Fundamental Biblical Hebrew

and

Fundamental Biblical Aramaic

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FUndAmEnTAl BiBliCAl HEBrEW

AndrEW H. BArTElT

FUndAmEnTAl BiBliCAl ArAmAiC

AndrEW E. sTEinmAnn

Fundamental Biblical Hebrew © 2000 Concordia Publishing House

Fundamental Biblical Aramaic © 2004 Andrew E. Steinmann

Published by Concordia Publishing House 3558 S. Jefferson Ave., St. Louis, MO 63118-3968 1-800-325-3040 • www.cph.org

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FUndAmEnTAl BiBliCAl HEBrEW

AndrEW H. BArTElT

Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ixAcknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiiiIntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1. Spelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2. Noun Morphology: Gender and Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 3. Prefixes: Article, Prepositions, the Conjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 4. Verb Morphology: The “Perfect” Aspect (Afformative Verb Forms). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 5. Verb Morphology: Variations of the “Perfect” Aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . .39 6. Verb Morphology: The “Imperfect” Aspect (Preformative Verb Forms) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 7. Verb Morphology: Major Variations of the “Imperfect” Aspect . . . . .54 8. “Waw Consecutive” (wayyiqṭōl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61 9. Noun Morphology: Absolute and Construct States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7210. Personal Pronouns, Pronominal Suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8111. Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9612. Participles, Relative Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10613. Nominal Sentences of Existence; Possession; Interrogatives . . . . . . .11814. Imperative, Jussive, Cohortative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12515. Infinitives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13716. Object Suffixes, Review of Qal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14817. Derived Conjugations, Piel Conjugation (D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15818. Hiphil Conjugation (H) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16919. Niphal Conjugation (N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18320. Pual (Dp) and Hithpael (HtD) Conjugations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19321. Hophal Conjugation (Hp), Hishtaphel, Qal Passive . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20222. Geminate Verbs; Polel, Polal, Hithpolel; and Verbal Hendiadys . . .21023. Numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21924. Masoretic Accents and Spelling, Sentence Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225

AppendicesI. Noun Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236II. Pronominal Suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239III. Regular (Strong) Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240IV. Irregular Verbs

A. I-Guttural Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242B. II-Guttural Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244C. III-Guttural Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246D. III-ʾAlep Verbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248E. I-Nun Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .250F. I-Yoḏ (Original I-Waw) Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252G. Hollow (II-Waw / Yoḏ) Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254H. III-Hē Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .256

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267

ix

Preface

The title of this textbook addresses at least two basic issues of scope and purpose. The term Biblical Hebrew indicates a focus on a specific corpus of Hebrew texts also known as the Hebrew Scriptures, the Tanak, or

the so-called “Old” or “First” Testament. Even within that limited corpus, however, the reader finds a wide spectrum of stylistic, historical, and even dialectical differ-ences and distinctions, some of which still remain discussed and debated within learned circles. Variations in spelling, oddities in morphology, archaic forms as well as characteristics of later development, or the vast stylistic and even gram-matical differences between prose and poetry soon confront the beginning reader of the biblical text. Nevertheless, there is significant consensus concerning basic Hebrew grammar of the so-called classical, “monarchic,” or pre-exilic period of biblical Hebrew, and it is essentially such a consensus that is reflected in the pre-sentation in this textbook.

With that focus, this is also a fundamental approach. The objective of this text-book is to provide a basic understanding of grammar, including vocabulary, mor-phology, and syntax, to facilitate reading of elementary to intermediate level bibli-cal texts with the aid of a lexicon. While the presentation is consistent with the insights of more technical grammars, many fine points are left for the additional refinement that comes with further study.

Already—especially—at a fundamental level, however, students should be aware of two axioms of language study: “all grammars leak” (as one pundit has put it), and “all language teachers lie” (especially at the fundamental level), or at least they occasionally conceal the fact that all grammars leak! That is to say that a fundamental approach focuses on the regular and normative with the full rec-ognition that the realities of languages are filled with irregularities and deviations from the norm, some of which can be explained and predicted, some of which cannot. At the same time, such irregularities confirm both the existence and the helpfulness of recognizing and learning the regular principles and patterns. Exceptions prove the rules even as they probe the rules.

This textbook unashamedly follows a more traditional and deductive approach, emphasizing the memorization of basic vocabulary, morphology, and paradigms. While an artificial and unnatural mode of learning a language, this method is both time-tested and time-efficient in presenting and learning material in a systematic manner and logical sequence.

On the other hand, there is an intentionally more inductive and “user-friendly” manner to the presentation. Students will be engaged in the actual

x Fundamental Biblical Hebrew

biblical text already in chapter one. Examples and exercises move logically from the known to the unknown, from regular to irregular forms, from general rules to exceptions. Technical fine points are acknowledged but not overly emphasized. An outline format provides a sense of order and is reproduced in summary form at the end of each chapter to faciliate self-study and review.

