fsc earthsc 09 text updated and appendices added feb 18

EARTH SCIENCEEARTH SCIENCE

PREMIER CURRICULUM SERIESPREMIER CURRICULUM SERIESPREMIER CURRICULUM SERIESBased on the Sunshine State Standards for Secondary Education,

established by the State of Florida, Department of Education

Author: David H. Menke

Copyright 2009Revision Date:12/2009



I N S T R U C T I O N S

Welcome to your Continental Academy course. As you read through the text book you will see that it is made up of the individual lessons listed in the Course Outline. Each lesson is divided into various sub-topics. As you read through the material you will see certain important sentences and phrases that are highlighted in yellow (printing black & white appears as grey highlight.) Bold, blue print is used to emphasize topics such as names or historical events (it appears Bold when printed in black and white.) Important Information in tables and charts is highlighted for emphasis. At the end of each lesson are practice questions with answers. You will progress through this course one lesson at a time, at your own pace. First, study the lesson thoroughly. (You can print the entire text book or one lesson at a time to assist you in the study process.) Then, complete the lesson reviews printed at the end of the lesson and carefully check your answers. When you are ready, complete the 10-question lesson assignment at the www.ContinentalAcademy.net web site. (Remember, when you begin a lesson assignment, you may skip a question, but you must complete the 10 question lesson assignment in its entirety.) You will find notes online entitled “Things to Remember”, in the Textbook/Supplement portal which can be printed for your convenience. All lesson assignments are open-book. Continue working on the lessons at your own pace until you have finished all lesson assignments for this course. When you have completed and passed all lesson assignments for this course, complete the End of Course Examination on-line. Once you pass this exam, the average of your grades for all your lesson assignments for this course will determine your final course grade. If you need help understanding any part of the lesson, practice questions, or this procedure: Click on the “Send a Message to the Guidance Department” link at the top of the

right side of the home page

Type your question in the field provided

Then, click on the “Send” button

You will receive a response within ONE BUSINESS DAY

EARTH & SPACE SCIENCE

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About the Author…

Dr. David H. Menke was born and raised in the St. Louis area. After high school, he enrolled at the University of California at Los Angeles, and over the next eleven years, earned his two bachelor’s degrees, his four master’s degrees, a teaching credential, and a Ph.D. in Science Education.

During his career, Dr. Menke has served as a public school teacher, community college instructor, and university professor. He has worked full time at such institutions as California State University, Northridge; Southern Utah University; Central Connecticut University; and Broward Community College. Much of his career was spent as an academic administrator of public observatories and planetariums.

Dr Menke serves as the First Vice-President and COO of the International Planetarium Directors Congress, and as Chief Astronomer for the Sossusvlei Mountain Lodge in Namibia, Africa. As a world traveler, Dr. Menke has served as leader of many expeditions, including observations of eclipses and comets – on land and at sea. Dr Menke speaks, reads, and / or writes 16 languages.

Dr Menke is married and has six children and 4 grandchildren. Dr Menke’s wife is an elementary school teacher and mental health counselor.

Earth & Space Science by David H. Menke, Ph.D.

Copyright 2008 Home School of America, Inc.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

For the Continental Academy Premiere Curriculum Series

Course: 2001310

Published by Continental Academy 3241 Executive Way Miramar, FL 33025

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FORWARD


Keep these thoughts in mind…. “When I investigate and when I discover that the forces of the heavens and the planets are within ourselves, then truly I seem to be living among the gods.” – Leon Battista Alberti “Science does not know its debt to imagination.” – Ralph Waldo Emerson “There is something fascinating about science. One gets such wholesale returns of conjecture out of such a trifling investment of fact.” – Mark Twain

“If an elderly but distinguished scientist says that something is possible, he is almost certainly right; but if he says that it is impossible, he is very probably wrong.” – Arthur C. Clarke


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Forward…………………………………………………………………………4

Lesson 1 Earth’s Place in Space……………………………………………….7

Lesson 2 Geology………………………………………………………………35

Lesson 3 Meteorology………………………………………………………….55

Lesson 4 Energy………………………………………………………………..91

Lesson 5 Technology………………………………………………………….105

Course Objectives…………………………………………………………… 117

Index…………………………………………………………………………..120

APPENDICES

Appendix 1 – Glossary…………………………………………...122

Appendix 2 – Labs ………………………………………………131

Appendix 3 – Solutions …………………………………………153

Appendix 4 – Scientists and Writers Involved in Earth & Space Science……………………………………………161


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LESSON 1

EARTH’S PLACE IN SPACE In this unit, you will get a feeling for Earth’s place in space, among the moons, planets, stars, and galaxies. You will also understand what our fascination with flight and space travel. The lesson includes: The Solar System

The Moon

Stellar Systems

The Galaxies

History of Flight and Space Travel

Waves, Light, and Sound

SOLAR SYSTEM (During this session do, Lab 1: Solar System to Scale)

Our star, the Sun, has a name, “Sol.” And Sol’s family is the “Solar System.” That means that the Sun, Moon, planets, other moons, comets, meteors, and asteroids are all part of the Sun’s “family.” This is because all of the objects in the solar system were created out of the same cloud of gas and dust, many billions of years ago. There are nine major planets in the Solar System: Mercury, Venus,

Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. Sometimes they are referred to by the acronym “MVEMJSUNP,” which is short for “Main Valves Explode, Making Janitors Stand Under New Pipes.”

There are millions of minor planets, including the four largest ones: Ceres, Vesta, Pallas, and Juno. There are thousands – or maybe millions - of comets, such as Halley’s. And there are probably about 100 moons that orbit the major planets (and there are a few that even orbit the minor planets). Mercury and Venus have no moons. But Earth has two; Mars has two; Jupiter has sixteen or more; Saturn has twenty-three or more; Uranus has fifteen or more; Neptune has eight or more; Pluto has one.

And a few asteroids have moons. That’s quite a few if we add them all up.

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It is common for scientists to make comparisons, and we use our planet, Earth, as a comparison. It is important to understand these values as we compare other celestial objects to Earth. PLANETS Distances between planets are measured in Astronomical Units (AU), The average distance from the Sun to Earth is defined as 1 AU. Mercury The closest planet to the Sun is Mercury, at a distance of only 0.387 AU. Mercury was named after a very fast-moving Roman god. He took messages from one person or god to another. The planet Mercury is fairly small, and it moves very fast in its orbit around the Sun – at 122.5 km/s (about 74 miles/second). Mercury is rather small. In fact, Earth is 20 times heavier. Mercury’s diameter is slightly more than one-third of Earth’s diameter. Its day is very, very long. It spins on its axis in 58.6 Days! (Earth takes 24 hours). In addition, Mercury takes about one-quarter of a year (89 Days) to travel around the Sun – Earth takes 1.0 Year. Since Mercury is only 0.387 AU from the Sun, it receives a lot more of the Sun’s energy than the Earth does – 6.7 times as much! And there is no air to screen out the powerful solar rays, so you could get a sun tan in just a few moments there. With no air, its air pressure is 0.0 ATM. The force of gravity on Mercury is about 1/3 of what we have on Earth. That means that a person who weighs 120 pounds on Earth would weigh 40 pounds on Mercury. And Mercury’s surface is covered with mountains, valleys, hills, craters, rocks, and similar stuff. Since it is a solid planet with a hard surface, it is one of the Terrestrial planets – i.e., Earth-like (since it is a rock, in the shape of a ball). Mercury can become quite bright in our evening skies, but its position is so close to the Sun most of the time, it’s very difficult to find it. The best times would be shortly after sunset in the western sky, or just before sunrise in the eastern sky. Mercury has no moons. Mercury has a car named after it.

Venus Venus, another Terrestrial object, is the second planet from the Sun. It is almost the same size as Earth, and it has about the same gravity. However, it is vastly different. First of all, it is 0.67 AU


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from the Sun, so it should be hotter. And it is hotter, but much, much hotter than expected! The air temps are around 1000 degrees F. In addition, the atmosphere on Venus is very oppressive (hot, heavy, dangerous). In fact, on its surface, Venus’ air pressure is about 100 times that of Earth’s air pressure – about ¾ ton per square inch! The atmosphere is made of carbon dioxide and poisonous gases and acids like sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, and other foul things. Imagine walking around on the planet Venus. First, the air pressure is so great that you’d be crushed as flat as a pancake. It’s so hot, that you’d broil and would look like fried chicken. And, finally, the air is so toxic, that one breath of the air there, and your lungs would look like you had been smoking for 10,000 years! Venus is not a very friendly place. The only way you could “wander around” would be to “wear” a special submarine – similar to a bathyscaph. Venus, named after the Roman goddess of beauty, takes about 2/3 of a year (225 days) to orbit the Sun, and it spins on its axis in 247 days. It’s the only planet whose day is longer than its year! Plus, it rotates backwards compared to the other planets! Long ago, people believed that life flourished on Venus, and that it was like a Garden of Eden with lush vegetation, many animals, and large underground deposits of oil. Well, that idea was destroyed when we sent spacecraft there to find out. Venus is very easy to see with the “naked eye,” as it’s the brightest object in the sky – next to the Sun and the Moon. While Venus is also near the Sun in the sky, it does move far enough away to be seen easily after sunset on some evenings, and before sunrise on some mornings. Venus has no moons. Mars Mars, also a Terrestrial planet, is further out from the Sun than Earth. In fact, Mars is about 1.5 AU from the Sun. This means that it receives less solar energy, and should be cooler, than Earth. It is.

