full internet report
TRANSCRIPT
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
1/26
Road Decommissioning Success on the Fremont Winema-Forest Service
based on Vegetation Regeneration
Brittany CramerClair Thomas M.S
March 2009
Lake County Resource InitiativeChewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Crew
25 North East StreetLakeview, OR 97636
www.lcri.org
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
2/26
Table of Contents
Title Page.iTable of Contentsii
List of Illustrations.iii
Glossaryiv
Executive Summary....v
Introduction..1
Decommissioning Roads in Relation to Erosion2
Road Decommissioning Methods..4Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Crew.7
Blocked Sites..11
Scarified Sites ..14
Blocked verse Scarified Sites.16
Conclusion..19
Recommendations.20
References21
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
3/26
List of Illustrations
Figures
1. Skidder4
2. Caterpillar (crawler)4
3. Canopy and Ground Layer Map from Road Decommissioning TransectOne8
4. Quadrat from Timber Salvage10
5. Road Decommissioning Site One, RD-01, Excel Spreadsheet.12
6. Canopy and Ground Layer Map from Road Decommissioning TransectOne14
Graphs
1. Vegetation Integration on Blocked Roads versus off Blocked Roads inRoad Decommissioning Sites.13
2. Vegetation Integration of Scarified Roads versus off Scarified Roads inTimber Salvage Sites..15
3. Plant Species Abundance.17
4. Number of Plant Species..18
Tables
1. Vegetation Integration on Blocked Roads versus off Blocked Roads inRoad Decommissioning Sites.13
2. Vegetation Integration on Scarified Roads versus off Scarified Roads inRoad Decommissioning Sites.15
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
4/26
Glossary
Blocking To use large boulders, fallen trees, mounds of dirt or a combination of
the three to prevent motorized vehicles from using the road
Caterpillar Heavy piece of logging equipment used to drag logs; also called acrawler
Erosion - The group of natural processes, including weathering, dissolution,abrasion, corrosion, and transportation, by which material is worn away from theearth's surface
Excavator Piece of equipment a ripper bar can be attached to in the scarifyingor subsoiling process
Greenline - The thirty meter tape stretch between the A and B stakes used forcollecting vegetation information; also called line-intercept
Interval A three meter segment on a thirty meter tape
Rebar Reinforcing bars, placed in the ground, that make up the A and B ofthe greenline
Ripper Implement attached to a tractor or excavator to scarify or subsoil a road
Rhizome - Underground root system which can sprout new above ground sprouts
Scarifying The use of four to six inch teeth to break up and loosen the topsoil
Skidder - Heavy piece of logging equipment used to drag logs
Subsoil - The layer or bed of earth beneath the topsoil.
Subsoiling The use of twelve to eighteen inch teeth to break up subsoil
Topsoil The top part of the soil
Transect 1/10 acre plot formed by the greenline where data is collected
Turbidity - Having sediment or foreign particles stirred up or suspended; usuallyrefers to water quality
Quadrat A sampling plot, usually one square meter, used to study and analyzeplant life
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
5/26
Executive Summary
The subject of the technical report is Road Decommissioning Methods on the
Fremont-Winema Forest Service; Blocking versus Scarification. The Fremont-
Winema Forest Service is decommissioning roads to reduce the overall road
density because the density now exceeds the current stipulations of 2.5 miles of
road per square mile of forest.Some areas are over 11 miles of roads per square
mile of forest. With new roads being built on the forest for logging, research and
various other purposes, the forest service must decommission roads at an
equivalent rate. While decommissioning of the roads is certain, the method of
decommissioning is not.
The three possible ways to decommission a road are blockage, scarification and
subsoiling. The general consensus is subsoiling should only be used in highly
compacted areas such as main roads. The research done by the Chewaucan
Biophysical Monitoring Crew and interpreted by Jacinda Thomas and Brittany
Cramer (technical report author) suggests scarification is the preferred road
decommissioning method in the Fremont Winema Forest because it best
encourages vegetation regeneration and integration best. Vegetation regeneration
is vital to anchor soils and decrease erosion from rain.
The decision on how to decommission a road depends on each individual road.
However, the data from this report supports scarification to be the primary
method used by the Forest-Service to decommission roads because it encourages
vegetation regeneration best.