Both students and instructors might note the following specific features which may add to the usefulness of this text:

1. The chapters tend to treat a specific grammatical topic in a com-plete manner. For example, the definite article is covered in one chapter, presented in logical order from the regular to the irregular features. Pronouns are discussed in a holistic way (Chapter 10), so that the stu-dents quickly see the relationships between the independent pronouns and the various uses of pronominal suffixes. Experience has shown this form of organization to be extremely helpful also for later review and reference.

2. Thus some “chapters” are longer than others and should not be per-ceived as “lessons” in every case. Instructors can easily adjust to the needs of a class, including multiple presentations on single chapters as needed. Certain exercises and drills are prescribed at specific points within chapters.

3. The presentation of verb forms begins with the finite tenses (and not the participle) to enable understanding of common sentence structure early on. Beginning with the traditional paradigms of Qal (G) perfect and imperfect (using the standard third-second-first person format), the student is immediately introduced to the so-called “waw consecutive” (wayyiqṭōl) to facilitate reading narrative texts within a few lessons.

4. Since the vast majority of verb forms are in the Qal conjugation (68.8 percent, according to Waltke and O’Connor, p. 361), this binyan is pre-sented fully (moving from regular to irregular forms in logical and reg-ularized sequence) as a template for understanding the distinctions in form and translation of the other conjugations. While traditional termi-nology is used (Qal, Piel, Hiphil, etc.), the student is also introduced to the general Semitic descriptors (G, D, H, etc.).

5. The vocabulary has been carefully selected on the basis of frequency and biblical use. At the conclusion of the book, the student should be famil-iar with most words in the 100+ frequency categories. The number of new words in each chapter is slightly smaller than in some textbooks to reduce the burden of rote memorization of vocabulary, arguably the most difficult aspect of learning Hebrew, especially for adult learners. Words introduced in a chapter are often used in examples within the presentation of that chapter, and no additional words are used in exam-ples or in presentation that have not already been learned. Grouping of

Preface xi

vocabulary by idiomatic phrases, word pairs, or semantic fields has been attempted where possible.

6. The exercises, like the presentations in each chapter, are structured to move from the regular to the irregular, from the known to the unknown. The drills are constructed with very specific teaching objec-tives in mind for every question, and they move logically to illustrate specific features. Teachers will quickly observe that drills can be used as supplemental and inductive teaching tools, and that often a student’s question will be answered by the next example. This also helps the student in self-study and review.

7. Sentences used both as examples and as translational exercises are care-fully written to teach biblical style and idiom while meeting the spe-cific learning objectives of each chapter. This has proven to be more helpful than finding actual biblical quotations, which, while psychologi-cally helpful in presenting real biblical texts, do not always achieve the most effective pedagogical results.

8. A supplemental exercise book with additional and annotated bibli-cal readings provides a workbook for completing all the exercises (in larger format), allowing the exercises in the textbook to remain clean for students to use as review, if desired. The workbook will also contain an answer key, a composite list of each chapter summary, and a larger version of the noun and verb paradigm charts from the appendi-ces in the textbook.

xiii

Acknowledgments

This work is dedicated to all students of the Hebrew Scriptures, past, present, and future, as they share the joy of being engaged by the bibli-cal text through its original language. As those who introduced me to

the fundamentals of biblical Hebrew and who taught with such a wonderful and contagious enthusiasm for both language and text, I am grateful to Roddy Braun, Herbert Spomer, Merlin Rehm, and John Ribar, participants at that time in the great educational enterprise known as Concordia Senior College. Those who honed those basic skills into scholarly tools include Ronald Clements and especially Henry St. John Hart, whose love for both the language and his learn-ers remains legendary in the lore of Cambridge. Recognition is due those at the University of Michigan who placed Hebrew into the larger world of the Ancient Near East: George Mendenhall, Charles Krahmalkov, Piotr Michalowski, Peter Machinist, and especially David Noel Freedman, whose dedication to a close and careful reading of texts highlights the importance of appreciating both basic struc-tures and sophisticated nuances of grammar and style.

Above all, I would honor my teachers, colleagues, and friends at Concordia Seminary, who share also the profound message of God’s salvation in yešûaʿ hammāšîaḥ, which is the truth that the text conveys. Among so many I would note especially Horace Hummel, Paul Raabe, Paul Schrieber, and James Voelz, whose encouragement has taken the form of both personal motivation and professional model through his well received and much used Fundamental Greek Grammar, to which this work stands as both complement and compliment.