Many books have been written about possible “people,” and cities on Mars (Edgar Rice Burroughs’ Captain John Carter on Mars; Ray Bradbury’s Martian Chronicles; H.G. Welles’ War of the Worlds; and a movie called Total Recall, just to name a few). We have sent numerous spacecraft to Mars. As result, we have found out that, just like Earth and Venus, Mars does have air. However, the air on Mars is very thin, with an air pressure at its surface of about 1/100th that of Earth’s. And most of the air is carbon dioxide, not oxygen. So, we can’t

breathe the air there, either. If you decided to take a stroll on Mars, you’d need to wear a space suit. A pressurized space suit. And it would have to be heated. For, with such low air pressure, you couldn’t breathe, and your body would expand and eventually explode, if you didn’t have a space suit on. The air temperatures there are also really cold most of the time. However, sometimes it may reach as high as 80 degrees Fahrenheit, at the equator, on a summer afternoon. But the air wouldn’t hold

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that heat very long, as the thin air will chill quickly after sunset. Even so, you could get a suntan much faster than on Earth, as the air is so thin. The planet Mars, named for the Roman god of war, is about 1/10th the mass of Earth, with gravity about 1/3rd of Earth’s. Mars is about 1.5 times further from the Sun than Earth, and it takes almost 2 years to revolve about the Sun. Mars has a day of 24 hours and 37 minutes – almost identical to Earth’s day. One of the interesting things about Mars is that it has polar caps – just like we do on Earth. Most of the ice in the polar caps is made of dry ice, or frozen carbon dioxide, but there is also some water ice there. Our first scientific planetary colonies will be on Mars, as it’s fairly close to Earth. Mars gets a reasonable amount of Solar energy and it is most likely that we shall build underground cities with surface domes to allow us to come out and look at what is going on. Mars probably had an atmosphere similar to Earth’s about one billion years ago, but that has been lost into space. Mars is often called the “red” planet, since it has a coppery-red color. This is because of the rust in the soil. That’s right. Mars is rusty. As you know, rust is an iron oxide, just like a rusty nail. EXAMPLE – Perhaps you remember the book, or movie, Wizard of Oz by E.L. Baum. In this film, Dorothy runs across a man who is made of some sort of metal. We learn that he is the “Tin Man.” However, he had been caught in a rainstorm and he rusted. Now, how on Earth (or on Mars, or on Oz) can a Tin Man rust? Only iron will rust. Was this Tin Man really the Iron Man? Superman is the Man of Steel, and steel will rust, unless it’s stainless steel. So, what’s the deal? Maybe the Tin Man had joints that were made of iron, so they rusted. Just don’t know. It’s all a mystery. The planet Mars does, indeed, look a coppery-red in the sky. But sometimes Mars is fairly “close” to Earth, and looks quite bright. Other times, Mars is very far away, on the other side of the Sun, and at that time, it is rather dim. When Mars is at its closest it is brighter than anything except Venus. Jupiter

The largest of all the planets is Jupiter, also known as “Jove.” This planet is named after a Roman god who was the chief among all the gods. Jupiter has at least 16 moons, making it similar to a solar system by itself. This planet is the largest of the Jovian planets (those that are like Jupiter), which are all large balls of gas – no hard surface exists!


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Jupiter is more than 5 times farther from the Sun as Earth. As such, its solar energy is less than 4% of what Earth gets. But Jupiter has its own internal energy. The planet is shrinking, and getting hotter inside. In fact, Jupiter has internal temperatures over 10,000 K. No matter that the temperatures at its cloud tops are way below zero F. Jupiter is made of hydrogen, helium, methane, ammonia, and other gases. Whereas Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are labeled as Terrestrial planets, there are four planets that are like Jupiter; in other words, they are the Jovian planets. Because of its composition, Jupiter is very similar to the Sun, or any other star. In some respects, Jupiter is a mini-star. However, there is no nuclear activity on Jupiter, so it is really a proto-star, i.e., an object that exists before it becomes a star. Jupiter’s mass, while about 318 times that of Earth, does not have enough “stuff” to cause it to become a nuclear burning star. It will remain a proto-star forever. EXAMPLE – If you were to travel to Jupiter and wanted to land on the surface of this giant world, your spacecraft wouldn’t land. There is no hard surface. Instead, you would continue for over 1000 miles (1600 kilometers) before noticing anything more solid than its gaseous atmosphere. In the end, you’d get stuck in a gooey mixture near the core, and then burn up. It takes Jupiter almost 12 Earth years to travel around the Sun - 11.86 Earth years to be exact. Thus, a Jovian year is 11.86 Earth years. However, Jupiter rotates in less than 10 hours as compared to Earth’s 24 hours. Thus, its day is 9 hours and 50 minutes. And Jupiter has a very thin ring around it. Saturn Saturn is also a Jovian planet, and the 6th planet from the Sun. It is about 9.5 AU distant from the Sun, and is almost as large as Jupiter. However, it is not very dense. While Jupiter is 1.3

grams/cc, Saturn is 0.7 g/cc, which means that Saturn could float in water if it were allowed to. EXAMPLE – If a large enough bathtub could be found to put Saturn in it, the planet would float, as it is less dense than water. However, when you drained the tub, it would leave a ring. Saturn has 23, or more, moons. Titan is the largest, and astronomers and NASA have extensively researched it. This large moon has an atmosphere – rather rare for moons.

Saturn is also named for a god of the past. The Roman name is Saturn, but the Greeks called him “Kronos,” and he was the father of the Olympian gods. Now there is a car named after it.

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Saturn takes almost 30 years to travel around the Sun, and its day is about 10 hours and 11 minutes. However, you can’t land on Saturn, either. It’s just a big ball of gas like Jupiter. The greatest attribute about Saturn is its huge ring system. Made of rocks and ice, these chunks orbit Saturn in several different rings. Perhaps a moon wandered too close to Saturn, and was torn apart by Saturn’s strong tidal forces. Uranus The next planet out, Uranus, is an interesting entity. At almost 20 AU from the Sun, it is colder than a zombie’s heart out here. This big gas planet is about 17 times as heavy as Earth, but lighter than Jupiter or Saturn. Even so, Uranus is a Jovian planet. Uranus has 15 moons that we know of. The planet has a lot of ammonia and methane. It takes 84 years to orbit Sun, and its day is about 16 hours. Many jokes are made about Uranus. The British-German astronomer, Sir William Herschel discovered it, in 1787. In 1977, astronomers discovered that Uranus, too, had a thin ring around it.

Uranus was named for a minor god of ancient Rome. At first, William Herschel wanted to name it “Georgius,” in honor of the King of England. But scientists rejected that, and named it Uranus instead. Neptune What is the only planet that makes music? The answer to this joke is “Neptune,” as it has a “tune.” Neptune, another Jovian world, has a thin ring around it, too. Most of the time Neptune is the 8th planet from the Sun. However, for about 26 years Neptune was the farthest planet from the Sun, as Pluto came closer to the Sun for a while. Neptune is about 30 times further from the Sun than Earth. It is very cold. Neptune is a large gas giant, about 15 times heavier than Earth.

Made up of a lot of methane and ammonia, this huge world looks bluish-green, and it has 8 moons that we know of. It takes over 160 years to orbit Sun. At the time that Neptune was discovered, in 1864, it was believed that it must be the final and last planet. Thus, it was given the name of the god of the sea, Neptune. The Greek’s called him Poseidon, but it’s the same guy. In mythology, the son of Neptune is Triton. In the Disney movie, The Little Mermaid, the father of Ariel, the mermaid, is Triton. In reality, Triton and Ariel are the names of two of Neptune’s moons.


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Pluto Named for what many believe had been a Disney cartoon dog, Pluto was really named after the Roman god of the “underworld” or the god of hell. The Greeks called him “Hades.” However, at the Royal Greenwich Observatory in England, there is a color slide of Disney’s Pluto in the eyepiece of one of their telescopes. They have quite a sense of humor! As Pluto is the most distant planet, at an average of 39 AU from the Sun, any atmosphere on it would be frozen into a type of ice. Pluto has one moon, Charon, which is almost as large as Pluto. However, Pluto is rather small - smaller than our own Moon! It takes 247 years for Pluto to orbit Sun, and it rotates on its axis about every 6 days. We could land there and feel solid surface, but there is very little gravity – even less than on our Moon. Comets The dregs and refuse of the Solar System include the comets – a word in Greek that means “hairy,” as in a person who needs a haircut or a shave. There are virtually millions of comets orbiting Sun, and only a few get close enough to Earth for us to see them. A recent comet, named Macholz 2004, was discovered by an astronomer named Macholz. It graced our skies in late 2004 and early 2005. While Comet Macholz was not as spectacular as other comets, such as Comet Halley (1986) and Comet Hale-Bopp (1997), it was still a fun thing to observe. Comets are nothing more than dirty snowballs, traveling in very elongated orbits (not circular orbits like the planets). After several cycles around the Sun, the comets disintegrate and vanish – essentially, they are built to fall apart, like Alka-Seltzer. Meteors Nothing more than “flash of light” meteors are quite interesting. Comets may remain in the sky for days or weeks, but meteors shoot across the sky in seconds and are then gone. Meteors are the visual manifestation of meteorites – rocky debris left over during the formation of the Solar System. Meteorites come Earthward due to Earth’s gravity. The word “meteor” means “high in the sky,” which is where we see them. As they approach Earth, they begin to burn up in the Earth’s atmosphere. Most of them never reach the ground, but a few do. The largest meteorites can create huge holes in the ground, like the one in Northern Arizona known as the Meteor Crater. It is near Flagstaff, Arizona. Meteorites are made of iron, or rock, or both.

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Asteroids The word “asteroid” means “star-like” and the first one was discovered by the Italian Astronomer Giovanni Piazzi on January 1, 1801. However, asteroids are not like stars at all. In fact, they are much more like planets, thus astronomers call them “planetoids” or “minor planets.” Piazzi at first had thought he observed a star, so that is why he labeled them “asteroids.” Asteroids orbit Sun in their own orbits. A large group of them is between Mars and Jupiter and this group is called the “Asteroid Belt.” The largest asteroid, Ceres, is located there. There are a few other groups here and there. However, while some people think that there used to be a planet between Mars and Jupiter, it was never large enough. In fact, if you were able to “glue” all the asteroids in the Solar System together, our Moon would still be 20 times heavier. Moons

Natural satellites, also known as “moons,” orbit most of the planets, and a few select asteroids. A moon is just a natural type of “asteroid” or large “meteoroid” that orbits a planet. Mars has two small moons that used to be asteroids. Jupiter has 16 or more; Saturn has 23 or more. Uranus and Neptune have 15 and 8 respectively – or more. And Pluto has a small moon. That makes at least 67

moons, not counting those that orbit asteroids, in our Solar System. And many more moons are discovered each year. There may be as many as 100 or more. There are several moons larger than our Moon: the largest four of Jupiter (Io, Callisto, Ganymede, and Europa) and the largest one of Saturn (Titan), to name a few. The next chapter discusses our Moon in more detail. Key Concepts Star Planet Moon Comet Meteor Asteroid Names and information about the major planets


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Problems 1. What is the name our star? 2. What is name of the family of our star? 3. How did each planet get its name? 4. Which of the Terrestrial planets is the hottest? 5. Which planet is the largest? 6. What are the “leftovers” of the Solar System? THE MOON (During this lesson, do Lab 2: Phases of the Moon) Our larger natural satellite is called the “Moon,” and many things derive their names from this bright orb of the night. The official “name” of the Moon is Luna, just as Earth’s name is “Terra,” and Sun’s name is “Sol.” EXAMPLE – The word “month” comes from “Moon,” as there was a new Moon every month. “Menses” also comes from “Moon,” as females have their menstrual cycle every month. Our Moon travels around Earth once every 27.3 days. However, since Earth is also moving – around the Sun – it takes the Moon an extra 2.2 days to “catch up” with Earth so as to have the exact same phase as it did the month before. The Moon goes through a series of phases – shapes – every 29.5 days. It goes from a new moon (which you can’t see, thus often called “no moon,”) to crescent to first quarter to gibbous to full to gibbous to last quarter to crescent and back to new. The origin of the Moon has several theories. One is that the Moon was once part of Earth, billions of years ago, but as Earth was spinning, it threw off a large chunk of molten (liquid) material, and that later formed Moon. It has been moving away from Earth ever since. A second theory is that Moon formed from the same raw materials as Earth when the planets were formed. And the third theory is that Moon formed elsewhere as a type of asteroid, but then wandered too close to Earth, and it was captured, as the other moon, Toro. Evidence from moon rocks that we brought back from NASA’s visits to Moon seems to support the theory that Earth and Moon were formed about the same time from the same raw materials.