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
6/26
Introduction
New roads are built on the forest at a rapid pace for logging, research and
various other purposes. During a phone interview Nina Hardin (2009), Assistant
Centre Manager for the Lakeview Fire District, stated, The Fremont-Winema
Forest Service is decommissioning roads to reduce the overall road density
because the density now exceeds the current stipulations of 1.5 miles of road per
square mile of forest. Jolene Albertson (2009), Road Engineer for the Fremont-
Winema Forest added, Some areas are over 11 miles of roads per square mile of
forest. As new roads are being built on the forest the Forest Service must
decommission roads at an equivalent rate. While decommissioning of the roads is
certain, the method of decommissioning is not.
According to Ryan Schaffer (2003), an intern with Wildlands CPR, Road
decommissioning has been defined as the physical treatment of a roadbed to
restore the integrity of associated hillslopes, channels, and flood plains and their
related hydrologic, geomorphic, and ecological processes and properties. This
report will look at road decommissioning only in the Fremont-Winema Forest
Service. Specific examples of blockage and scarification will be from the
Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring website. Greenline and Quadrat surveys done
by the Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Crew will measure vegetation
regeneration. Subsoiling and subsoiling techniques are discussed under road
decommissioning methods but specific examples are not given.
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
7/26
Decommissioning Roads in Relation to Erosion
Jacinda Thomas (2007) wrote in her article,Determining the best method
of road decommissioning based on vegetation succession, Secondary logging
roads were never built to last. They were built along steep slopes that were prone
to landslides or near waterways. These roads may cause more erosion and
sediment delivery to streams compared to primary, managed roads. These
decaying logging roads are a large reason Forest Service road stipulations are
exceeded.
According to Chapter 3D: Road Management is National Management
Measures to Control Nonpoint Source Pollution from Forestry, Proper closure,
decommissioning, and obliteration are essential to preventing erosion and
sedimentation on roads and skid trails that are no longer needed or that have
been abandoned (Environmental Protection Agency, 2005). According to the
report, Erosion and channel adjustments following forest road decommissioning,
by Carolyn Cook and Adam Dresser, Erosion should be avoided to reduce:
soil loss
embankment washout
mass wasting
sedimentation
turbidity
damage to fish habitat
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
8/26
The most efficient way to prevent erosion is to encourage vegetative
regeneration. Vegetation protects soil from erosion due to the soil binding
capacity of the rhizome and the reduction of raindrop splatter on the soil.
Rhizomes, underground stem systems, can sprout new above ground shoots, with
accompanying roots which anchor soil in place. Leaf surface area intercepts
raindrops that would otherwise land on the soil, knocking loose clay and silt
particles that fill pore spaces reducing the soils ability to absorb and hold water.
Therefore, the best way to determine if a road is successfully decommissioned,
and will not increase erosion, is to measure vegetative regeneration.
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
9/26
Road Decommissioning Methods
The three most common ways to decommission roads are blocking,
scarification and subsoiling. The intent behind decommissioning a road through
the blockage method is to obstruct the road so no motorized vehicles can get
through. The blocking method involves using large boulders, fallen trees, mounds
of dirt or a combination of the three to prevent motorized vehicles from using the
road. However, large pickup trucks can often climb over the obstructions using
four-wheel drive. Therefore, instead of physically blocking the road, a large
trench may be dug out so no vehicles can access the decommissioned road.
Scarification and Subsoiling both use teeth to break up and loosen the soil to
allow vegetation access to additional minerals and nutrients for increased plant
growth by providing better aeration of the roots. This aeration is especially
needed in skid trails made during logging operations. During logging heavy
equipment such as skidders (figure 1) and caterpillars (figure 2) weighing
anywhere from 20,000 to 40,000 pounds continuously compress the terrain
(VanNatta, 2005).
Figure 2 Caterpillar (crawler)
Source: VanNatta, 2005
Figure 1 Skidder
Source: VanNatta, 2005
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
10/26
An excavator or tractor and ripper bar are required to scarify a road. The
ripper bar is an implement attached to the excavator or tractor. According to a
Fremont-Winema Road Engineer, Jolene Albertson (2009), the blades are
twelve to eighteen inches long to scarify a road. However, Clair Thomas (2009),
Biophysical Monitoring Crew Supervisor, delineates between scarification and
subsoiling by limiting scarification to topsoil disturbance (rhizome depth of 4
6) and subsoiling to the mixing of other soil horizons with the topsoil, thereby
destroying topsoil structure and porosity. For the sake of this paper, because the
data is taken from the Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Crews information,
scarification will be referring to the use of blades four to six inches long. If the
road is not scarified deep enough time and money are wasted for minimal results.