Of those directly involved in this project I would hold in highest esteem the hundreds of students from whom I have learned much in the teaching of biblical Hebrew, especially those who have served in the “living laboratory” as these materials were produced and tested. For some, those pages are prob-ably long lost from a loose-leaf binder; for many, I hope, this book will serve as a more permanent replacement. Especially helpful, also in field testing these materials and offering numerous suggestions, are colleagues Stephen Stohlmann of Concordia University, St. Paul, and Mark Meehl of Concordia University, Seward.

Closer to home, William Carr has made significant contributions toward both presentation and pedagogy, as has Philip Penhallegon, who has also come to know with patience and good cheer the very close reading of text that is the editorial process. This project would not have been completed without his valuable assis-tance, and I owe him a special debt of gratitude and my highest respect for his

xiv Fundamental Biblical Hebrew

careful and diligent work. I would also extend to Marilyn Kincaid a hearty tôḏāh rabbāh for her encouragement and energetic śimḥaṯ tôrāh from the perspective of the synagogue.

Finally, I would express my appreciation for the support and patience of those involved with Concordia Academic Press, to Charles Arand and Ken Wagener, and especially to Wilbert Rosin, whose steady guidance has played a major role in bringing this project to publication.

Above all others, it is to my family, to Lucy, Marybeth, Allison, and Amy, whose patience and prayer, love and loyalty, support and sacrifice are treasured beyond measure, that I offer my loving thanks even as I repent of the time too often taken from them.

May God grant wisdom and insight to all whose study of biblical Hebrew will provide greater understanding of God’s torah and truth, of His goodness and grace, of His prophetic Word and of that prophetic Word made sure in the Word Made Flesh.

1

introduction

Learning biblical Hebrew is, indeed, fundamental for anyone who takes seri-ously the text of the Hebrew Scriptures. Every student of literature knows the basic importance of utilizing the primary sources and original texts,

but those who understand such scripture as an authoritative Word of God have a particular interest in the particularities of that text. Luther’s comments regard-ing the need for knowing and using the biblical languages in pastoral ministry are well known but worth repeating:

Let us, then, foster the languages as zealously as we love the Gospel. . . . Let us ever bear this in mind: we shall have a hard time preserving the Gospel without the languages. The languages are the sheath in which this sword of the Spirit is contained. They are the case in which we carry this jewel. . . . Although faith and the Gospel may be preached by ordinary ministers without the languages, still such preaching is sluggish and weak, and the people finally become weary and fall away. But a knowledge of the language renders it lively and strong, and faith finds itself constantly renewed through rich and varied instruction.1

The Hebrew language itself has a long and noble history, though modern lin-guistic research has dispelled the romantic notion fostered at least since Jerome that God communicated a hebraica veritas through a special language of revela-tion. Quite the opposite is true, with even greater theological significance. Not unlike koine Greek, biblical Hebrew was a common and popular language, very much integrated into the everyday realities of life and woven into the fabric of a particular social-cultural history that, in turn, was set within the larger context of the ancient world.

As a “Semitic” language, biblical Hebrew is part of a vast family of ancient Near Eastern languages that is often divided into “East Semitic” or Akkadian (Babylonian and Assyrian) in the Mesopotamian areas and into “West Semitic” that includes the languages of Canaan. Further dividing into quadrants, the Mesopotamian lan-guages make up a northeastern group, with various forms of Arabic to the south-east and southwest. From the northwest quadrant of this entire region comes the family of “Northwest Semitic” that divides into Ugaritic, Aramaic, and Canaanite. The Canaanite subgroup includes Hebrew, along with Phoenician, Moabite, Ammonite, Edomite, and some lesser-known dialects.

Within the Bible itself, the few references to “Hebrew” describe persons or a social group. The language of Jerusalem and Judah is once called only the “tongue

1 Martin Luther, “To the Councilmen of All Cities in Germany That They Establish and Maintain Christian Schools” in Luther’s Works, American Edition, vol. 45, ed.Walther I. Brant (Philadelphia: Muhlenberg, 1962), 359ff. passim.

2 Fundamental Biblical Hebrew

(lip) of Canaan” (Isaiah 19:18) or otherwise simply “Judahite” (as distinct from Aramaic, 2 Kings 18:26, 28 = Isaiah 36:11, 13). Students should consult standard reference works for further detail concerning the history and place of the Hebrew language, including inscriptional evidence and the ancient poetry which reflects the oldest form of the language within the biblical corpus.

The importance of learning Hebrew for biblical studies cannot be over-stated. Both Judaism and Christianity share a common bond in claiming the Hebrew Scriptures as their own. Even for Christians, these texts (including the chapters in Ezra and Daniel written in Aramaic) comprise about 75 percent of the Bible, and knowledge of this “First Testament” is simply fundamental to understanding the Jewish religious claims of the first century that came to be called Christianity (from the Greek word for “messiah”) and for understand-ing the Jewish writings that became the “New” Testament. Indeed, anyone who would understand the Scriptures as authoritative certainly must recognize that they were not written in English. Such students will rejoice at the insight gained in reading the biblical text in the very language and words of Moses and the prophets.