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Moon is about ¼ the size of Earth. While Earth is 4 times wider than Moon, it is 81 times heavier. Our planet is denser than Moon, and thus, much heavier. The mass, size, and density of the Moon determines its acceleration due to gravity. Some people believe that the Moon has no gravity, in other words, that you would “float” if you were on the Moon. This could not be further from the truth. The Moon does have gravity, and its gravity affects tides on Earth. However, Moon’s gravity is less than that on Earth. In fact, the Moon’s gravity is 1/6th the gravity on Earth. So, if you were to weigh 120 pounds on Earth, you’d weigh 1/6th of that, or 20 pounds, on the Moon. EXAMPLE – One way to look at how it would be for you on the Moon’s surface would be to understand how strong you are on Earth. Let’s say that you could jump 1 foot above the ground in your back yard on Earth. Since Moon’s gravity is 1/6th, you would feel six times stronger on the Moon. So, you could jump, not just 1 foot, but 6 feet, above the Moon’s surface. And if you can jump 2 feet high on Earth, you could jump 12 feet high on the Moon. A baseball field in a covered dome on the Moon would have to be huge, since a typical ball player could hit the ball about half a mile! And a person could strap on wings and be strong enough to actually fly inside that dome, assuming air had been pumped into it! If you wanted to take a walk on the Lunar surface, you’d have a very interesting time. You would most likely bounce rather than walk. However, you’d have to wear a pressurized space suit, since with zero atmospheric pressure, your body would expand like a balloon and then “pop.” You wouldn’t like to explode all over the surface, would you? In the sunshine, the temperatures can reach as hot as 200 oF – almost as hot as boiling water. And at night, the temperatures drop to minus 200 oF – that’s 200 degrees below zero Fahrenheit. So, your space suit better be air conditioned and heated, too. The Moon rotates in one month and orbits Earth in one month. As such, it always has the same face towards Earth. We never see the “back” of the Moon – unless we travel out behind the Moon with a space ship. An old poem goes something like this: Oh, Moon, Lovely Moon with thy beautiful face Careening through the boundaries of space I wonder oh wonder, deep in my mind Shall I ever, oh ever, behold thy behind? And thus, a poetic astronomer wondered if he’d ever see the back of the Moon. “When the Moon hits your eye like a big pizza pie, that’s “amoré,” is the first line of a romantic song performed by the late Dean Martin. Well, sometimes the Moon looks very large, when, in reality, it is always the same size. When the full moon is rising along the horizon, one can then compare it to distant trees or houses, or other things. In this vein, it can look very large. However, when the Moon is full and overhead – in the middle of a vast sky – it looks small in comparison. So, the Moon never changes size, but it looks that way by illusion.


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The Moon is also the primary cause of tides on Earth. While the Sun is 440,000 times wider than the Moon, it is also 1000 times further away. The huge mass of the Sun does affect tides, but not as much as the Moon does. Key Concepts Natural satellite Luna and Moon Tides Phases of the Moon Theories of Moon’s formation Problems 1. Name the 8 phases of the Moon 2. What are the three theories of the Moon’s formation? 3. How many moons does Earth have? What are their names? 4. How much would a 180-pound man weigh on the Moon?

STELLAR SYSTEMS (During this lesson, do Lab 3: Constellations) A variant on a familiar poem goes something like this: Star light, star bright First star I see tonight I wish I may I wish I might Aw, shucks, it’s just a satellite Well, not every bright dot in the sky is a star. Many times people confuse planets with stars. But planets are much closer, and they look larger. Therefore, planets don’t “twinkle.” Here’s another variant on a poem: Twinkle, twinkle little star I don’t wonder what you are For I surmised your place in space When you left the missile base Now all the wondering that I do Is upon the price of you And I wonder what to think What you’re costing us per twink Stars twinkle because of Earth’s air. The light from distant stars reaches us as a single beam, and the movement of Earth’s turbulent air causes that light to vibrate, or “twinkle.” If you were to observe the stars from a space ship outside Earth, or from the surface of our airless Moon, the stars would not twinkle at all.

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As most people know, stars make up “patterns in the sky” called constellations. While these stars may not be related to each other, from our vantage point, they may look like a “Big Dipper” or a “Lion” in the sky.

Stars are self-sustaining, nuclear-burning objects. Planets merely reflect the light of our star, the Sun. But stars give off heat and light. In the center of each star is a powerful nuclear reaction: 4 1H

1 = 2He4 + 2�+ + E where 4 hydrogen nuclei (protons) are fused together, in a chain reaction process, to form one heavier nucleus, helium, and giving off a lot of energy, E. (There are also two anti-matter particles created, called positrons, 2�+). This is the same reaction as an atomic bomb, more specifically, a hydrogen bomb, and it is a fusion reaction. Our own star, the Sun, is doing this. And while it is doing this, it is losing mass. For, in this process, mass is “lost.” You see, 4 hydrogen nuclei weigh more than 1 helium nucleus, so where did the mass go? It became energy, by the process:

E = (�m) c2 Where in this case, “�m” equals the “lost” mass, and “c” stands for the speed of light (it is squared here). While the “surface” temperature of a star, like the Sun, may be 12,000 oF (6000 K), the core of the Sun is 10 million degrees or more! Stars are just large balls of hot gas, so one couldn’t stand on the Sun, even if they could survive the heat. So, the Sun, like every star, is changing vast quantities of hydrogen into helium every second. And the amount of mass “lost” and turned into pure energy in our Sun is the equivalent of about 600 tons per second! Even at this rate, the Sun has been losing this mass every second, and has for 5 billion years; it will continue for at least 5 billion more years, and it doesn’t even seriously affect the overall mass of the Sun!


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Some stars are “young,” some are “old,” some are “large” and some are “small.” Stars come in all kinds of colors, depending on their age and temperature. Our Sun is a “middle-aged” yellow star. There are red stars, orange stars, green stars, blue stars, violet stars, and many other colors of stars. The life cycle of a star (also called “stellar evolution”) has a lot in common with the life cycle of a human. After our conception, it takes about 9 months before we are mature enough to be born. Once everything is in place (gas, dust, and gravity), it may take a billion years for a star to be born. Humans grow up and live, 75 years more or less. After a star is “born,” it grows a short time, then it may live about 10 billion years before beginning its final process to die. When people live a routine life, they naturally age, and then die. So do stars. At about 10 billion years, the hydrogen fuel inside a star runs low, and the star begins to convert helium gas into carbon.

This causes the star’s core to shrink, but causes the outer layers to expand, making the star into a very large, but much cooler, “Red Giant.” Later, when helium runs low, carbon begins to be changed into iron, and the outer layers expand out to forever, and disappear. What is left is a very small (about the size of Earth), hot star, called a “White Dwarf.” Of course there may be people who die earlier than expected, perhaps from a tragic accident, war, or disease. Some stars can also die a violent “death” and explode. Anyway, eventually most stars that live to become a White Dwarf merely burn out in a few billion years, leaving a cold, burnt cinder made of diamonds (compressed carbon). However, heavier stars may continue to shrink and become, first, rapidly rotating neutron stars (about the size of a city) called “pulsars,” or, secondly, they continue to shrink until they become smaller than a pinhead, and then rip a hole in the fabric of Space-Time, as in becoming a “Black Hole,” and then they disappear in time and space. No kidding.

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The closest star to the Sun, Alpha Centauri, is about 40 trillion kilometers (25 trillion miles) away. If you could travel at the speed of light (300,000 km/s), it would take over 4 years to get there. Thus, Alpha Centauri is 4.3 light years away, where 1.0 light year equals 9.5 trillion kilometers (5.88 trillion miles). Using a conventional space ship, it would take over 7 million years

to reach the Alpha Centauri star system. Wow. About 60% of stars are paired up with one or more other stars. Only 20% of stars have planets. The remainder are lone, single stars. Thus, some stars are binary stars, or have 4 or 6 stars in their close proximity and orbit each other. There are also associations or clusters of stars, from a dozen to hundreds, or thousands, or even hundreds of thousands or millions. EXAMPLE - The Pleiades star cluster has about 100 stars. The globular cluster in the constellation Hercules has about 300,000 stars. The globular cluster in the constellation of Sagittarius has about 7 million stars. And there are millions of clusters out there. Key Concepts starlight twinkling stars nuclear-burning star constellation star systems with planets binary and multiple star system Problems 1. What is the name of the closest star to the Sun? 2. How far is the nearest star from the Sun? 3. What is the speed of light? 4. Describe the life cycle of a star.


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GALAXIES As mentioned in the previous lesson, stars often are parts of groups (associations or clusters). Well, there are super huge groups of stars called galaxies. If a group has more than 1 billion stars, then it is classified as a galaxy. Our Milky Way Galaxy has about 400 billion stars, and our Sun is but one of them! Our galaxy is called “the Milky Way.” This is because the word “galaxy” comes from the Greek word galactos which means “milky way.” Our galaxy contains about 400 billion stars, and it also has two smaller “satellite” galaxies that go around it, just like a moon orbits a planet! The larger of the two has about 10 billion stars; the smaller one has about 2 billion stars. These galaxies are not visible in the Northern Hemisphere. They were discovered hundreds of years ago by the sailing crew of Magellan. Thus, they are called the “Magellanic Clouds,” in honor of Magellan’s voyage, and because they look more like clouds to the unaided eye than they do like galaxies.

In our “galaxy neighborhood” there are at least 20 galaxies. The largest in the group is called the Andromeda Galaxy. It has slightly more than our 400 billion stars, and it is at a distance of 2 million light years away – making it the nearest major galaxy to the Milky Way. Andromeda also has two satellite galaxies going around it.

Galaxies come in different shapes and sizes, too, and they are at different distances. The “closest” galaxies are less than 2 million light years away, while the most distant are about 20 billion light years away. The most distant objects that we see are believed to be the nuclei of newly forming galaxies, and

we call them Quasi-Stellar Radio Sources, or Quasars for short. Our universe, called “the Universe,” seems to be expanding, or getting larger. If it were the shape of a ball, its diameter might be 40 billion light years, or more.

