late

i’malmostdone

and ifthey’re real,they’re worthy

of study.

one of the most valuable partsof music theory is giving names tomusical structures and processes,

which makes them easier to talk about!

but while it’s an important step, and a great place to start, music theory ismuch more than just coming up with names for things!

when composers write music — whether it’s a classical-era symphony or a bit of japanese post-shibuya-keiglitch techno — they are not following a particular

set of rules. If anything they are often trying to

break them!

so while a lot of people think music theory is aboutlearning the rules for how to write music, that’s not

quite right. music theorists don’t create rules forwriting music; they look for patterns in music that is

already written.

which leads to the most importantquestion... the one that, as you

study music theory, you should beconstantly asking yourself:

why dissect music? what’s thepoint of figuring out rulesthat composers themselvesweren’t even worried about?

composerscreate...

why?

...theoristsanalyze!

nakatamozart

why?because somewhere

in there is the reasonwhy that piece of music

moves you.

the reason itmakes you cry,

gives you chills,reminds you of home.

maybe it’s in the notes.maybe it’s in the silence.maybe it’s somewhere

in between.

it may take along time, oreven create

more questionsthan answers.

butmusic theoristsare going to

find it,because...

music theory isfiguring out whatmakes music work.

And you just joined the team.grab your stuff...

let’s go!

music notation is the art ofrecording music in written form.

modern music notation is a productof centuries of transformation...

and it is neither efficient nor intuitive!

b∫

n#‹

Notation: Pitch#¶#g#F#d#DµD#SµS#d#Mf#SµSµg#F œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ

pitch is the highness orlowness of a sound.

the system of musical notationwe use is essentially a stylizedgraph of pitch versus time.

the five lines on which notesappear is called a staff.

the white notes on the keyboardare labeled with letters from A to G.

notation is based on the piano keyboard;lines and spaces on the staff represent

the white notes on the keyboard.

the clef determines what notes each staffline corresponds to. the four modern

clefs are shown here; the note displayedon each staff corresponds to middle c.

To notate theblack noteson the piano

keyboard, we useaccidentals,which alter thenote by one or

two half steps.

a half step isthe distancebetween two

adjacent keyson the piano

keyboard,regardless

of what colorthe keys are.

these symbols are placed tothe left of the note that theyaffect, and they apply to all the

notes on that line or spacefor the rest of the measure.

two notes which have the samepitch (for example, f sharp and

g flat) are called enharmonics.

middle c is the c that is closest tothe middle of the piano keyboard.

The double sharp raises thenote by two half steps.

The double flat lowersthe note by two half steps.

The sharp raises thenote by one half step.

The natural cancels outany previous accidental.

The flat lowers thenote by one half step.

treble clefalto clef

tenor clefbass clef

for example, a flute hasa high pitch, while a tuba

has a low pitch.

a note is awritten representation

of a particular pitch.

pitch

pitch

F g a b c d e F g a b c d e

& œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

& B B ?

time

w wwwto display notes

outside thestaff, we useshortenedstaff lines

calledledger lines.

F g a b c d e F g a b c d e

liz phair“what makes you happy” [melody from chorus]whitechocolatespaceegg (1998)



& œœb œn œ# œœ∫ œn œ‹

whole n

ote

double w

hole n

ote

half n

ote

eig

hth n

ote

sixteenth n

ote

thir

ty-s

econd n

ote

sixty-f

ourth n

ote

one-h

undred-

twenty-e

ighth n

ote

quarter n

ote

whole r

est

double w

hole r

est

half r

est

eig

hth r

est

sixteenth r

est

thir

ty-s

econd r

est

sixty-f

ourth r

est

one-h

undred-

twenty-e

ighth r

est

quarter r

est

Notation: Rhythm

W w h

Œ

q

‰

e

≈

x

®

xK

Ù

xKK

Â

xKKK

∑ ∑„

while pitch is pretty clearly notated on avertical axis, note length is indicated using a

somewhat arcane system involvingnoteheads, stems and flags.

in this chart, each successive type of note is half as longas the note to its left. none of these notes has a standardlength; a half note in one piece may be the same length as

an eighth note in a different piece.

note lengths in a pieceare indicated by the tempomarking at the beginning

of a piece or section.