In addition to the obvious awareness that any translation only approximates the original, students will also quickly realize that differences in various translations, from questions of vocabulary or nuance to variants in the ancient manuscripts, can only be addressed through access to the original sources. So also word studies, concordance work, and other textual research cannot yield any significant results without reference to the actual biblical text in its original language and without an understanding of basic principles and practices of translation. To be sure, numer-ous scholarly tools, reference works, biblical helps, and a host of modern transla-tions can aid the Bible reader, but those who would be true students and interpret-ers of the text are soon aware of the limitations of a translation-bound approach.

Although so often taken for granted, clear communication through careful use of language is often more difficult than it may appear, and students of even ancient languages may well discover a new appreciation and understanding for their own mother tongue, as well as for the art of translation and of the transfer-ence of message and meaning from source to receptor, both within and across linguistic, cultural, and chronological barriers. Indeed, it is often at the level of simple translation that much of the interpretive work is appreciated and already achieved.

Finally, the study of biblical language draws us into the realities and the partic-ularities of the biblical world, even into the very lives of those to whom God chose to reveal His plan of salvation, for them and for all. Indeed, the fact that God chose an ancient language of real people in a particular time and place is significant in itself, but it is also consistent with His mode of revelation and communication throughout history. Difficult though it may seem to bridge the gap from ancient language to modern reader, God used, and still uses, ordinary words to speak the most extraordinary message, the common to communicate the most uncommon, even as He chose to send His divine Word in human body and blood.

3

1

Spelling

§ 1 The Hebrew AlphabetThe Hebrew alphabet consists of 22 consonantal signs (read from right to left). (See table below, D, p. 4).

כ י ט ח ז ו ה ד ג ב א

ת ש / ש ר ק צ פ ע ס נ מ ל

A. Six letters have both a “hard” (stop) and a “soft” (spirant) sound:

bgdkpt, known as the “begad kepat” letters = ב ג ד כ פ ת

A dot (dagesh lene) marks the hard sound (used following a consonant or no sound).

The absence of the dagesh lene marks the soft sound (following a vowel).

B. Five letters have a final form, used at the end of a word:

כ ( ך ) מ ( ם ) נ ( ן ) פ ( ף ) צ ( ץ )

C. Four letters are distinguished as “guttural” letters (sound is made in the back of the throat, from the Latin guttur), which cause some special problems in spelling and pronunciation:

א ה ח ע ( ר )NOTE: Reš shows one of the problems of the guttural letters, to be discussed below (§ 3 F, p. 10).

4 Hebrew Chapter 1

D. Summary of Consonantal Alphabet

sign name transliteration sounddagesh

lenefinal form guttural

א ʾalep ʾ (glottal stop) אב beṯ ḇ van

ב b bed בג gimel g dog

ג g get גד daleṯ ḏ these

ד d dog דה hē h hay ה

ו waw wway (also “v”, vav)

ז zayin z zebra

ח ḥeṯ ḥ Bach חט ṭeṯ ṭ get

י yoḏ y yet

כ kap ḵ ache ך ( ך )כ k key כ

ל lameḏ l lad

מ mem m mad םנ nun n now ןס samek s sip

ע ʿayin ʿ (guttural stop) עפ peh p phone ף

פ p pot פצ ṣade ṣ pots ץק qop q unique

ר reš r rat ( ר )ש śin ś sad

ש šin š shine

ת taw ṯ thin

ת t top ת

Spelling 5

Complete Drill 1A

§ 2 Vowels (See vowel chart below, D, p. 6)A. Vowels are divided into three “families”:

a / (e) i / (o) u

B. Within each family there are long and short vowels. Long vowels can shorten; short vowels can lengthen.

1. “a” family:

short: paṯaḥ ( ב )

long: qāmeṣ ( ב )

2. “(e) / i” family:

short: segōl ( ב )

ḥîreq ( ב )

long: ṣērê ( ב )

3. “(o) / u” family:

short: qāmeṣ-ḥāṭûp ( ב )

qibbûṣ ( ב )

long: ḥōlem ( ב )

NOTE: The name of each vowel is a Hebrew word represented in transliteration. Hereafter, the vocalic diacritical marks will be omitted for simplicity.

C. Some long vowels are marked by vowel letters called mater letters (from matres lectionis, Latin for “mothers [helpers] of reading”). Such letters do not function as consonants but simply indicate a long vowel.

used with “a” family vowels ה

used with “e / i” family vowels (and sometimes “a”) י

used with “o / u” family vowels ו

NOTE: Vowels marked with mater letters are unchangeable. They will not ordinarily shorten.