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There are many types of galaxies: Spiral, Elliptical (oval), Irregular, Peculiar, and others. The largest galaxies are Elliptical. The smallest galaxies are also elliptical in shape. Our Milky Way is a spiral galaxy. Then there are the Quasi-Stellar Radio Sources (mentioned above) at the edge of space. Quasars, or QSO’s, are the nuclei of newly forming galaxies up to 20 billion light years from Earth. Thus, if we could magically go to any one of them, they would not be newly-forming at all. They were newly-forming 20 billion years ago! Thus, our Universe is about 40 billion light years in diameter. And what is beyond? That, my friends, is not defined! Key Concepts Galaxy Types of Galaxy Quasar Magellanic Clouds Problems 1. Where did we get the name “Milky Way” for our galaxy? 2. How many galaxies are in our “local neighborhood”? 3. What is the largest galaxy in our neighborhood? 4. What is a Quasar? HISTORY OF FLIGHT AND SPACE TRAVEL (During this lesson, do Lab 4: Planes and Rockets) Man has longed to fly since the beginning of time. However, humans are not built to fly – well, at least not naturally. Thus, we have to find ways of doing it that are mechanical and such.

EXAMPLES – Long ago, Greek legend has it that an Athenian architect and inventor, Daedelus, made wings out of real bird feathers and wax. He and his son, Icarus, who had been held captive by an evil King, Minos of Crete, were then able to escape by flying out of the prison. Daedelus and Icarus were successful at flying out of the dungeon, but Icarus wanted to fly higher, and when he got too high, the Sun melted the wax in his wings, causing his wings to fall apart. Sadly, Icarus to fell to his death. Too bad that he had no flight insurance. In another story, there was once a Chinese scientist named Wan Hu. This was back in the time when the Chinese used fireworks to celebrate their holidays. One day, Wan Hu


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decided that he could strap 47 rockets to his favorite easy chair and blast off to the Moon. He reasoned that once he got to the Moon, he could fly home by waiting until the Moon was high overhead, flap his little wings, and float safely back to Earth. The day had come, and he had 47 assistants light all 47 rockets simultaneously while Wan Hu was sitting in his chair. The roar of 47 rockets was deafening. There was much smoke. When the smoke cleared, there wasn’t a sign of Wan Hu anywhere. All legend says is that he “went to visit his ancestors.”

A Spanish scientist named Domingo Gonzales decided to train a flock of geese to fly him to the Moon. He harnessed them altogether, and connected them to a chair. The geese took off with Domingo and he was never seen again.

There is also a legend that the famous French writer, Cyrano de Bergerac, decided to go to the Moon. He tried all sorts of methods, but none worked – except his last one. He built an airplane-

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like object and flew up into the sky. He didn’t land on the Moon, but in Canada instead. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police came out to see what the problem was, and they supposedly helped Cyrano. They tied rockets to his air-plane, and lit them. He blasted off from Earth and landed in a tree upon the Moon. Later he floated back to Earth using his wings, but when he returned, no one believed him. Science fiction writer, Jules Verne, wrote a book entitled De la Terre a la Lune (From the Earth to the Moon) in the 1800’s. In his book, he tells of three American astronauts who blast off in a rocket - called the Columbiad - from a base in Central Florida. They safely travel to the Moon and later return, landing in the Ocean. A U.S. Naval vessel picks them up. That sure seems like it really happened – but 100 years later!

In reality, the first scientist to try flying was the Italian genius, Leonardo da Vinci, who invented, among other things, a flying machine that resembled today’s modern helicopter. While he designed and built this helicopter, it didn’t work very well. He was able to fly it – for a short distance – before crashing. Fortunately, he survived the crash. Da Vinci also designed – but never flew – a flying machine called the “ornithopter,” which resembled a mechanical bird. This was the forerunner of the modern airplane. (The study of birds is called “ornithology”). Floating balloons were another way for men to go up into the sky and “fly.” The first hot air balloon with human passengers lifted off the ground in 1783. Two brothers, Joseph and Jacques Montgolfier in France, built the balloon. Their balloon carried two people some 91 meters (300 feet) off the ground.

Another Frenchman, Jacques Charles, created a hydrogen gas balloon, and – although with no passengers, the balloon drifted for two hours, and traveled a distance of 43 kilometers (about 27 miles). Once men got started, they could not stop. Many more adventurers began building and flying balloons – often with themselves in the basket suspended beneath the large gas-filled ball. In 1785, Jean Blanchard and John Jeffries (an American), were the first humans to travel by balloon across the English Channel – from France to England. Meanwhile, 8 years later, the first balloon to go aloft in America happened at Philadelphia.

They wanted more air travel. In 1836 a huge hot air balloon traveled from London to Weilburg (Germany) in about 18 hours. It covered a distance of 800 kilometers (500 miles). Eventually the military got involved. In fact, during the war between France and Prussia in 1870, observers were sent up to spy on enemy positions. Armies in World War I (1914-1918) made extensive use of balloons, especially for military observation.


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Airships, also known as dirigibles, were large passenger balloons with space for many passengers. They usually had engines on them so that they could be steered. They were propelled forward by, well, a propeller, like on an ocean going vessel.

Henri Giffard, a French scientist, developed the first successful passenger airship in 1852. Others soon followed and by 1884 inventors and engineers were creating new designs almost yearly. The shapes of these aircraft were not round, like a ball, but, rather, elongated, like a cigar or pickle. Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin was one of the most famous of airship builders. The German inventor successfully launched his first airship in

July 1900. Pilots could steer the ship rudders, and two internal-combustion engines, which rotated propellers. Passengers, crew, and the engine were suspended below the balloon. German airship makers thought that they could make some money by creating airships for passenger travel. The first zeppelin airship, the Deutschland, began commercial “airline” service in 1910. Even though the first successful airplane had been tested some 7 years before, airplane travel for passengers was still far in the future. Both French and German armies used airships (by this time, called “blimps”) during World War I. It was determined through experience that blimps were way too slow, and too easy a target, to be used for attacking opposing soldiers. Therefore, they were limited to observation. After all, blimps could remain stationary in the air for long periods while the airplane could not. After World War I, both the British and the Americans began building larger and larger blimps for travel purposes. However, the safety records were poor, and most ended up crashing. Some of the early blimps used hydrogen gas, but in 1923, the U.S. Navy commissioned a large blimp using helium gas. This was a stroke of genius, since, while helium is four times heavier than hydrogen, it is still very light, and the best part, helium does not explode. Hydrogen is very dangerous. Most party balloons today are filled with helium – all done at a local grocery store! Unfortunately, blimps do poorly in the wind, and in September 1925, the Navy’s blimp was destroyed in just such a weather event. But the Navy didn’t give up. Even before its first blimp went down, it had a newer, larger one, that carried 30 passengers – including sleeping cabins! In its 8 years in service, it completed more than 250 flights, including trips as far away as Puerto Rico and Panama. In 1928 the Graf Zeppelin came out, in Germany, and during its nine years of service, it crossed the Atlantic Ocean 139 times, including a trip around the world with stops only at Tokyo, Los Angeles, and Lakehurst, New Jersey!

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Also in 1928, the U.S. Navy launched two new blimps, each with small bi-plane aircraft. These could take off, or “land” at the blimp while a flight was in progress. There is an image of this in the movie, Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. But, again, these blimps were short-lived, too. By 1935, the United States gave up the pursuit of blimps for passenger travel. The British tried to create some of the most fabulous passenger blimps, and it made two of them, both in 1929. These diesel-powered vessels were magnificent, with dining, sleeping, and recreational facilities for 100 persons! Even so, storms wreaked havoc on blimps, and by 1930, Britain abandoned blimp travel. Of course, by then, the airplane had overtaken the blimp in faster – and much safer – travel. The most famous blimp was the German-built Hindenburg built in 1936. It had made several trans-Atlantic crossings, but, as most people know, it was destroyed by fire in 1937 as it landed at Lakehurst, New Jersey. While some passengers and crew survived, 35 people on board - and 1 crewmember on the ground – were killed.

Since the destruction of the Hindenburg, very few nations have used blimps. However, the U.S. military still uses unmanned blimps for observation, communication, and weather. Meanwhile, the airplane was making itself known in the world. Many tried – unsuccessfully - to make flying machines, but only when Orville and Wilbur Wright built and tested their contraption in North Carolina in 1903 did the world accept the airplane as a real deal.

But before the Wright brothers had their success, there was a lot of history in the development of the airplane. Leonardo da Vinci’s ornithopter was mentioned above. George Cayley, a British inventor, began his design and research in about 1799. He studied da Vinci’s ornithopter, which had moveable wings, but decided to have solid wings that didn’t move, and some type of device to move the airplane forward. In the end, he created a pretty good glider (like an airplane, but there is no engine; it uses the wind and breezes to “float” from one place to the next). The first human to travel successfully in a glider was Cayley’s assistant – a full 54 years after his first design! A French engineer named Clément Ader did the first manned flight of heavier-than-air plane 13 years before the Wright Brothers –. The airplane got airborne, but kept touching the ground on and off over a distance of 50 meters (160 feet). Thus, it was not designated as the first workable aircraft. The one man that could have received the fame and glory for being the inventor of the airplane was Samuel Langley. In 1896, he was able to create a very successful airplane – and it flew


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extremely well. However, it had nobody on board. By the time he was able to make the changes to create a manned airplane to work, the Wright Brothers had done their demonstration.

Airplanes at first were novelties, as were the “horseless carriages,” or forerunners of the automobile. The airplane was not recognized right away for its commercial and military value. During the very early 1900’s before World War I, airplanes made the county-fair circuit, where dashing pilots drew large crowds - but few

business people. One interested client was America’s War Department. It had been using balloons as mobile observation posts over battlefields and it was interested in aircraft as early as the Spanish-American War in 1898. In September 1908 the Wright brothers demonstrated their latest version to the U.S. Army’s Signal Corps at Fort Myer, Virginia. During one demonstration, while Orville Wright was circling the airfield there, the airplane crashed. Orville survived, but an on-board military observer, a one Lieutenant Thomas Selfridge, died from his injuries a few days later. He became the first fatality from the crash of a powered airplane. The first man to cross the English Channel in an airplane was the French engineer Louis Blériot. On July 25, 1909, he crossed the Channel in his own homemade airplane that he called the Blériot XI. Blériot’s feat convinced the world that airplanes would be very valuable in warfare. The airplane’s further potential was shown in 1910 when an American pilot named Eugene Ely took off from - and landed back on – warships! Then, in 1911 the U.S. Army began testing the use of airplanes to drop bombs, using a Wright brothers’ biplane. Also in 1911, two other events occurred. First, an Italian military officer decided to fly over and observe enemy positions during the Italo-Turkish War. Second, the American inventor and

aviator Glenn Curtiss built the seaplane. His biplane had a large pontoon, or “floating device” beneath the center of the lower wing and two smaller pontoons beneath the tips of the lower wing. One of the glorious years of flying was in 1913 when aerobatics (also known as acrobatic flying) came out. This included flying upside-down, doing loops, and doing other stunts that showed how maneuverable airplanes could be. Plus, several adventurous pilots

made long-distance flights that year, including a 4,000-km (2,500-mi) flight from France to Egypt (however, it was not a nonstop flight) and the first nonstop flight across the Mediterranean - from France to Tunisia.