a rest is a period ofsilence the length ofwhich corresponds to a

particular note.

usually rests areplaced on the staff at a

particular verticalposition as shown here.

the augmentation dot is a dot placed to theright of a notehead. though small, this dotwields some serious power: it adds half

of the original note’s length!

multiple dots can also be added,each one adding half of the

previously added value.

q. q e= + q.. q e= + x+ q e= + x+q... +xK

ties are curved marks which connecttwo notes together to createa single, extended sound.

to tie more than two notes together,draw ties between each note; do not

use a single, extended tie.

a tuplet is any non-standard division of anote. these are usually written as a groupof notes delineated with a bracket and

a number showing the division being made.

most tuplets are simple divisions, likethe triplets to the left. but anything ispossible! chopin, for example, wouldoften go to town with these things.

œ .œ

.

jœ jœ jœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ= =

œ œ œ3 for example, these aren’t

exactly quarter notes;they are each a third aslong as a half note.

wha... gah!chopin, no!down, boy!

frederic c

hopin

noctu

rne in b

major, op. 6

2, no. 1 (1846)



ack!Get it off!GEt it off!

34

qE E

q.E E E

Notation: Meter

QQ QQ QQ QQ QQ QQ QQ QQ QQ QQ QQ >>>>> QQ Q QQ QQ QQ QQ

34 QQ Q Q QQ

a fundamental feature ofmost pieces of music is a

consistent rhythmic pulse. this pulse is called the beat,

and a single pulseis called a beat unit.

there are two types of beat units:those containing two divisions,

called simple beat units...

...and those containingthree divisions,

called compound beat units.

the c

orrs

“heaven k

no

ws” [drum intro]

forgiven, not f

orgotten (1996)

in music, beats are organized into patterns of accented and unaccented beat units.in fact, if you listen to a sequence of repeated notes, your brain will probably start toperceive the notes as groups of two, three, or four, even if no accents are present!

these groups are called measures,and they are delineated with barlines.

the organizationof beat units

and measures ina piece is calledmeter. Meter isdescribed by twonumbers placedat the beginningof the piece:

the time signature.

by looking at the topnumber of the time signature,you can tell two things aboutthe meter: whether it’s simpleor compound, and how many

beats are in a measure.

beats p

er m

easure

simple compound

2

3

4

the top numberindicates the numberof beats in a measure.

the bottom numberindicates the type ofnote which serves asthe beat unit.

simple TIME SIGNATURES are easy.

measurebarline

the code for the bottom noteis pretty easy: refers to

a quarter note, to an eighthnote, to a sixteenth note,

and so on.

48

16

68

2 63 94 12

2 68 Q. Q. Q. Q.the top number indicates the numberof divisions in a measure. to get thenumber of beats, divide it by three.

in fact, wouldn’t this bean easier way to notate

compound meters?

sorry... the man saysyou have to do itthe other way.

the bottom number indicates the type ofnote which serves as the division.to get the beat unit, use the note thatis equal to three of these notes.in a compound meter, the beat unit isalways a dotted note!

compound TIME SIGNATURES are kind of lying to you.

notes that have flags canbe grouped together by usingbeams in place of flags.

however, beaming is only used to group notes within beats.for the most part, you shouldn’t beam notes between beats,

nor should you tie notes within beats.




notes should be beamed in groups that illustrate the meter. for simple rhythms, this is pretty easy to do;simply group any notes that can be beamed (eighth notes and smaller) intogroups that are equal to the beat unit of the current meter.

for complex rhythms, however, things can get complicated... when a rhythm includes thingslike syncopations or other off-beat figures, illustrating the meter may involve dividingnotes across beat units with ties. fortunately, there is a step-by-step system for correctlybeaming these complicated rhythms!

*translation:

step 1:

Hey,

kids!

it’s Sparkythe music theory dog!

DOING STUFF THE SPARKY WAY IS ALWAYS FUN!

Q:

A: WOOF!*

Dear Sparky:I understand that we’re supposed to beam rhythms to show the organization ofbeats in the measure, but is there an easy way to beam complex rhythms?