6 Hebrew Chapter 1

D. Vowel chart

vocal shewa

short vowels

long vowels

with mater letter

vowel familyregular

composite (with

gutturals)

ב( e )

אḥaṭep-paṯaḥ( ă )

בpaṯaḥ

(a)father(dad)

בqameṣ

( ā )father

בהā(h)

father

A

אḥaṭep-segol( ĕ )

בsegol( e )bet

בṣere( ē )they

( בי ) בי( ê )they

(E) / Iב

ḥireq( i )bit

בי( î )

unique

אḥaṭep-qameṣ

( ŏ )

בqameṣ ḥaṭup( o )

bottleב

ḥolem( ō )

bone

בו( ô )

bone(O) / U

בqibbuṣ

( u )but

בוšureq( û )tune

Spelling 7

E. The shewa symbol (    ) marks two different shewas, which serve two functions:

1. The vocal shewa indicates a true shewa, i.e., an inarticulate vowel sound.

a. The regular vocal shewa is used after consonants except the gutturals.

EG 1 דברים de / ḇā / rîm

b. Following a guttural letter, a composite shewa is used.

(1) This sign is also called a “reduced vowel” or a “ḥaṭep vowel.”

EG 2 עבדים ʿă / ḇā / ḏîm

(2) Although there is a composite shewa for each of the vowel families, the “a” family is the most common.

NOTE: Gutturals prefer “a” vowels.

2. The silent shewa is used to mark the empty space after a closed syllable (see below, § 3 A). Words that end with a consonant do not show a silent shewa at the end, except in the case of final kap ( ך ).

EG 3 משפט miš / pāṭ

EG 4 מלאך mal / ʾāḵ

COmplETE DrIll 1B AND 1C

§ 3 SpellingA. Syllables

1. All syllables begin with a consonant.

2. Syllables are either open or closed:

a. An open syllable ends in a vowel: Consonant + vowel (Cv)

EG 5 The first syllable of דבר( dā / ḇār = ד / בר )

8 Hebrew Chapter 1

b. A closed syllable ends in a consonant: CvC

EG 6 The second syllable of דבר( dā / ḇār = ד / בר )

3. As a general rule,

a. an open syllable will have a long vowel;

b. a closed syllable will have a short vowel (but see accent rules, below, C).

B. Accent

1. The accented syllable (in a multi-syllable word) is called the “tonic” syllable (accent = tone).

2. Most words are accented on the final syllable (ultima).

(Such an accent is called milraʿ : “from below,” i.e., from the end of the word. Words accented elsewhere than the final syllable are called milʿēl: “from above,” i.e., from the beginning of the word.)

3. For now, accent marks will be used only if the accent is not on the last syllable.

NOTE: Words are accented on the last syllable unless otherwise noted.

4. As a general rule,

a. an accented syllable will have a long vowel;

b. an unaccented syllable will have a short vowel (unless it is also open, see below, C).

C. Summary of vowels and accents in syllables:

1. A syllable that is either open or accented will likely have a long vowel.

2. A syllable that is both closed and unaccented will (always!) have a short vowel.

long vowel short vowelopen syllable

oraccented syllable

closed syllableand

unaccented syllable

Spelling 9

3. A metheg (a secondary accent marked as a short vertical line) is used to mark an open syllable and to indicate that the vowel ( ) is qameṣ and not qameṣ-ḥaṭup.

EG 7 רכה bā / re / ḵā(h) = ב not bor / ḵā(h)

D. The most significant exception to these principles is the “segolate” class of nouns, with an accented first syllable (and a dominance of the vowel segol). This is due to their historical development from two-syllable nouns (when Hebrew had case endings) to monosyllabic nouns and back to two-syllable nouns:

malku → malk → malɛk → melek = לך מ (“a” family)

sipru → sipr → sipɛr → sēper = פר ס (“e / i” family)

boqru → boqr → boqɛr → bōqer = בקר (“o / u” family)

COmplETE DrIll 2

E. Dagesh: There are two dageshes:

1. Dagesh lene hardens a “bgdkpt” letter (see above, § 1 A, p. 3).

This has to do only with pronunciation and not with spelling.

2. Dagesh forte indicates a doubled consonant.

EG 8 קטל is really קט / טלa. Dagesh forte hides a closed syllable with a silent shewa:

EG 9 קטל is really קט / טלcf. מש / פט = משפטNOTE: It is really the first of the two (double) letters (with its silent shewa) that is written as the dagesh forte.

b. If a dagesh forte falls in a “bgdkpt” letter, the doubled consonant will also be pronounced “hard.” Thus a dagesh forte in a “bgdkpt” letter also functions as a dagesh lene.

EG 10 דבר is really דב / ברNOTE: Technically, this should be pronounced diḇ / bēr, but in reality, both “bgdkpt” letters are heard as “hard.”