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Because of national security in several countries, the advanced development of the airplane improved markedly. There were European designers, such as Louis Blériot, and Dutch-American engineers, such as Anthony Herman Fokker, who took the basic designs of the Wrights and advanced them to make faster, more powerful, and highly accurate killing machine combat airplanes. Fokker’s planes, which were used by German pilots, were considered better than used by the British. In fact, Fokker mounted a machine gun on the airplane in 1915 that had a timing gear allowing it to shoot bullets between the aircraft’s rotating propellers! This was quite an accomplishment! Fokker’s resulting plane was the most successful fighter in the skies during that era. As during most war time periods, technology takes a “front seat” in developing military support

materials, and the airplane was no different. As a result, there was huge progress in the design and building of airplanes during World War I. Some of the best British fighter planes included the Sopwith Pup (1916) and the Sopwith Camel (1917). The latter has been made “famous” in the Charlie Brown cartoon strip, by the pet dog that pretends to fly a Sopwith Camel while atop his doghouse. The Camel flew at 5,800 m (19,000 ft) and

could reach 190 km/h (120 mph). This was most amazing for the time. By the end of World War I fighters had been made that could fly even higher - 7,600 m (25,000 ft) and could go as fast as 250 km/h (155 mph). Commercial flights – those available for civilian use, began just 10 years after the Wright brothers’ first demonstration. The first regularly scheduled passenger flights anywhere in the world were between Saint Petersburg and Tampa, Florida. I suppose those first air travelers preferred flying between these two cities, rather than driving the vast distance of 24 miles between them! Regular commercial flights developed – although slowly – over the next 30 years. The growth was driven by both the U.S. Postal Service, and by the two world wars. The American inventor Elmer Sperry perfected flying by instruments, rather than by sight, in 1929. He created the artificial horizon and directional gyroscope. On September 24, 1929, James Doolittle (later known as General Jimmy Doolittle during World War II) demonstrated that he could take off, fly, and land using just instruments.

Boeing Aircraft’s Model 247 of 1933 was the first modern passenger airliner. United Airlines ordered 60 of these planes, which kept Boeing so busy, they couldn’t take other orders. As a result, Trans World Airlines ordered a similar type plane from Douglas


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Aircraft. The final product was the Douglas DC-3. This particular aircraft was so reliable and successful that there are still a few of them in operation even today! Then, in 1940, Boeing developed the Model 307 Stratoliner, a pressurized upgrade of the famous B-17 bomber. With a pressurized cabin, the Stratoliner could carry 33 passengers at

altitudes up to 6,100 m (20,000 ft) and at speeds of 322 km/h (200 mph). After World War II ended, and peace generally prevailed worldwide, airline companies such as United Airlines and Trans World Airlines, really began to “take off,” and prosper. New, comfortable, pressurized flights were available in vast quantity. Aircraft that had been used for military transport were now available to carry paying passengers on cross-country flights, and on trans-oceanic flights. Wartime technology was on overdrive, creating the jet engine. Jets were used in the Korean War for the first time. Commercial jet transportation began in

1952 with Britain’s DeHavilland Comet, an 885-km/h (550-mph), four-engine jet. American manufacturers Boeing and Douglas developed the 707 and DC-8, and Pan American World Airways inaugurated its Boeing 707 jet service in October 1958. It would seem that air travel changed virtually overnight. Jet service over the Atlantic allowed passengers to fly from New York City to London in less than eight hours. The Boeing 707 carried 112 passengers and ended the propeller era. Jet engines need to squeeze and push air out of the back of the engines. No Air – no thrust. While jets are great for air travel over planet Earth, they cannot transport us to the Moon and beyond. We needed rockets for that. And for rockets, we needed a rocket man. In spite of the earlier fireworks of Wan Hu and other Chinese, it was in the 1920’s, an American physicist and inventor, Robert Goddard, developed the first rocket using liquid fuel propulsion engines. In 1923, he launched a successful rocket, a flight lasting 36 seconds, from his Aunt Effy’s cabbage patch in Massachusetts. All he got in return was anger from his neighbors, and severe criticism from ignorant scientists.

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In 1930, Goddard moved his operation to New Mexico, and had several very successful launches over a 12-year period. He developed a whole system with a launch pad, mission control, and other related things, but at the time, no one seemed to care. World War II brought an increased interest in rockets, especially among the German scientists. In fact, the Germans were quite successful at launching rockets towards Britain. When the war ended, the US Army rounded up most of the German rocket scientists and moved them to Alabama to work on the new American Space Program. It was from there that the United States was able to develop a rocket system that allowed humans to set foot on the Moon in 1969. The first man to step foot on the Moon was a civilian scientists, Neil Armstrong. The second man, a military officer, was Buzz Aldrin. All total, twelve men, and no women, have walked on the

Moon. After the Moon program ended in late 1972, American scientists looked for a way to develop long-term research from low Earth orbit (LEO), and from the Moon. As such, they developed the Shuttle program, the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), and the International Space Station (ISS). All of these are still in operation. However, human destiny is that one day we shall colonize the Moon, the

planets, and perhaps, other star systems. Key Concepts Early stories of flight and space travel Leonardo da Vinci’s inventions The history of balloons Early aircraft The development of the jet Spacecraft Problems 1. Who was Wan Hu? 2. Who was Domingo Gonzales? 3. What are the three gases often used in large balloons? 4. The aviation inventor who almost came out with manned flight before the Wright brothers

was who? 5. The first man to walk on the Moon was who?


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WAVES, LIGHT, AND SOUND (During this lesson, do Lab 5: water waves) The previous lesson discussed the history of flight and space travel. This is only one way to gather information. Essentially, it is “in situ” forms of gathering information. We either send humans, or robots, out to some distant location, and the information is either brought back, or sent back via radio waves. Well, information may be transferred in waves of energy, which can come in packets of energy, or packets of sound, or both. Information from space must come only

in packets of energy. Let’s first talk about what a “wave” is. Imagine going to the beach, and watching the water come in, and go out. Each “packet” of water is called a wave. And perhaps one wave comes to shore every 10 seconds or so. The wave is identified as having a high point, or “crest,” and a low point, or “trough.” The distance from the crest of one wave to the crest of the next wave is called the “wavelength.” In an ocean water wave, that could be 30 feet

(about 10 meters). The rate at which the waves arrive is called the “frequency.” For example, if one wave crest arrives at the shore and the next arrives 10 seconds later, and the next arrives 10 seconds after that, etc., then, every 10 seconds a wave arrives. As mentioned above, then, the frequency of the wave is one divided by the time, or 1/10 per second = one-tenth of a wave per second = 0.1 / second. This is also called 0.1 cycles per second, and some call it 0.1 Hertz, after a German scientist, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, who studied waves in the late 19th Century. Research has shown us that the velocity of a wave, v, is:

v = � x � where � stands for the wavelength (using the Greek letter, �) and � stands for frequency (using the Greek letter, �). Examples- Let’s say that the distance from one crest to the other (the wavelength) is 3.0 meters (about 10 feet). Then one can determine the speed, or velocity, of the wave, by the relationship of Velocity = wavelength x frequency = 3.0 meters x 0.1 / second = 0.3 m/s (about 1 foot per second).

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One can also consider many other kinds of waves, including “waving your hand” to say “hello” to someone. As you wave at someone, you are moving your hand back and forth (probably left and right), and each time you do that, you are completing one cycle. This takes no more than about 1.0 second in most cases, so the frequency would be one cycle per second. The length of the wave would be the distance from the left side, to the right, and back to the left side, around 60 centimeters (about 1 foot each way, or 2 feet total). Thus, one can find the “speed” of the wave, or how fast you are moving your hand, by using the above relationship:

v = � x � = 0.60 meter x 1.0 / second = 0.6 meter per second, or 60 cm/sec (about 2 feet per second). Of course, it’s silly to find the speed of your hand while it’s waving, but you get the idea. Both light and sound come in “wave packets,” and each has a wavelength and a frequency. Plus, each has a speed or velocity. The speed of light, using the symbol “c” is equal to about 300,000 kilometers per second (about 186,282 miles per second). This number is a constant for all colors, all reference frames, and so forth. The different colors of light all have distinct, and different wavelengths with corresponding frequencies, but all colors of light, from gamma ray to radio wave, have the same speed. Please do not confuse radio waves with sound waves. They are quite different. For instance, radio waves (like light waves) travel through empty space at 300,000 Km/s, sound waves cannot travel through empty space. They travel through different materials at different speeds. Example – Red light has a wavelength of about 6400 Ångströms, while blue light is much shorter, with a wavelength of about 4000 Ångströms. Of course, at this point, we must ask, “what is an Ångström?” An Ångström is a unit of length named in honor of a 19th Century Scandinavian scientist named Anders Jonas Ångström. It takes 10 billion Ångströms to equal 1.0 meter! However, some scientists prefer using a different unit called a nanometer. It takes 1 billion nanometers to equal 1.0 meter, so in that sense, 1.0 nanometer = 10 Ångströms = 10 Å. So, using nanometers instead, red would be about 640 nm and blue would be about 400 nm. Astronomers use Ångströms while physicists (not physicians) use nanometers. The relationship, v = � x � can also be used for light waves. However, instead of a speed that can change (v), we replace it with the constant speed of light, c:

c = � x � Since the wavelengths of light are so incredibly small, it only seems to reason that the frequencies of light are extremely large. As mentioned, sound comes in wave packets, too. And sound has frequencies (sometimes called “pitch”) from very high to very low. While the speed of sound is NOT a constant, it is constant within a volume that has the same temperature and density throughout. Why? Because sound waves must travel through a medium, or in other words, sound must travel through a solid,


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liquid, or gas. It cannot travel through a vacuum. Most of us are used to sound traveling through air, a gas. Therefore, air is the medium. At the standard temperature and pressure (like room temperature and regular atmospheric pressure), the speed of sound, in air, is about 342 meters per second (about 1,100 feet per second). Sound travels much faster in a liquid, like water, and even faster in a solid, like steel. Example – If you were to observe a thunderstorm, you’d realize that first you see the bright bolt of lightning, then later, you hear the awesome rumbling of thunder. Since light travels so fast, you see the bolt of lightning almost instantly. However, you have to wait for the sound of the thunderbolt to reach your ears, as it travels at 342 meters per second, not at the 300 million meters per second that light does. Therefore, if you see lightning, start counting the number of seconds (use a stopwatch, or count, 1-Mississippi, 2-Mississippi, etc.) and when you hear the thunder from the lightning, multiply the number of seconds you counted by 342 meters (about 1100 feet). If you counted 5 seconds, then it would be about 1 mile away (about 5500 feet). If this time span becomes shorter, this storm is moving toward you. One good thing: if you hear the thunderclap, the lightning bolt that caused it must have missed you, because it is the lightning that can kill, not the thunder (no matter how loud or scary). Key Terms and Concepts wavelength frequency velocity as a function of wavelength and frequency speed of light speed of sound wave packet crest trough hertz Ångström Problems 1. Who was Heinrich Rudolf Hertz? 2. Who was Anders Ångström? 3. What is the frequency of a beam of red light whose wavelength is 6000 Ångströms? 4. What is the speed of sound at STP? (standard temperature and pressure) 5. If you see an ocean wave hit the beach every 8 seconds, what is its frequency? 6. How long is a typical radio wave, which has a frequency of 560 kilohertz?