If the road is scarified too deeply existing rhizomes are destroyed and soil peds
are broken down while heavy silt and clay from lower soil horizons fill pore
spaces. Herbs and grasses are difficult to sustain in these coarse soils, though
shrubs and trees are only slightly affected. A scarified road may need to be
blocked to prevent access to the road.
Subsoiling a road is similar to scarification. Again there is a discrepancy on
the exact depth of subsoiling. For the purpose of this report subsoiling will refer
to using blades on the ripper that extend twelve inches or more. Subsoiling turns
up the subsoil between the topsoil and bedrock. According to Archuleta and
Baxter (2008, p. 119) in the article, Subsoiling promotes native plant
establishment on compacted forest sites, Subsoiling is the recommended
treatment for highly compacted soils. Soils can become highly compacted with
repeated long term use or even short term use with heavy logging machinery in
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
11/26
road such as skid trails. Road blockage may not be necessary after subsoiling
because the road would be highly unpleasant and difficult to navigate. Richard
Hart project lead of the Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Team (CBMT) from
2002 - 2004 published a report discouraging subsoiling. He states, Subsoiled
areas, while initially releasing compaction, ultimately become more compacted
than their immediate surroundings. The furls formed by the rippers become beds
for invasive plantsloss of effective ground cover are also dramatic. The CBMT
found that many subsoiled areas over 25 years old were not recovering well.
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
12/26
Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Team
According the Lake County Resource Initiative website (2007), The
Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Project, a program of the Lake County
Resources Initiative, examines the relationships within the Chewaucan watershed
and observes trends over time. The Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Team
chooses a general area to examine, locates sites within the area and completes
detailed evaluations of the vegetation, canopy and soils. Depending on the
purpose, sites are chosen by the following methods according to the Lake County
Resource Initiatives website:
Dynamic: A base area or individual transect which possesses
ecological factors or elements that are unique in combination
and/or rapidity of change.
Representative: A base area or transect which contains
ecological factors or elements which represent a significantly
larger area than the particular vicinity of a certain base area.
Unique: A base area or transect which contains one or more
ecological factors or elements that are one-of-a-kind or at least
extremely rare in occurrence for the watershed.
Managed: A base area or transect which has been, is being, or
will be managed in some way (e.g. - restoration, treatment,
and/or logging).
Once a site is selected in an area, a thirty meter tape (transect) is stretched
between an A and B rebar stake to create a 1/10 acre plot. Study sites along a
road are randomly selected to ensure a non-biased sampling. The transect tape is
stretched across the road so data could be collected both on and off the road for
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
13/26
comparison. To give a general overview of the areas characteristics, a canopy and
ground layer survey (figure 3) is conducted and a map drawn. This map is vital to
understanding the relationship of data and for relocating areas for follow-up
surveys.
The Quadrat Method and Line Intercept method also known as the
Greenline are used for gathering vegetation data. The thirty meter tape stretched
between the A and B stakes make up the Greenline. The A and B stakes
are pieces of rebar permanently placed in the ground so sites can be revisited.
According to the Lake County Resource Initiative website (2007),
The 30 meter transect is divided into 10 subsections three meters long.
The species, number of plants, and medium width of each species is
recorded for each subsection. Vegetation measurements of density, cover,
frequency, importance and diversity are then calculated. All plants are
Figure 3 Canopy and Ground Layer Map from Road Decommissioning Transect One
Source: Lake Count Resource Initiative 2007
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
14/26
identified by a six letter code consisting of the first three letters of the
genus followed by the first three letters of the specie.
For example, taraxacum is the genus and officinale is the specie of the plant
commonly called a dandelion. Therefore the dandelions code name is TAROFF.
This information can be recorded using a specialized palm pilot program or hard
copy form made for the Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Crew.
The Quadrat sampling method uses the same six letter vegetation code
system. According to Webster's New World College Dictionary (2009), A
Quadrat is a sampling plot, usually one square meter, used to study and analyze
plant life. The Lake Country Resource Initiative (2007) states, Quadrats are
used to sample unique vegetation found in one-tenth acre plots that are not
necessarily on the line intercept as well as to sample areas in transition within the
plot. A photograph of each quadrat (Figure 4 on page 10) is taken with a
whiteboard that identifies the site, date, and quadrat number because there may
be several for each site. Since a quadrat can gather information about vegetation
not directly on the line it is combined with the intercept data to calculate species
richness (Lake County Resource Initiative, 2007). According to the Lake County
Resource Initiative website, Quadrats from different years can be compared in
trend studies to identify changes that are occurring within the quadrat. These can
be combined with line intercept data to extrapolate changes occurring within the
plot.