--A.Y., Owatonna, MN

& 43 Jœ Jœ Jœ Jœ Jœ Jœ & 43 œ œ œ œ œ œ

& 44 .Jœ Jœ œ Rœ Rœ Rœ Jœ Rœ Rœ

for example, let’stake this rhythm,which is written

without beaming.

find the smallest note value used, and fill a complete measure with this type ofnote, beamed in groups that are equal to a beat unit in the current meter.

step 2: add ties between individual notes to recreate the original rhythm. make sure thateach tied group corresponds to a note in the rhythm you started with!

step 3: find every group of two or more notes that are both tied together andbeamed together, and replace them with a single note of equivalent value.

a correctly beamed rhythm may include ties, but it willvery clearly show the beats in the measure... which, inturn, makes it easier for the performer to read!

yes, i know itlooks weird...but we’re not

done yet!

if you have notesthat are tied orbeamed, but not

both, then leavethem alone!

=

don’ttouch!

handsoff!

yes...simplify it!

original rhythm:

& 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

& 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

44 .Jœ Jœ œ Rœ Rœ Rœ Jœ Rœ Rœ

& 44 .œ œ œ .œ œ œ œ œ .œ œ

œ œ œJœ œJ œ œ


The Major Scale& 43 œ œ œ œ œ œ# œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ .˙

& 43 œ œ œ# œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ# œ œ œ œ œ œœ#œœœ œ œ

johann s

ebastian b

ach

Min

uet

in G

major

note

book f

or a

nna m

agdale

na b

ach, 1722

one of the reasons that a particular piece ofmusic sounds the way it does has to do with thegroup of notes the composer decided to use.

take this melody, for example...let’s first remove all the duplicate notes, regardless of which octave they’re in.

next, let’s put the notesin alphabetical order,starting on the notethat the melody soundedlike it was centering on.

what we end up withis the “palette” forthis particular piece...

there are actually manydifferent types of scales,

each with a different patternof whole steps and

half steps.

a half step is thedistance between

two adjacent keyson the piano keyboard,regardless of color.

like the board on which a painter holdsthe bits of paint being used in the painting being created.

in music, this “palette” is called a scale. though we usually write scales from low to high, the order is actually unimportant; it’s the notes contained in the scale that help make a piece sound the way it does.

œ œœ#œœœ œ œ

œ œœ#œœœ œ œa whole step is the

equivalent oftwo half steps.

this particulararrangement, wherehalf steps occur betweensteps three and four and between steps seven and eight(or between seven and one, since eight and one are the same note), is called the major scale.

knowing this formula, you can create a major scale on any note!

(this scale, by the way, is called theg major scale, because it starts on g.)

the f major scale

the b major scale

the d flat major scale

the g flat major scale

but remember...with

great powercomes great

responsibility!

wholestep

wholestep

halfstep

halfstep

wholestep

wholestep

wholestep

& œ œ œ œb œ œ œ œ

& œ œ# œ# œ œ# œ# œ# œ & œb œb œb œb œb œb œ œb& œb œb œ œb œb œb œ œb



if you start writing majorscales and pay attention tothe accidentals that occur,

you are going to startnoticing a pattern...

for example look at the flatkeys, starting with the keythat has one flat, all theway through the key with

seven flats: the flats accruein a specific order.

same with the sharp keys!

so if you look for a key thathas only a d flat, you won’tfind it: if a key has a d flat,it must also have a b flat,an e flat and an a flat!

A

A

b

b

c

c

c

d

d

e

e

f

f

g

g

b

b

b

b

b

#

#

b

Key Signatures

B E A D G C F b

n

f c g #

f c g d a #

f c g d a e b #

f c #

f c g d #

f c g d a e #

f #

B E A D b

B E b

B E A D G b

B E A b

B b

B E A D G C b

since writing an entire piece inc sharp major would havebeen a sure-fire way to getcarpal tunnel syndrome withall the sharps involved,composers pretty quickly cameup with a way to simplify things:key signatures.

a key signature is a group ofaccidentals placed at thebeginning of every line of music,just to the right of the clef,that instructs the performerto apply those accidentals toevery corresponding note inthe piece unless specifiedotherwise.

oh, and another thing: theaccidentals have to be placedin the correct order, andthey need to follow aparticular pattern ofplacement that varies slightlydepending on the clef being used!if you deviate from this, you, asa composer, will be mocked!

for example, this keysignature indicates thatevery f, c, and g in thepiece should be sharped,regardless of octave!

tenor clef sharps! what’syour problem? you need to

conform! ha ha... never!