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LESSON 1 STUDY QUESTIONS ANSWER TRUE OR FALSE. CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

1. There are five major planets in the Solar System.

2. There are only four minor planets; they are Ceres, Vesta, Pallas, and Juno.

3. Saturn is a Jovian planet, and the 6th planet from the Sun.

4. Natural satellites, also known as “moons,” orbit most of the planets, and a few select asteroids.

5. The light from distant stars reaches us as a single beam, and the movement of

Earth’s turbulent air causes that light to vibrate, or “twinkle.”

6. If a group has more than 1 billion stars, then it is classified as a galaxy.

7. The first man to step foot on the Moon was a civilian scientists, Neil Armstrong.

8. The distance from the crest of one wave to the crest of the next wave is called the “wavelength.”

9. Red light has a wavelength of about 6400 Ångströms.

10. Sound travels much faster in a gas than in a liquid.

ANSWER TO LESSON 1 STUDY QUESTIONS.

1. FALSE 6. TRUE 2. FALSE 7. TRUE 3. TRUE 8. TRUE 4. TRUE 9. TRUE 5. TRUE 10. FALSE


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LESSON 2

Geology In this lesson, you will understand what volcanoes are, and how they are connected to earthquakes and rocks. You will also understand rocks and minerals, as well as how the surface of Earth “fits together.” The lesson includes: Volcanoes & the GeoChemical Rock Cycle

Volcanoes & Earthquakes

Rocks & Minerals

GeoMagnetism

Plate Tectonics

VOLCANOES & THE GEOCHEMICAL ROCK CYCLE (During this lesson, do Lab 6: Make a Volcano) Volcanoes instill terror in the hearts of men. However, they are a fascinating – and important – part of Earth’s geologic existence. Usually volcanoes occur near earthquake regions. Vulcanism, or the study of volcanoes, comes from the name of the Greek god of fire, Vulcan. This is not to be confused with a fictional planet called Vulcan from whence came science officer Mr. Spock on Star Trek.

Volcanic eruption creates new land areas for animals and many useful rocks and minerals. And volcanoes give off gases that help both plants and animals. Volcanoes are scary and can cause death and destruction, but they also provide the raw materials for life forms on Earth to survive and flourish. GeoChemical Rock

Cycle To understand the science of geology, one must appreciate both volcanoes and the GeoChemical Rock Cycle and their relationship with each other. In this cycle, hot, molten (very hot liquid) material beneath Earth (called magma) is spewed

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out by volcanoes and as soon as it hits the air, becomes lava. Some of the lava cools and becomes hard. This hard lava is now called an “igneous” rock. Some of these igneous rocks get washed away, and joins with other rocks. This combination of several rocks into one is called a “sedimentary” rock, such as limestone. Other rocks combine, and under pressure, form a dense, heavy rock known as a metamorphic rock, such as some granites. Then, over a long time, a few metamorphic rocks get heated under pressure, melt, and re-join the hot, molten material (magma) beneath Earth’s surface again. Thus goes the cycle. Igneous Igneous rocks include those that are composed of a host of different minerals that exist inside Earth. The minerals they are made of identify igneous rocks. Magma is mostly composed of the same elements that are part of the crust and mantle of Earth. These are silica (SiO2), aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), and potassium (K). Combined in various ways, these elements include the mineral quartz (SiO2), and the silicate minerals of feldspar, mica, amphibole, pyroxene, and olivine.

Quartz has the most silicon. Essentially, it is pure silicon dioxide. Another important mineral is feldspar – similar to quartz, but where there’s much more aluminum and much less silicon. Feldspars also can contain potassium, sodium, or calcium. Rock-forming minerals are composed of olivine, pyroxene, and amphibole. All three contain silicon and magnesium or iron - or both. All three of these minerals are often dark. Dunite, another mineral, is composed of more than 90 percent olivine. After examining the more than 700 pounds of Moon rocks that were brought back to Earth, it would seem that most Moon rocks are made of dunite. (By the way, a compound known as dunnite – spelled with two “n’s” -


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is an explosive named after an Army Officer in the U.S. Army – the man who invented it – Colonel Dunnite. Don’t mix them up). Magma is a complex mixture of many elements. As it begins to cool, three main minerals crystallize. The first is olivine. Once olivine crystallizes then the composition of the material that used to be magma will be different – it won’t have much olivine left in it. As the temperature of the magma continues to go down, other minerals begin to crystallize, such as pyroxene and feldspar. This magmatic differentiation is an evolutionary process. This process is repetitive until all of the minerals become solid. The final combination of minerals formed is a function of three things: the original make-up of the magma, the way the crystals separate, and how fast everything cools off. Sedimentary Sedimentary rocks are a mix of different rocks. Other rocks and minerals that had been formed elsewhere somehow all come together to form a new rock. Most of these items had been carried away by rain, glaciers, or blowing wind.

Sedimentary rocks are classified in one of two ways, as mechanical or as chemical. The mechanical designations are rocks which fragmented and are created by the crumbling of other rocks as they are bumped along the ground by water. Some are eventually carried into larger rivers or lakes, where they are deposited in layers. Examples of mechanical sedimentary rocks include shale and sandstone. Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed much differently. Rather than breaking apart, or being carried downstream, they are created by the evaporation of certain solutions of salts. Examples include gypsum and halite.

Metamorphic The oldest and most “advanced” rocks are known as the metamorphic rocks. That means that they change, as the word “metamorphosis” means. High heat and pressure have changed these rocks, mostly from having been near and below Earth’s surface. Radioactive isotopes – different versions of elements – decay into other elements, and as they do, they give off heat energy. Some of the heat within the earth is produced by the radioactive decay of elements such as uranium, thorium, and potassium. The hot magma from deep inside Earth provides energy to affect rocks, and metamorphose them into something else. Then, there is also friction between rocks along earthquake fault lines that is another source of heat.

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The immense pressures upon rocks accelerate texture and density variations. One of the units that scientists use to measure pressure is the bar. One bar is equal to the amount of pressure applied by the atmosphere to the surface of Earth at sea level. Wow. So what does that really mean? Pressure is defined as a force divided by an area. Or, in math terms, P = F / A Where “P” is pressure, “F” is force and “A” is area. An area would be length multiplied by width, or A = l x w Where “A” is area, “l” is length, and “w” is width. Length has the units of meters (or centimeters) and so does width. Therefore, area has the units of square meters (or square centimeters). We often represent that as m2 (or cm2). Force is often used in the science of physics. The units of force are the Newton, or “N,” named after Isaac Newton. And the Newton is further broken down into a series of units: kg-m/sec2. In our general system of units, we use “pounds” for weight, rather than Newtons. Since this is not a physics course, just take the above on faith for now. Since P = F / A, that would mean that pressure has the units of Newtons divided by square meters, or N/m2. Another way to express pressure scientifically would be dynes/cm2. In this case, a “dyne” is a smaller unit of force, just like centimeter is a smaller unit of length. Believe it or not, air has weight – it exerts a force. If you are standing outside, at sea level, you have a column of air, right over your head that extends for miles. All that air weighs something, and its pressure is squeezing down on you. So why aren’t you crushed? Because life forms on Earth have adapted to counter-balance the outside air pressure from within our life forms. Just for your information, air pressure at sea level is about 14.7 pounds per square inch. In the terms used more by scientists, we don’t use pounds or inches, but we use newtons (or dynes) and meters (or centimeters). So, instead of 14.7 lbs/in2, we would say 103,000 N/m2 or 1,030,000 dynes/cm2. Meteorologists prefer using the term “millibar” to describe the air pressure. Watch any TV weather forecast, and the person is always saying, “areas of low pressure,” or “areas of high pressure.” On a statistical map, it would list the exact pressure in millibars. Well, 1,000 millibars equals 1 bar. Planetary scientists prefer the term “atmosphere,” so that Earth’s air pressure at sea level is 1.0 ATM, or one atmosphere. That is just about the same as 1.0 bar.

Now, back to rocks. Metamorphic rocks form under pressures of many kilobars, or thousands of bars (“kilo” means “thousand”). Rocks that are buried deep beneath many layers of rock


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experience litho static pressure, which causes the rocks to compress into a smaller, denser form. (This term comes from the Greek lithos, “rock”; and statikos, “in place”). Rocks at the bottom of a mountain (underneath the mountain) would be compressed into a very high density.

Density is the amount of matter squeezed into a volume. For example, water has a density of 1.0 gram/cm3. As water, a liquid is much denser and heavier than air, so solids, like rocks, are much denser and heavier than water. Most surface rocks are about 3 times as dense as water. But some very deep parts of the Earth’s core can have densities more than ten times that of water!

Thus, the combination of heat and temperature changes these rocks into metamorphic ones, although heat is the most important factor contributing to metamorphism. The melting points of rocks vary from 650° C to 1,000° C (1,200° F to 2,000° F).

Metamorphism in local areas results from higher pressure and heat below Earth’s surface. These things occur as Earth’s crustal plates (we will cover these tectonic plates next) come into contact with each other. Most of the rock formed below Earth’s surface is igneous from cooled magma. However, subsequent deposits of rocks may bury some igneous and sedimentary rocks which had originally formed on the surface. These processes seem never ending. That’s because, well, they are never ending. It’s a cycle of astronomical proportion. Key Concepts rocks minerals GeoChemical Rock Cycle Lava Magma Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic Pressure Problems 1. What is the difference between a rock and a mineral? Between a rock and a hard place? (just

kidding) 2. What are the three primary minerals that make up rocks? 3. Give an example each of an igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rock. 4. What is the air pressure at sea level? VOLCANOES & EARTHQUAKES (During this lesson, do Lab 7: Earthquake) This lesson is about seismology - the science of earthquakes. It is also closely connected to volcanoes, as areas of active vulcanism and quakes often come together. It is rather common to have a few earthquakes just before a volcanic eruption,

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Seismology involves the monitoring of natural earthquakes, and the study of artificial earthquakes that scientists set off. But we are getting a little ahead of ourselves. The word “seismology” comes from two words, seismos, which is the Greek word that means “to shake or quake,” and logos, which is the Greek word for “study of.” Thus, seismology is the study of shakes or quakes. That sounds logical. So, the word “seism” is another word for earthquake. A machine that senses earthquakes underground is a seismometer. The machine that records earthquakes is a seismograph (like an autograph). The graph that the seismometer draws on is called a seismogram (like a telegram).