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
15/26
Figure 4 Quadrat from Timber Salvage.
Source: Lake Country Resource Initiative, 2007.
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
16/26
Blocked Sites
The Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Crew examined fourteen road
decommissioning sites using the blockage method. To analyze plant regeneration
on the decommissioned road, plant cover is assessed off either side of the road
(control group) and on the road (experimental group). The plant species numbers
and diversity on the decommissioned road versus the plant species numbers and
diversity off both sides of the road measure plant integration and therefore can
tell the success of the road decommissioning method. The blocked roads started
at approximately the twelve meter mark on the transect and ended at the
eighteen meter mark. Therefore, intervals one through four are off of the road,
five and six are on the road, and seven through ten are off of the road. Refer back
to canopy and ground layer map (Figure 3 on page 5) for clarification.
To get the percent cover per interval off the road, individual vegetation
covers from intervals one through four are combined. In RD-01, Road
Decommissioning Site One, there was an average 93.5% cover in each of the four
intervals before the road comprising half of the control group. On the road, our
experimental group, there was an average of 67.5% cover in the two intervals, five
and six, that crossed. Intervals seven through ten, the other half of the control,
had an average interval cover of 63.3%. Since the first four intervals and the last
four intervals were both off the decommissioned road the numbers are combined
and become the combined control. Therefore, the average cover per interval off
the road was 78.4% and the average cover per interval on the road is 67.5%. Table
one (see page 12) shows this process through an Excel worksheet. Average cover
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
17/26
per interval on and off the decommissioned road was done for fourteen road
decommissioning sites.
RD-01 Excel Spreadsheet Determining Plant Cover On and Off theRoad
IntervalPlantCode
PercentCover Interval
PlantCode
PercentCover Interval
PlantCode
PercentCover
1 LINHAR 0.4 5 BROCAR 3.7 7 ARTTRI 1.8
MIMBRY 0.4 LINHAR 0.4 COLPAR 0.1
LICHEN 5.5 MIMBRY 0.7 MONLIN 0.1
PLASCO 1.2 LICHEN 1.3 SIDORE 0.5
SIDORE 1 PLASCO 1.3 STIOCC 0.7
STIOCC 1.7 SIDORE 1 8 ARTTRI 5UNKSPP 1.1 UNKSPP 1.4 LINHAR 0.2
2 BROCAR 0.5 6 ARTTRI 1.2 SIDORE 0.7
LINHAR 0.7 MIMBRY 0.2 9 ARTTRI 6
MIMBRY 0.1 PLASCO 0.6 BROCAR 0.7
MONLIN 0.3 STIOCC 1.4 LINHAR 0.4
MOSS 4.1 UNKSPP 0.3 MIMBRY 0.1
PLASCO 1.1 SIDORE 0.5
UNKSPP 1.3 WYLAMP 2.4
3 BROCAR 1.6 10 ARTTRI 3.4
LINHAR 0.3 LINHAR 0.1
MIMBRY 0.5 POTGLA 1.5
MONLIN 0.1 SIDORE 1.1MOSS 2.7
PLASCO 1.5
SIDORE 0.8
UNKSPP 0.8
4 BROCAR 3.7
LINHAR 0.4
MIMBRY 0.7
LICHEN 1.3
PLASCO 1.2
SIDORE 1
UNKSPP 1.4
Average Cover PerInterval Before
Road 9.35Average Cover on
the Road 6.75Average Cover
After Road 6.33
Total Average Cover Per Interval Before and After theRoad is 6.75%
Total Average Cover Per Interval On theRoad is 7.84%
Table 1 Road Decommissioning Site One, RD-01, Excel Spreadsheet
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
18/26
Vegetation Integration on Blocked Roads versus off Blocked
Roads in Road Decommissioning Sites
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
9.00
RD-
01
RD-
02
RD-
03
RD-
04
RD-
06
RD-
07
RD-
08
RD-
09
RD-
10
RD-
11
RD-
14
RD-
16
RD-
17
RD-
18
Site
PercentAverageCover
PerInterval
Off R
On R
Vegetation Integration on Blocked Roads versus off Blocked
Roads in Road Decommissioning Sites
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
9.00
RD-
01
RD-
02
RD-
03
RD-
04
RD-
06
RD-
07
RD-
08
RD-
09
RD-
10
RD-
11
RD-
14
RD-
16
RD-
17
RD-
18
Site
PercentAverageCover
PerInterval
Off R
On R
Vegetation Integration on Blocked Roads versus off Blocked
Roads in Road Decommissioning Sites
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
9.00
RD-
01
RD-
02
RD-
03
RD-
04
RD-
06
RD-
07
RD-
08
RD-
09
RD-
10
RD-
11
RD-
14
RD-
16
RD-
17
RD-
18
Site
PercentAverageCover
PerInterval
Off Road
On Road
Table one and Graph one show the difference in the percent vegetation
cover per interval on and off the road ranges from -2.5% (the road has 2.5% more
cover that surrounding areas) to 20.5% (the road has 20.5% less cover and
surrounding areas).