F

A

E

B

D

GC

theorists find it convenient toorganize all the possible key signaturesinto a chart that shows their relationship

to one another.this chart, called the circle of fifths,

displays each key as a spoke on the circle,beginning with c major at the top and

adding accidentals, one at a time, to thekey signatures around the perimeter. we’ll return to this chart

as we continue learning abouthow composers use keys.

as you move clockwise around thecircle, you add sharps to the key signature.

as you move counterclockwise around,you add flats to the key signature.

notice how thatbeadgcf patternpops up all over

the circle offifths?

weird!

so could youcontinue theenharmonicdeal and have

the key off flat major?yes, if you wanta double flat

in yourkey signature:

nooooo!

to determine the keysignature for a key, look to

see which “spoke” of the circleit’s on to determine how manyflats or sharps it has, andadd accidentals to the key

signature appropriately.

the keys down here line upenharmonically... for example,

the key of d flat major will soundjust like the key of c sharp major.

b #

Bb

E b

Ab

DbGb

C bC#F#

The Circle of Fifths

for example,e flat major

has three flats,so it should

look like this:

0

1b

2b

3b

4b

5b

6b

7b

1#

2#

3#

4#

5#

6#7#

when adding flats toa key signature, add them

in this order:

when adding sharps,use the reverse

of the order above.

beadgcfb

#



b

an interval isthe distance in pitchbetween two notes.

the most basic way which weidentify different intervals is

by counting the steps betweenthe two notes.

specifically, wecount scale degrees,

but the easiest way to do it isto count lines and spaces

on the staff.

when counting,begin with the

bottom note asone and countuntil you reachthe top note.

this intervalis a seventh!

two notes onthe same line orspace is called

a unison.

when we are talking aboutintervals we sometimes discuss

harmonic intervals andmelodic intervals.

and when you swap the two notes(move the lower note up by an octave

so it becomes the higher note),that is called inverting the interval.

it’s helpful to rememberthat seconds always invert

to sevenths, thirds tosixths, and so forth...

the fact that each ofthese pairs add up to nine

is known to theorists as“the rule of nines.”

a harmonic interval is simplytwo notes played simultaneously;

a melodic interval is one noteplayed after the other.

harmonicinterval

melodicinterval

that’s latin for“one sound”!

and that’s latinfor “eight”!

the distance froma note to the nextclosest note with

the same letter nameis called an octave.

second

unison

third

fourth

fifth

sixth

seve

nth

octa

ve

when countingthe lines andspaces, wecan safelyignore any

accidentals.

this intervalis also a

seventh...we’ll discuss

how it’sdifferentvery soon!

12

34

56

7

smallerintervals

Diatonic Intervals& œ

œœœ œœ œœ

largerintervals

& œœ œ œ & œœœœ

2nd 7th

3rd 6th

4th 5th

5th 4th

6th 3rd

7th 2nd

THE RULE

OF NINES



the distance of an interval is one part of itsname, but there’s more: every interval has anotherquality to it, which we’ll call inflection.

are the easiest to label: if thetwo notes are the same (forexample, b flat and b flat),then the inflection is perfect:such an interval is called aperfect unison or aperfect octave.

require a little more explaining.

if you look at all the fourths and fifths youcan create using only the white notes on thepiano keyboard (in other words, using only noteswithout accidentals):

well, if you were to count the half-steps that make upeach interval, you’d notice that all the other ones areequal in size, but the b to f intervals are not: f to b isa half-step larger than a perfect fourth, and b to fis a half-step smaller than a perfect fifth.

an interval that is a half-steplarger than perfect is called

an augmented interval.

you can go further,to doubly augmented and

doubly diminished intervals,but... do you really want to?

and there’sno such thing as adiminished unison...

just like two thingscan’t be negative two feet

away from each other!

A5 A4

d5 d4 d8

A1A8

wait...why are the

b to f intervalsdifferent?

each one isperfect exceptfor those which use f and b!

unisons and octavesfourths and fifths

inflection is a bit harder to understand, partly becauseit depends on the type of interval. so let’s start bylooking at unisons, fourths, fifths and octaves.

which raises the question: if the interval is not perfect, then what is it?