Seismology is not limited to earthquakes, but also concerns other celestial objects. We have been able to detect both moonquakes and marsquakes, since neither of them can have earthquakes anyway. Some astrophysicists have speculated that out in space, there are starquakes, galaxy quakes, and so forth. Even so, in this textbook we shall limit our concepts as to how they are related to Earth. In fact,

seismology has opened vast understanding of the structure of the Earth’s core. Unlike the science fiction book of the 1800’s by French author, Jules Verne (Journey to the Center of the Earth), our planet is quite different, and seismology has helped us find this out. Whenever an earthquake occurs, it means that some hard and brittle part of Earth’s insides, even mountain-sized underground rocks, has broken and slammed into another part of Earth’s insides. In some ways, the inside of Earth is like a bell. Not a very good bell, but a bell nevertheless. For example, when you ring a bell, it gives off one or more vibrating sounds. The metal part of the bell will continue to vibrate for a while, until it stops. The same is true of Earth. When a quake happens, the solid, hard parts of Earth begin to vibrate. They do give off sounds, but humans cannot hear most of the sound frequencies. While there are actually many different kinds of seismic waves produced by an earthquake, the two most predominant are the “P” waves and the “S” waves. Simply put, they are the primary (P) and secondary (S) waves. In more scientific terms, P waves are pressure waves that travel in relatively straight (longitudinal) lines. These P waves can vibrate through solid, liquid, or gas. The S waves, sometimes called shear waves or shock waves, can bounce around a bit, and cause left and right motion of the ground. However, S waves cannot travel through liquids (like the ocean, or the Earth’s liquid core), or gases.


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Each of these two waves travels at different speeds. For example, P waves travel at about 8 km/sec (5 miles per second), while the S waves poke along at a paltry 4.5 km/sec (2.8 miles per second). This is a good thing, as we can get a very good idea when an earthquake occurred, and

how far away it was – just by using a stopwatch. Once an earthquake begins, one will feel, or notice, the ground going up and down. These are the P waves. They get to you first, as they are faster than the S waves, and remember, both waves left the earthquake site at the exact same time. So, when you notice the up and down motion, check your watch, and determine the time as exactly as you can. Shortly thereafter, you will notice a left and right motion. These are the S waves. Once again, note the exact time. Once you have done this, you can subtract the two times, whether it be one second, 10 seconds, or longer. Using this knowledge, there is a mathematical formula that you can plug into that will tell you how much time passed before the P waves hit you. Since P waves travel at 8.0 km/sec, if the formula tells you 10 seconds, then the earthquake happened 80 kilometers from you, about 10 seconds before you felt the waves. Now that you know the time of the

earthquake and the distance, the only way you can determine its position is by either traveling along a circle that is exactly 80 kilometers from where you were, to study the damage. Or to find two other people who did the same thing you did – but at different locations. This is called the method of parallax, or triangulation. Surveyors use it, as did George Washington. Fortunately, scientists have set up automated electronic stations all over the planet, so one doesn’t have to use his own watch, and then run around hoping to find others who did the same experiment. But you get the picture. Once one is able to find the point of origin using triangulation, then one can study the area much more closely. Of course, earthquakes do not happen on the surface. They happen below the ground – often up to 700 kilometers (435 miles) down. The location on the surface that is the closest point of the earthquake is called the epicenter. The actual location of where the quake happened – underground – is called the focus.

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The Earth’s top layer of ground, and it’s not very thick, is called the crust. Earth’s crust is about 7 kilometers thick under the oceans, and nearly 50 kilometers thick under the largest mountain ranges. The crust that covers Earth’s globe is a spherical shell, and like so many pieces in a complex puzzle, the crust is made up of a large number of these puzzle pieces. The pieces are called crustal plates, and divisions called fault lines separate the plates. More on this in lesson 5. However, as mentioned before, a sudden slip along a fault produces both P and S waves. At the bottom of the crust there is a division between the crust and the next level down, the upper mantle. The main research on this was done by a Croatian scientist named Andrija Mohorovičić in 1909 (Croatia was once part of Yugoslavia). Thus, scientists honored this man by naming the boundary after him. It is called the Mohorovičić discontinuity which means there is a change in density. Most people often call it Moho for short.


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The damage caused by an earthquake depends on how strong it is (its magnitude) and how long it lasts. It also depends on the location of the earthquake. For example, in the early 1800’s, a massive earthquake hit southern Missouri. However, since virtually nobody lived there, no buildings were damaged, nor any lives lost, it was not a human tragedy. In some nations, building codes are very weak – or non-existent. Thus, in even minor earthquakes, buildings can be destroyed and lives lost.

The strength of an earthquake is determined by how much energy it releases, and how much damage it causes. The earthquake Richter Scale was developed in 1935 by Professor Charles F. Richter (1900 – 1985) of the California Institute of Technology (CalTech). Richter was assisted by German-born seismologist Beno Gutenberg, a colleague of Richter’s at CalTech. The Richter Scale generally goes from 1 to 10, where each step up signifies that the ground moves ten times as much as the previous number. The Richter Scale also allows for the amount of energy released, not just the distance that the ground has moved. For example, each step up signifies a release of 32 times as much energy as the previous step. Fractional numbers are also permitted, e.g., an earthquake of strength 6.4. A magnitude 4.3 earthquake releases about the same amount of energy as released by the atomic bomb over Hiroshima, Japan, in August 1945. That would also equate to about 20,000 tons of dynamite exploding all at once at the same place. The largest earthquakes in recorded history were about 9.5. That would be like dropping 66 million atomic bombs on the same place all at once. While no earthquakes could conceivably surpass the number 10, it is theorized that an earthquake of magnitude 12 would cause Earth to split in two! The San Francisco earthquake of 1906 was a magnitude 7.9. The 1964 earthquake that hit Alaska was 9.2. The San Fernando Valley (Los Angeles area) earthquake of 1971 was 6.6. The Northridge, California (Los Angeles area) earthquake of 1994 was a magnitude 6.7 earthquake. And there have been numerous others. The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale, or MMI Scale, is another way of measuring earthquake strength. In fact, it is the most commonly used scale today. The MMI scale goes from 1 to 12, where 1 means barely detectable, to 12, which is total destruction. It’s amazing to realize that there are literally hundreds of earthquakes per day – somewhere, or anywhere, in the world. Some areas are more prone to them, such as Turkey, Chile, and Southern California. Very large earthquakes occur about every five years. Medium to strong quakes happen once or twice a month. Some quakes also occur under oceans, which then creates huge waves of water called tsunamis, like the one that hit Southeast Asia on December 26, 2004.

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Quakes that occur between plates are called tectonic earthquakes. They are caused by rapid release of energy stored within the rocks along a fault. The effect is like pulling a rubber band so tightly that it snaps. On the other hand, volcanic earthquakes occur near active volcanoes and are caused by the hot liquid magma rising to the “top”

of the crust, and pushing on it. Volcanic earthquakes occur in areas that have regular volcanic activity. Seismologists use a worldwide array of observing stations to keep track of what is happening, where, and how strong. The below-the-ocean earthquake of December 26, 2004 was tracked, but due to poor global communications, the threat of a tsunami never reached the affected lands in enough time to prevent the tragic loss of over 100,000 lives. Tectonic quakes are sometimes called interplate earthquakes, which happen along the boundaries between crustal plates. And there are some occasional intraplate earthquakes, too, that happen near centers of crustal plates. More on interplate and intraplate earthquakes will be discussed in Lesson 2.5 Meanwhile when the ground shakes, it can cause landslides. This results in property damage, as well as deaths of those near the falling structures. Even fires can break out and cause death and destruction, not to mention the very awesome and frightening tsunami waves. Other negative effects may also occur, such as disease, starvation, dehydration for lack of clean water, and other terrible consequences. Perhaps one way to be safe from earthquakes is to reside in an area that has virtually no history of quakes at all, such as Florida. But, then, you will have to contend with yearly hurricanes. Key Concepts Seism Seismology Seismometer Seismograph Seismogram P and S waves Fault lines Richter Scale Crustal Plates Volcanic and tectonic earthquakes Epicenter Focus triangulation


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Problems 1. What are the two primary types of earthquake waves? 2. What is the meaning of the Greek word seismos? 3. Why can’t the Moon have earthquakes? 4. What large wall of water is often associated with under the ocean quakes? 5. What is the difference between the epicenter and the focus? ROCKS & MINERALS (During this lesson, do Lab 8: Minerals and Rocks) In Lesson 1 we learned about where rocks come from. Rocks are made out of minerals. Minerals are combinations of one or more chemical elements which then create the substance. Examples include quartz, feldspar, olivine, pyroxene, mica, garnet, and so forth. Quartz is the second most common of all minerals. Don’t get it mixed up with quarts, which is a unit of liquid volume that milk comes in.

Quartz is composed of silicon dioxide, or silica, SiO2. It is found just about everywhere in the world, either alone as a “lode” of silica, or as parts of rocks. Quartz looks and feels like a rock, but it is a mineral, while rocks are combinations of several minerals. Anyway, silica and silicate sound alike, but the difference is that silica is only silicon and oxygen, where as silicate is a combination of silica with one or more metals. Examples of silicates include olivine, feldspar, pyroxene, and others. Quartz is a major part of granite, rhyolite, and pegmatite. These are igneous rocks. Quartz is also found

in metamorphic rocks, such as gneiss and schist. In fact, there is a metamorphic rock called quartzite that is made of almost 100% quartz. While quartz is not a rock, quartzite is a rock. Quartz forms striations and veins in sedimentary rock, such as limestone. Another sedimentary rock, sandstone, is almost all quartz. Sand is mostly quartz, and expensive metal ore, such as gold, is often found mixed in with large amounts of quartz. Quartz crystal can be found in huge chunks, or in tiny grains. Some are transparent, but all allow some light through. In its pure form, quartz has no color. However, it is often found in different colors due to other stuff that is mixed in with it. Heating a mixture of quartz (SiO2) and calcium oxide (CaO) – also known as lime, makes ordinary glass. No, not the lime fruit that grows on trees. This is the kind of lime one may use in fertilizing soil. Bones and shells are mostly lime, or calcium oxide.

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Lead crystal, a beautiful and decorative type of cut glass, used for plates, glasses, vases, and so forth, is made of a combination of lead and quartz. Lead crystal is produced when lead oxide (PbO) is substituted for lime in the mix. The composition of lead crystal is 54-65% quartz, 18-38% lead oxide, 13-15% soda (Na2O) or potash (K2O), and other oxides. Such glass has a high refractive index, and creates lovely refractive colors when ordinary white light shines through it. The feldspar group of minerals has many members. The aluminum-silicate compounds may contain potassium, or calcium, or sodium, and other things. Feldspar is the most common mineral. About half Earth's crust is made of feldspars.