OffRoad
OnRoad Difference
RD-01 78.4 67.5 10.90
RD-02 20.8 18.5 2.30
RD-03 22.7 21.5 1.2
RD-04 52.5 55.0 -2.50
RD-06 24.8 21.1 3.70
RD-07 76.8 43.6 33.2
RD-08 83.1 36.1 47.0
RD-09 45.9 36.8 9.10
RD-10 9.3 3.4 5.9
RD-11 45.1 37.4 7.70
RD-14 73.2 52.8 20.4
RD-16 56.2 49.3 6.9
RD-17 69.1 58.5 10.6
RD-18 49.3 43.4 5.90
Table 1 Vegetation Integration on BlockedRoads versus off Blocked Roads in Road
Decommissioning Sites. There is an average
of 11.61% more cover off road than on road.
Graph 1 Vegetation Integration on Blocked Roads versus off Blocked Roads in RoadDecommissioning Sites
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
19/26
Scarified Sites
While the Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Crew surveyed Timber
Salvage sites they came across eight scarified roads. Many of these scarified roads
were skid trails. Similar to blocked roads, plant regeneration on scarified roads
was analyzed on and off either side of the road. However, the scarified roads are
not necessarily from the twelve to eighteen meter mark because the sites were
chosen at random in the timber salvage unit and only came across scarified roads
by coincidence. Timber Salvage site number 36s (TS-36) Canopy and Ground
Layer map (Figure 7) shows approximately the last ten meters of the transect on
the scarified road.
Figure 7 Canopy and Ground Layer Map from Road Decommissioning Transect One
Source: Lake County Resource Initiative, 2007
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
20/26
Vegetation Integration on Scarified Roads versus off ScarifiedRoads in Timber Salvage Sites
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
TS-36 TS-39 TS-42 TS-51 TS-54 TS-57 TS-62 TS-63
Site
PercentAverageCover
perInterval
Off Road
On Road
Table two and Graph two show the difference in the percent vegetation cover per
interval on and off the road in scarified roads and skid trails ranges from -0.4
(the road has -0.4% more cover that surrounding areas) to 9.7% (the road has
9.7% less cover and surrounding areas).
Blocked Versus Scarified Sites
OffRoad
OnRoad Difference
TS-36 14.5 12.9 1.6
TS-39 15.8 13.6 2.2
TS-42 5.9 5.2 0.7
TS-51 16.3 6.6 9.7
TS-54 11.7 7.2 4.5
TS-57 5.1 5.5 -0.4
TS-62 5.2 1.9 3.3
TS-63 7.9 4.8 3.1
ble 2 Vegetation Integration on Scarified
oads versus off Scarified Roads in Road
ommissioning Sites. There are 3.09% more
plants off road than on road.
Graph 2 - Vegetation Integration on Scarified Roads versus off Scarified Roads in Timber Salvage Sites
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
21/26
There is 12.3% more vegetation cover off blocked roads than on them.
Comparatively, there is only a 3.1% difference in vegetation cover on scarified
roads. This does not mean off the road vegetation is necessarily more numerous
than on the road. It could mean vegetation off the road is larger in size than
vegetation off the road. Considering most of the roads are around twenty-five
years old, this would make sense because vegetation off the road has had more
time to grow. According to Mike Neville (2009), Botanist and Range Manager for
the Paisley Forest Service, As a general rule for vegetation, excluding trees, the
older and larger the plant, the greater the rhizome is. This is significant because
more rhizomes equal less erosion. Therefore, twenty-five years later scarified
roads have a similar rhizome to the surrounding area with a 3.1% difference than
blocked roads with a 12.3 percent difference.