Perfect Intervals

& œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

& œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ

& œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ

Pd

A

an interval that is a half-stepsmaller than perfect is called

a diminished interval.

p e r f e c t

a ugm en t e d

d i m i n i s h e d

& œœb &œ#œ

& œ#œ & œ œb

& œœ# & œ∫œ & œbœ



some theorists usethe term quality forthis... that’s cool too.

d6m6M6

We’ve talked about unisons, fourths, fifthsand octaves, but what about the rest? arethese other intervals somehow imperfect?

well, yes, but not because they are somehow inferior to perfect intervals...seconds, thirds, sixths and sevenths just work a little differently!

for one thing, the inflection for these intervals is never perfect;it will be either major or minor. minor intervals are a half-step smallerthan major intervals. like perfect intervals, though, they can also beaugmented or diminished; augmented intervals are a half-step largerthan major, and diminished intervals are a half-step smaller than minor.

Imperfect Intervals& œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

Mm

Ama jo r

augm en t e d

m i n o r

dd i m i n i s h e d



how do we know if an interval is major or minor? we can actuallyuse the major scale to find out. notice that, in the major scale,intervals from the tonic up to another scale degree are major.

likewise, intervals from the tonic down to another scale degreeare minor.

knowing this, when you are confronted with a second, third, sixth or seventh, you canfind its inflection by thinking about the key signature of the top and/or bottom note.

when the notes of the interval have accidentals, the associated key signatures canbe more complicated... so it’s easiest to temporarily ignore the accidentals,determine the interval, and then add the accidentals back one at a time and

track how the interval changes!

ack! what isthat? let’s

first hide theaccidentals...

if the top note is in the major key of the bottom note, the interval is major.if the bottom note is in the major key of the top note, the interval is minor.

we know this is a major sixthbecause d, the top note, is in

the key of f major(the bottom note).

and this is a minor seventhbecause b, bottom note, is inthe key of a major(the top note).

majorsecond

majorthird

majorsixth

majorseventh

minorsecond

minorthird

minorsixth

minorseventh

& œœ &œœ

& œbœ#adding backthe sharp

makes it evensmaller...

a diminishedsixth!

& œbœ#adding back

the flat makesthe intervalsmaller, so

it’s now aminor sixth...

& œbœe is in the

key of g, sowe knowthis is a

major sixth.

& œœpoof!

poof!




the following chart shows an approach for identifying any interval. a similar approach can be used when youneed to write a particular interval above or below a given note: first, adda note above or below the given note at the correct distance, then followsteps 2 through 4 of this chart to identify it. Then, if necessary, alter thenote you added with an accidental to create the interval called for.

determine the distance of the intervalby counting lines and spaces.

count the bottomnote as one, andcontinue until you

reach the top note.

*translation:

STEP 1:cover up all accidentals.STEP 2:determine the inflection of the interval in front of you(the one without accidentals!) as follows:

if it is aunison or octave:

the interval shownis a

perfect unisonor

perfect octave.

if the interval usesthe notes f and b,

it is either an

augmented fourthor a

diminished fifth.

if the top note isin the major key ofthe bottom note,

the interval is

major.

if the bottom note isin the major key of

the top note,the interval is

minor.

otherwise, theinterval is

perfect.

really.it just is.

if it is afourth or fifth:

if it is asecond, third,

sixth or seventh:

STEP 3:

add the original accidentals back, one at a time, and track howthe interval changes inflection.

remember: accidentals can never affectthe distance of an interval... all they can

ever do is change the inflection!

This method may seem complicated at first,but it becomes easier and faster with

practice... and it gives you the correctanswer every time!

Hey,

kids!



Q:

A: WOOF!*

Dear Sparky:Since we are supposed to use different approaches for identifying perfect andimperfect intervals, can you summarize them all into one system?

--I.M., Staten Island, NY

& œbœ# & œœpoof

!

poof!