10 Hebrew Chapter 1

F. Guttural letters cause some special problems:

1. Guttural letters cannot be doubled. (They will never have a dagesh forte.)

In this regard, reš ( ר ) acts as a guttural.

2. Guttural letters followed by a vocal shewa will use a composite shewa in place of the regular shewa.

3. A mappiq (another type of dot) is used to mark a hē ( ה ) that is used as a consonant instead of as a mater letter.

EG 11 גבה has three consonants, with a short vowel in the second, closed syllable: gā / ḇah

EG 12 גבה has only two consonants, with a final mater vowel (in an open syllable): gā / ḇā(h)

4. Guttural letters generally prefer “a” family vowels.

a. An “a” vowel often replaces the expected vowel of a certain pattern:

EG 13 The “segolate” noun ער is of the same pattern נas לך .מ

b. A “furtive paṯaḥ” usually appears before a final gut-tural, especially ḥeṯ ( ח ) or ʿayin ( ע ), for the sake of pronunciation.

EG 14 שלח šō / lēaḥ

EG 15 רוח rûaḥ

EG 16 נטיע nā / ṭîaʿ

COmplETE DrIll 3

Spelling 11

Vocabulary, Chapter 1

אב father (m) לך מ king (m)

איש man, husband (m) משפט justice, judgment (m)

רץ א earth (f) ער נ boy, lad (m)

בן son (m) פר ס scroll (m)

בקר morning (m) בד ע servant, slave (m)

דבר word, thing, matter (m) רב ע evening (m)

יום day (m) תורה “Torah,” instruction, “law” (f)

ילה ל night (m)

Summary, Chapter 1

I. ConsonantsA. “bgdkpt” letters: ב ג ד כ פ תB. Final forms: ך ם ן ף ץC. Gutturals: ) א ה ח ע ( ר

II. VowelsA. “a / (e) i / (o) u” familiesB. Short / long / mater lettersC. Shewa

1. Vocal (open syllable, will follow “bgdkpt” with dagesh lene)

2. Silent (fills space after a closed syllable and a short vowel, will follow a “bgdkpt” without dagesh lene)

III. SpellingA. Syllables: open and closedB. Accent: on last syllable unless notedC. Vowels:

1. Long vowel: open or accented syllable2. Short vowel: closed and unaccented syllable

D. Dagesh1. Lene hardens “bgdkpt” letters.2. Forte doubles all but gutturals (and reš [ ר ]).

12 Hebrew Chapter 1

Exercises, Chapter 1Drill 1

A. practice writing each consonant, including final forms.

1. Learn the name of each letter and the transliteration symbols.2. Insert dagesh lene in those letters in which it may appear.3. Know which letters are “gutturals.”

B. Name each letter and write in transliteration.

(1) בן (6) שמע

(2) אב (7) סוס

(3) דבר (8) ילדים

(4) פר ס (9) היכל

(5) חלום (10) ישראל

C. Write in Hebrew letters.

(1) dāḇār (6) kāḇôḏ

(2) yôm (7) ḥoḵmā(h)

(3) kōhēn (8) yelāḏîm

(4) ʾîš (9) ʾaḇrāhām

(5) ʿîr (10) yiśrāʾēl

Spelling 13

Drill 2

Read out loud, identify each letter (consonants and vowels), and divide into syllables, noting whether syllables are open or closed:

(1) דבר (6) לך מ (11) מלכים

(2) בן (7) איש (12) בד ע

(3) אב (8) תורה (13) עבדים

(4) כבוד (9) משפט (14) חכמה

(5) מאד (10) אדמה (15) רכה ב

Drill 3

Divide into syllables. Identify every shewa as “silent” or “vocal.” Identify every dagesh as “lene” or “forte.”

(1) דבר (5) דבר (9) קטלתם

(2) דברים (6) דברו (10) תקוה

(3) משפט (7) ברית (11) מזבחות

(4) קטל (8) עבדים (12) בחרו

14 Hebrew Chapter 1

reading ExercisePractice reading Deuteronomy 5:1:

אמר אלהם ויקרא משה אל־כל־ישראל וי

שמע ישראל את־החקים ואת־המשפטים

אשר אנכי דבר באזניכם היום

ולמדתם אתם ושמרתם לעשתם׃

FUNDAMENTAL BIBLICAL Aramaic

ANDREW E. STEINMANN

Contents

Preface 281Acknowledgments 283

1 Introduction 285 2 Basic Concepts 288 3 Phonology 291 4 Nouns and Adjectives 295 5 Prepositions, Pronominal Suffixes, and the Relative Pronoun 300 די 6 The Verbal System and the G Perfect 306 7 G Perfect: Weak Verbs and Pronominal Suffixes for Verbs 310 8 G Imperfect and Jussive: The Strong Verb 315 9 G Imperfect: Weak and Unusual Verbs 31910 G Participle, Imperative, and Infinitive 32411 Pronouns and Syntax 33012 D Stem: The Strong Verb 33513 D Stem: Weak Verbs 33914 H Stem: The Strong Verb 34315 H Stem: Weak and Unusual Verbs 34816 Reflexive/Passive Conjugations 35317 Passive Conjugations 35818 Numbers 361