J. Thomas, using the Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring Crews data,
evaluated the difference in species number and diversity. In Thomas (2007)
evaluation she stated, In scarified road areas, 31% of the plant species (pioneer
species) were on the road exclusively and 23% of all plants were greater in
number on the road. Combining these values indicates that 54% of the plant
species found in scarified areas are actively rehabilitating roads and only 46% are
still found exclusively off road. The off road plants are rapidly initiating growth
on the road. Comparatively, in blocked road areas, only 3% of the plant species
were found exclusively on the road and 33% of all plant types were greater in
abundance on the roads. The combined value of 36% of plant species in the road
indicate a slower recovery since 64% of the plants off road were not yet
establishing themselves in the road. When cover (Tables 1, 2) and exclusivity
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
22/26
Abudance of Plant Species On (I) and
Off (B/A) Decommissioned Roads
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
I >B/A I=B/A I
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
23/26
Number of Plant Species On (I) and Off (B/A)
Decommissioned Roads
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
I >B/A I=B/A I
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
24/26
The Forest Service has been assigned the large task of decommissioning
old, unsafe and/or unused roads until the districts is in compliance with the
current road stipulations of 1.5 miles of road per square mile of forest. These
stipulations are set in place for a number of reasons including aesthetic and
environmental. One of the most important reasons to decommission roads is to
stop erosion that can ruin watersheds, increase turbidity and ruin fish habitat.
The three possible ways to decommission a road are blockage, scarification
and subsoiling. The research done by the Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring
Crew and interpreted by Jacinda Thomas and Brittany Cramer (technical report
author) suggests scarification is the preferred road decommissioning method in
the Fremont Winema Forest because it best encourages vegetative regeneration
and integration. Vegetative regeneration is vital to anchor soils and decrease
erosion.
References
-
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
25/26
Albertson, J. (2009, February 3). Road Engineer. Telephone Interview.
Archuleta, J. and Baxter, E.Subsoiling promotes native plant establishment on
compacted forest sites. Native Plants Journal - Volume 9, Number 2,
Summer 2008, p. 119.
Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring . 2007. Retrieved February 5, 2009, from
http://www.lcri.org/monitoring/ .
Cook, C. and Dresser, A. (n.d.).Erosion and channel adjustments following forest
road decommissioning, Six Rivers National Forest. Retrieved February 11,
2009, from www.stream.fs.fed.us/afsc/pdfs/Cook.pdf
Environmental Protection Agency. (2005, May 1).3D: Road management.
Retrieved February 5, 2009, from
www.epa.gov/owow/nps/forestrymgmt/pdf/ch3d.pdf.
Fremont-Winema National Forests - Welcome. (n.d.). Retrieved February 5,
2009, from http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/frewin/.
Hardin, N. (2009, January 27). Assistant Center Manager for the Lakeview Fire
District. Phone Interview
Harmon, T. (2009, January 27). Owner and Operator of Tom Harmon Logging.
Phone Interview.
Neville, M. (2009, February 13). Botanist and Range Manager. Telephone
Interview.
Schaffer, R. (2003, December 11).National Forest Service road
http://www.lcri.org/monitoring/http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/forestrymgmt/pdf/ch3d.pdfhttp://www.fs.fed.us/r6/frewin/http://www.lcri.org/monitoring/http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/forestrymgmt/pdf/ch3d.pdfhttp://www.fs.fed.us/r6/frewin/ -
7/31/2019 Full Internet Report
26/26
decommissioning: An attempt to read through the numbers (Field Notes)
| Wildlands CPR. Retrieved February 9, 2009, from
http://www.wildlandscpr.org/field-notes/national-forest-service-road-
decommissioning-attempt-read-through-numbers.
Thomas, C. (2009, February 1). Chewaucan Biophysical Monitoring
Supervisor. Telephone Interview.
Thomas, J. Determining the best method of road decommissioning
based on Vegetation Succession. Attachment E-mailed to the Brittany
Cramer. 16 Jan. 2007.
Quadrat. (20009). In Webster's New World College Dictionary. Retrieved
February 10th, 2009, fromwww.yourdictionary.com/quadrat.
VanNatta, R. (2005, November 13). VanNatta forestry and logging machinery.
Retrieved February 22, 2009, from http://www.vannattabros.com/
http://www.wildlandscpr.org/field-notes/national-forest-service-road-decommissioning-attempt-read-through-numbershttp://www.wildlandscpr.org/field-notes/national-forest-service-road-decommissioning-attempt-read-through-numbershttp://www.yourdictionary.com/quadrathttp://www.wildlandscpr.org/field-notes/national-forest-service-road-decommissioning-attempt-read-through-numbershttp://www.wildlandscpr.org/field-notes/national-forest-service-road-decommissioning-attempt-read-through-numbershttp://www.yourdictionary.com/quadrat