& œbœ#& œbœ& œœ


12

34

56

7

STEP 4:dd i m i n i s h e d mm i no r Mma jo r Aaugm en t e ddd i m i n i s h e d Pp e r f e c t Aaugm en t e d

M6 m6 d6pe

rfec

t

inter

vals

impe

rfec

t

inter

vals

There are actually two things that define a key:the key signature is the most obvious one, butanother important part of a key is the tonic...the note around which the key centers.

The Minor Scales

& œ œ œ œ œ œ œ# œ

& œ œ œ œ œ œ# œ# œ

&œ œN œN œ œ œ œ œ

this key is definedby a key signatureof no sharps andflats, but also bythe fact that itcenters around c.

the

natural

minor

scal

e

the

harmonic

minor

scal

e

the

melodic

minor

scal

e

but what if we change the tonic? what if we use the same notes for the key signature,but change the note that the key is centered around?

the thing is, common practice period composersweren’t all that crazy about this scale, because

it lacks something the major scale has:a half-step from seven to one.

this scale is great for building chords, so we refer to it as the harmonic minor scale.however, composers didn’t use it for writing melodies, because it had a problem:

an augmented second between the sixth and seventh scale degrees.

so, for melodies, they made another change:they added another accidental to raisethe sixth scale degree by a half-step.

now, remember... the reason we raised the leading tone in the first place was to createtension from the seventh scale degree to tonic. but in a melody, if the seventh scaledegree is followed by the sixth scale degree, we don’t need that tension, so we don’tneed to raise the leading-tone at all.

the way we illustrate this is by differentiating between ascending melodic minor anddescending melodic minor; for descending melodic minor, we don’t raise anything!

now we onlyhave whole stepsand half-steps!

the whole stephere didn’t have

the tensionthey liked goinginto the tonic!



if we center the key around the sixth scale degree of the major scale, we get a new scale: the minor scale.

so here’s what they did: they raised the leading-tone by a half-step withan accidental. This gave them the tension they were looking for!

half-

step!




F major

F major

F minor

the

circleof

fifths

related

parall

el

Since D minor has the samekey signature as F major,we say that D minor is the

relative minor of F major.

So F minor is the parallel minor of F major!

it’s convenient to add minor keys tothe circle of fifths; they’re usuallyplaced on the inside of the circlein lower case.

because relative keys share thesame key signature, they alsoshare the same position onthe circle of fifths!

parallel keys have differentkey signatures, but seeingthem on the circle of fifthsillustrates their consistentkey relationship: minor keysalways appear three degreescounterclockwise from theirparallel major key.

So to find the key signature fora minor key, start with the majorkey signature with the same tonic andeither add three flats, subtract threesharps, or some combination of both!

d minor

*translation:

Hey,

kids!



Q:

A: WOOF!*

Dear Sparky:What does it mean when music theorists talk about “relative minor” and“parallel minor”? In what ways can major and minor keys be connected?

-M.T., Canton, OH





#& œ œ œ œ œ œb œ œ

sure, d minormight use ac sharp asa raised

leading-tone,but we don’t

consider that aspart of the

key signature.

b bb

F

A

E

B

D

GC

e

b

f

ad

g

c

Bb

E b

Ab

DbGb

C bC#F#

0

1b

2b

3b

4b

5b

6b

7b

1#

2#

3#

4#

5#

6#7#

a bbb

eb

f #

c#g #

a # d #

related. when two keys that have the same key signature but different tonic notes, we say they’re related.

parallelparallel keys, on the other hand, arekeys that have the same tonic note, but

different key signatures.

&## &

#& &po

of!

poof! bb# +-#-D major... ...D minor!

2# 1# 0 1b

dynamics are symbols that show how loud to play or sing.

notated musicuses italian termsto show relative

volume.

dynamics are usually placed below the staff on instrumental parts,and above the staff for vocal parts... to stay out of the way of the lyrics!

other symbols affectgroups of notes...

all’ ottava: play the notes an octave higheror lower, depending on where the symbol is.(two octaves is , and three octaves is !)

pedaling: On the piano, this symbol indicateswhen the damper pedal should be held down,allowing the piano strings to ring freely.older scores use for down and for up.

cresc. dim.

gradual dynamic changes areindicated with hairpin symbols or the

italian terms crescendo (increase volume)or diminuendo (descrease volume).

specificinterpretationis left to theperformer!