Appendix: The Strong Verb 363Glossary 365Topical Index 373Scripture Index 376

281

Preface

The study of the Bible is not truly comprehensive without a knowledge of Aramaic While many learn Greek and Hebrew to read the Scriptures in their original languages, the study of Aramaic, unfortunately, is often

neglected Perhaps the additional effort to learn Aramaic is considered too high a price to pay to read a few chapters in Ezra and Daniel Perhaps the limited avail-ability of instructors trained to teach this biblical language proves problematic This grammar cannot, by itself, overcome these obstacles However, it is hoped that it will make the entire Scriptures more accessible to those who seek to study God’s Word

The goal of this grammar is a modest one: to enable undergraduate and semi-nary students who possess a working knowledge of biblical Hebrew to obtain reading proficiency in biblical Aramaic While it is not designed to introduce other Aramaic dialects, such as Old Aramaic, Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, Palmyrene, or Nabatean, it is written so the advanced student may continue on to explore other ancient Aramaic dialects To that end, periodic references are made to the histori-cal developments in ancient Aramaic

To reach the goal of reading proficiency, this grammar concentrates on biblical Aramaic, primarily emphasizing the grammatical features the student will need to understand Each of the eighteen chapters can serve as a one-hour lesson for students who already read Hebrew This allows the student to finish the grammar and to read the biblical texts in a typical semester of about fifteen weeks All the exercises, with the exception of the beginning exercise in chapter 3, are drawn directly from the Bible, exposing the student to biblical Aramaic while learning the grammar The only variation from the text is an occasional substitution of a qerê form for a keṯîḇ form The reading of biblical passages will be challenging at first and will require the instructor to review the passages with students However, such exercises will build student confidence in handling Aramaic In addition, the vocabulary introduces all words that occur five times or more in the Aramaic texts of the Bible Words occurring less frequently, but necessary to complete the exer-cises, are given in the exercises themselves

Because many students will learn Aramaic only to read the Bible and may never buy another Aramaic grammar, this grammar is designed not only to be a teaching tool but also a reference book Thus the student will find a complete strong verb paradigm in the back of the text, as well as a topical index and an index to Scripture passages cited in the text or assigned in the exercises

282 Fundamental Biblical Aramaic

It is hoped that this grammar will be used fruitfully by those who wish to explore the full counsel of God in the languages that He has used to communicate His word of Law and Gospel to us

283

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank those who have helped produce this book, including stu-dents who studied Aramaic with me, especially Emily Carder, Ryan Markel, Kevin Austin, Paul Elliott, Adam Gless, and Aldebaran Schneeflock I would also like to thank those at Concordia Publishing House who saw this

project through to completion, especially the Rev Mark Sell, for his vision that a complete set of grammars for biblical languages is needed for students, and Dawn Weinstock, who handled many of the production details

295

4

Nouns and Adjectives

§ 1 Declension of NounsA. In Aramaic there is no formal distinction between nouns and

adjectives, though the vowel patterns peʿil and paʿil are more closely associated with adjectives (e.g., דחיל “frightening”; חכים “wise”).

B. Some patterns in nouns indicate various classes.

paʿ ʿāl profession דינין “judges” (cf. Ezra 4:9)

preformative מ or מ place משכן “dwelling” (cf. Ezra 7:15)

suffixed ית or ות abstract concept מלכות “kingdom” (Dan 5:9, 20, 21)

suffixed יי (plural יאי ) gentilic noun כשדאי “Chaldeans” (Dan 2:10; 4:4; 5:7)

C. As in Hebrew, nouns and adjectives exist in one of two genders: masculine or feminine. They also may have three numbers: singular, dual, and plural.

D. Like Hebrew, the dual is normally reserved for numbers, nouns denoting time, and items that are thought of as naturally occurring in pairs. The dual ending for both masculine and feminine nouns and adjectives is ין יא ) for dual determined nouns, see §2). Only a few duals are used in biblical Aramaic. They are:

two thousand (keṭîḇ) אלפים hands (two) ידין the two days יומיא two hundred מאתין feet (two) רגלין horns (two) קרנין the dominion שלטניא

296 Aramaic Chapter 4

the heavens שמיא teeth (upper and lower sets of) שנין two (construct state) תרי two (absolute state) תרתין

E. Nouns and adjectives exist in three states in Aramaic: absolute, construct, and determined. The absolute and construct states are familiar from Hebrew. The determined state corresponds to the noun with an article in Hebrew. The endings for these three states are:

Masculine Feminine

singular absolute [none] ה —construct [none] ת —determined א — —תא

plural absolute ין — ן —construct י — —ת

determined יא — תא —It should be noted that the feminine suffix ה is sometimes spelled א and the determined suffix תא is sometimes spelled תה.