fo

rtis

sis

sim

ove

ry v

ery l

oud

fo

rtis

sim

ove

ry l

oud

fo

rte

loud

mezzo

fo

rte

mediu

m l

oud

mezzo

pia

no

mediu

m s

oft

pia

no

soft

pia

nis

sis

sim

ove

ry v

ery s

oft

nie

nte

inaudib

le

Dynamics and Articulationsmusic theory for musicians and normal people by toby w. rush


fƒÏ F P p π ∏ ñ

music is made up ofa lot more than pitch

and rhythm!

pia

nis

sim

ove

ry s

oft

accent

staccato

tenuto

marcato

staccatissimo

sforzando

fermata

tremolo

up bow

down bow

trill

arpeggio

v>

° *

8va

15ma 22ma

sfzUæ≤≥Ÿg

-^´

.

articulationsare symbols that

show how to treatspecific notes.

with additionalemphasis

short anddetatched

emphasized andheld for full value

short andaccented

very short andforceful

suddenly loudand accented

hold longerthan indicated

rapidly alternatebetween two notes

(bowed instruments)start at tip of bow

(bowed instruments)start at frog of bow

rapidly alternatetwo adjacent notes

“roll” chord: notesadded separately

and thenthere’s

this thing...

a simple shapewith a bunch ofdifferent uses!

in most musicit’s a slur,

grouping noteswhich should beplayed smoothlyand connected!

in vocal parts,it shows melismas:groups of notessung on a single

syllable!

in any score, it can alsobe used on larger groupsof notes, where it serves asa phrase marking... helping

the performer see the overall shape of the music!

for bowed stringslike violin, it’s abow marking,showing notesthat should be

played without switchingthe bow’s direction.

42 3

& 86 43

86 4386 43 86 43 86 43œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

> œ> œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ œ> œ> œ>

œb œ œ œb œ œ œ> œb> œ> œb œ œ œb œ œ œ œ>œ>

compound meter,compound meter,wherefore art thou

compound?simple meters and compound metersare both used quite a bit in the common

practice period, but they were rarely foundtogether... most pieces exclusively used

one or the other!

on the rare occasion that they werecombined, it was generally as mixed meter,

when the meter changes from onemeasure to the next.

but twentieth-century composers — especially those who were workingin a style called primitivism, which featured primal, unpredictable rhythms —

would take the combination of simple and compound rhythms to the next level!

consistent alternations like this are often writtenwith two time signatures at the beginning, like this:

Complex Metermusic theory for musicians and normal people by toby w. rush


&&&&

uh, becauseof this dot...?

globe theatrelondon, england

“Ame

rica

”We

st S

ide

Stor

y

leon

ard

bern

stei

n an

d st

ephe

n so

ndhe

im

1957

simplemeter

beat unitdivisible by

two

beat shown byundotted note

compoundmeter

beat unitdivisible by

three

beat shown bydotted note

complexmeter

includes simpleand compound beats

& 85 œ .œ

simpl

e be

at!compound beat!

in these meters, the beats will be uneven!the note that serves as the division of the beat

remains constant throughout the measure.

like compound meters, the time signature for complex meters is based on the divisionof the beat. but, in fact, these meters still have two, three or four beats per measure!

can bewritten as

can bewritten as

can bewritten as

can bewritten as

can bewritten as

can bewritten as

or or

or

2+3 2+2+3

3+2+2

2+3+2

oror

or

or

or

2+3+3 3+2+2+2

or

3+3+2+2

or

3+2+3+2

or

3+2+2+3

or

2+3+2+3

or

2+3+3+2

2+2+3+3

2+3+2+2

2+2+3+2

2+2+2+3

or

or

or

2+3+3+3

3+2+3+3

3+3+2+3

3+3+3+2

3+2+3

3+3+2

3+2

so these eighthnotes should all bethe same length!

& 85 œ œ œ œ œ

85 87 88

167 211

89 810 811

& 85 œ œ œ œ œ

& 85 œ œ œ œ œ

& 88 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ



& 87 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

& 87 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

& 87 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

& 811 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ




& 810 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ






& 89 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ




of course, while using for the bottomnumber is most common in modern scores,

any note can be used as the division!

likeor !

...

8

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