The declension of masculine and feminine nouns from the root :is מלך

Masculine Feminine

singular absolute מלך מלכהconstruct מלך מלכתdetermined מלכא מלכתא

plural absolute מלכין מלכןconstruct מלכי מלכתdetermined מלכיא מלכתא

Some nouns are feminine but do not show a feminine ending. Most of these are nouns that naturally come in pairs (e.g., יד “hand”), though some do not fall into this category (e.g., אבן “stone”). A few nouns and adjectives have irregular plurals:

fathers אבהן

Nouns & Adjectives 297

women (singular does not occur in biblical Aramaic) נשין

great רברבן

names שמהן

§ 2 Determined State of NounsNouns in the determined state are generally equivalent to Hebrew nouns with the prefixed article. Thus מלכא means “the king,” מלכיא means “the kings,” מלכתא “the queen,” and מלכתא “the queens.” Occasionally, Aramaic will use the number חד (“one”) to denote lack of determination. A few examples are:

a letter” Ezra 4:8“ אגרה חדה

a scroll” Ezra 6:2“ מגלה חדה

a statue” Dan 2:31“ צלם חד

an hour” (“a while”) Dan 4:16“ שעה חדה

a stone” Dan 6:18“ אבן חדה

one side” Dan 7:5“ שטר־חד

The determined state also is used for vocatives; thus מלכא also can mean “your majesty” (“O king”). Compare the analogous use of המלך in Hebrew (Judg 3:19; 1 Sam 17:55; 23:20, etc.). Perhaps the most famil-iar use of the determined state as a vocative is αββα = אבא, which means “Father!” (Mark 14:36; Rom 8:15; Gal 4:6).

§ 3 GenitivesA. Construct chains are similar in Aramaic and Hebrew. Occasionally,

the final noun in the chain is indeterminate (in the absolute state), making all elements of the chain indeterminate (e.g., נכסין ענש “property fine” [Ezra 7:26]). More often, however, the final element in the chain is determinate (i.e., in the determined state, having a pronominal suffix or a proper noun), making all the elements in the chain determinate (e.g., בית־אלהא “the house of God” [Ezra 4:24, etc.]). In general, nothing can interrupt a construct chain, but some exceptions do exist. Most common is the use of a construct noun before a prepositional phrase, such as

מלכות תחות כל־שמיא“the kingdoms under all the heavens” (Dan 7:27)

298 Aramaic Chapter 4

B. Use of דיThe genitive relationship may also be expressed in Aramaic by the use of the relative pronoun די (see chapter 5, §3).Two nouns in the determined state are linked by this pronoun, forming the equiva-lent of a construct chain. Thus

lions’ den” (construct chain)“ גב אריותא

lit. “the den that is ;די lions’ den” (use of“ גבא די אריותא the lions’ ”)

§ 4 Adjectival ModificationAdjectives decline in both genders and in all three states. As in Hebrew, attributive adjectives follow the noun that they modify. Predicate adjec-tives are always in the absolute state and may precede or follow the noun they modify. They will agree in number and gender (but not nec-essarily in state).

Vocabulary, Chapter 4

אלה god; God (when this Aramaic word is plural, it always refers to pagan gods)

היכל temple, palace

חכים wise

אתון furnace מרא lord

בבל Babylon נור fire

גו ,גו interior נחש bronze, copper

די relative pronoun פרזל iron

דת decree, law שגיא great; much, many; very

,(m) חד(f) חדה

one שמין heaven, sky

Nouns & Adjectives 299

Exercises, Chapter 4Translate

אלה אלהין (Dan 2:47) (1)

מרא מלכין (Dan 2:47) (2)

מלכא די בבל (Ezra 5:13) (3)

טעם בית־אלהא (Ezra 6:3) (4)

גוא ארעא (Dan 4:7) (5)

גוא־אתון נורא (Dan 3:6) (6)

היכלא די בבל (Ezra 5:14) (7)

חכימי בבל (Dan 2:18) (8)

כל חכימי מלכא (Dan 5:8) (9)

דהב טב (Dan 2:32) (10)

צלם חד שגיא (Dan 2:31) (11)

אלהי דהבא וכספא נחשא פרזלא אעאואבנא

(Dan 5:4) (12)

דתא די־אלה שמיא (Ezra 7:12) (13)