Orthoclase is a feldspar with potassium, aluminum, and silicate. It has the chemical formula KAlSi3O8, and is a very abundant mineral. The orthoclase mineral is used in making glass and porcelain. Other numerous feldspars include microcline, plagioclase, albite, oligoclase, andesine, labradorite, bytownite, and anorthite. For its color, an opalescent albite is called a moonstone. The iridescent labradorite is also a moonstone. On the other hand, oligoclase can cause a sparkling effect and it’s called a sunstone. The olivine family is made magnesium silicate and of iron silicate. Olivines have a formula such as Mg2 SiO4 or Fe2 SiO4. Olivines are found in the lavas of Mount Vesuvius (Italy), and in Arizona, Norway, and Germany. Dunite is a type of olivine that was mentioned before. It is almost all olivine. As previously said, much of the Moon’s soil is dunite, and it’s also found in many stone meteorites from outer space. There is also a great deal of dunite in Earth’s mantle – one of the many layers of the core of Earth. The final group of rock-forming minerals in this lesson is the pyroxenes. They metallic silicates, with calcium, iron, magnesium, iron, or sodium or lithium. As one can see, the study of geology, its rocks and minerals, can be a never-ending process. Well, then, let it start here! Key Concepts Rocks Minerals Quartz Major mineral groups: olivines, feldspars, pyroxenes Lead crystal Dunite Problems 1. What is the difference between rocks and minerals? 2. What mineral is found abundantly on the Moon, in meteorites, and in Earth’s mantle? 3. What is the most abundant mineral? 4. How does one make ordinary glass? Lead crystal?


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GEOMAGNETISM (During this lesson, do Lab 9: Magnetic Compass)

Earth is a magnet, plain and simple. Well, maybe not so simple. Most people have played with toy magnets to pick up paper clips or attract iron filings. We also knew that if we tried to pick up sand or sawdust with the magnet, it would not work. That is because a magnet is made of iron (Fe) and its internal structure has all the iron atoms lined up in a straight line. How does this happen? We’ll get to that. But sand and sawdust have no iron in them, so you can’t attract them with a magnet.

And what about the compasses we all used - those with a small magnetic needle inside that lined up to show us the direction north? Well, the little needle inside the compass is a very thin magnet. It is not very strong, but it is a magnet. And it’s balanced so very carefully. And it lines up because Earth has a very strong magnetic field. To understand what is going on here, let’s pretend for a moment that inside Earth there is a large bar magnet, the ones we like to play with. A bar magnet looks like a long brick, but it’s made of iron, not stone. In the photograph, very thin slivers of iron (filings) have been scattered onto a sheet of paper lying on a bar magnet.

Each side of the magnet is given a “direction.” There is a north side of the magnet, and a south side of the magnet. There are no east or west sides of a magnet. If there were a huge bar magnet inside Earth, and if you were standing on the surface with a small needle compass, the needle would be attracted in such a way as to line up north-south. That’s because magnets have what we call magnetic fields. We also live in a gravitational field, and lightning bolts create electrical fields. But these things are not important right now.

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So, if Earth had one of those huge bar magnet inside, it would explain everything. But it doesn’t have a huge bar magnet inside. What does it have inside? Well, using the study of geomagnetism and the study of seismology, we have a pretty good idea what’s inside Earth. And while there is no bar magnet inside, the composition of Earth’s inside has created a strong magnetic field as if there were a huge bar magnet inside. The existence of Earth’s magnetic field is related to the motion of the hot, molten (liquid) nickel-iron outer core. These metals are electrical conductors. So, in some way, electricity and magnetism are connected. This subject is covered in a course on physics. Remarkably, we can learn something about the evolution of Earth by studying how Earth’s magnetic field has changed over the billions of years. And, yes, the magnetic field has changed. And is still changing. Right now. Just like having a large bar magnet inside Earth, its magnetic field is huge, and extends well beyond Earth’s surface. Scientists call these field lines in space radiation belts. And very much like metal paper clips or iron filings, very small charged particles are attracted to – and even trapped in – Earth’s magnetic field in these radiation belts. A scientist at the University of Iowa did the major research on these belts; his name was James Van Allen. In his honor, we call these large magnetic fields the Van Allen Belts. And what are these tiny charged particles? Protons and electrons. The very building blocks of atoms. Protons are in the center, or nucleus, of the atom, while electrons travel around the nucleus in some sort of path or orbit.

Unattached charged particles are also called ions, and they can be positive or negative. Scientists have found a way to “store” these charged particles: use a magnetic “bottle.” Amazing, but true. The north geomagnetic pole is located near Thule, Greenland, 1250 km (780 miles) from the geographical North Pole. The south geomagnetic pole is located near Vostok, Antarctica, 1250 km (780 miles) from the geographic South Pole. We should be very grateful to the Van Allen Belts, as Earth is continually bombarded with high-speed, high-energy particles blasted out from the Sun. The solar wind, made of alpha particles, travels at about 1 million miles per hour, and


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if the Van Allen Belts were not there, these tiny particles would rip through our body’s cells in no time, and all life would die. The Van Allen Belts act like a protective shield to prevent the alpha particles (which are positively charged nuclei of the helium atom) from killing all life on Earth.

Natural magnets are all over Earth. However, their magnetic alignments vary from place to place due to the time in Earth’s history that they became magnets. Here is how a natural magnet is made: once long ago when it was so hot that iron was a liquid, the Earth had a strong magnetic field. As a result, it was easy for the iron atoms to “line up” north to south along with Earth’s magnetic field, as a liquid anyway. As Earth cooled, the iron began to solidify, and then, it became rock hard. If Earth’s magnetic

field changed after that, the atoms were “locked” into place. One can do the same thing in a lab today. Take some iron, heat it until it melts, place it in a strong magnetic field, allow the iron to cool, and you will have a permanent, natural-type magnet. If you ever want to “ruin” an iron magnet, just heat it up. I mean really hot, not just over a match. Thus, scientists can gauge the age of certain rocks and mountains by examining the direction of the iron atoms in a specimen of iron rock. Finally, putting all the pieces together, scientists have been able to make a model of Earth, from the inside out, even though we cannot dig all the way to Earth’s center to “prove” it. Like in the movie, Shrek, where the ogre says that he has a personality like an onion, Earth, too, has layers. The top layer of Earth, of course, is the surface. It is the top part of the crust. Under the crust is the mantle which is generally divided into the upper mantle, where hot magma is and where earthquakes can happen. The mantle is denser and heavier than the crust, and is mostly made of dunnite. Below the mantle is Earth’s outer core. This is very dense, and very hot – maybe several thousand degrees. The density is 9 times that of water, and 3 times denser than any rock on Earth’s surface. The outer core is made of liquid nickel and iron. And as Earth spins, or rotates, the electrons in these conducting metals move freely, causing an internal global electrical field. This electrical field acts like a bar magnet to give rise to Earth’s magnetic field. At the very center is the inner core. While it may be even hotter there, it is solid, since the weight and pressure from all the

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layers above it crush it into a solid. However, it still is able to transmit electricity and be magnetic. Of course, above Earth’s surface we have the atmosphere then outer space. But as we have seen with the Van Allen Belts, it is still part of the earth. And don’t forget to be thankful for the Van Allen Belts. Key Concepts

magnets natural magnets compass geomagnetism paleomagnetism Van Allen Belts Core layers of Earth Composition of Earth

Problems 1. What is a magnet made of? 2. Can a magnet attract sand? Why or why not? 3. How does a compass work? 4. What is paleomagnetism? 5. Describe the various levels of Earth’s insides 6. What are the Van Allen Belts, and where did they come from?


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PLATE TECTONICS (During this lesson Lab 10: Ivory Soap in a Bathtub)

The concept of surface, or crustal plates, was introduced. Now we bring this concept into focus. The study of the location and movement of these crustal plates is called Plate Tectonics. The way it works is like this: Earth is a large ball, and its surface is about 20 kilometers deep, or thick. That’s not very big, compared to the enormous mantle and cores. Anyway, the upper mantle is somewhat gooey, or soft. Remember, the mantle is where magma comes from, and magma is liquid rock. Thus, in reality, each crustal plate is essentially floating on the surface of the mantle, just like large ocean vessels float on top of the water of our seas. While very large ships have the technology to "stabilize” the boat so that one can hardly tell that it is moving, the boat is still moving in many directions at once. And so are the crustal plates. And they also move relative to each other. Of course, boats in the ocean are not as close as pieces in a jigsaw puzzle, but sometimes ships to run into each other and cause damage. The crustal plates are more like puzzle pieces that are floating on an oceanic surface. The edges of the plates rub against each other. Some edges actually go over the top of other plates, and so on. The theory of plate tectonics came out of several previous theories and discoveries. German scientist Alfred Wegener proposed this theory in 1912. Looking at the shapes of the continents, Wegener found that they fit together like a puzzle. Using this observation he proposed the theory

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of continental drift, which states that today’s continents were once joined together into one large landmass.

It was theorized that millions of years ago, there was one, and only one, continent. It was very large, and the name we give that one continent is pangea. Scientists have made models showing how pangea broke apart and began floating in different directions all over the globe. We know that the continents are still floating away, or drifting apart, as Europe and North America are separating about one centimeter per year, even now. That’s amazing.

And if you take a look at a map of the Western Hemisphere and the Eastern Hemisphere, you can see that it really looks like the two of them could fit back together as pieces in a large puzzle. One of the most remarkable examples of the floating plates that are moving apart is called the mid-Atlantic ridge. As the hot magma rises from the mantle, it can go only so far. It hits the bottom of the crust, and as it continues to push upward, it cracks the crust. Some of the molten magma seeps through. It hits the ocean water, and immediately cools off to a solid. But in the mean time, the action has cause the two adjacent plates to move that much further apart. The mid-Atlantic ridge is on the floor of the Atlantic ocean, about half-way between the Western Hemisphere (North, Central, South

America) and the Eastern Hemisphere (Europe, Africa). This is a continual process, and as mentioned before, North America and Europe are moving apart at the rate of about one centimeter per year. Scientists now use the theory to describe the floating motion of the plates and how this relates to earthquakes. Plate tectonics can also help predict the locations of earthquake activity, the formation of mountain chains, the cause and location of deep ocean trenches, and to estimate areas of the greatest earthquake damage. Major earthquakes, high mountain ranges, and deep ocean trenches occur most frequently near or at plate boundaries. Earthquakes within plates, or intraplate tremors, are not very common, but they can be very large and damaging. As previously mentioned, there was a major earthquake in the early 1800’s in southern Missouri. This was the New Madrid earthquake of 1811.


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Tectonic plates are made of either oceanic or continental crust and the very top part of the mantle. Earth’s solid surface is about 40 percent continental crust. Continental crust is much older, thicker, and less dense than oceanic crust. There are 7 large plates: the Pacific, North American, South America, Eurasian, Antarctic, Australian, and African. There are also several smaller plates. Current plate movement is making the Pacific Ocean smaller, the Atlantic Ocean larger, and the Himalayan mountains taller. Scientists have also discovered tectonic activity on other members of the Solar System, including moons. Currently NASA scientists are constantly involved in research to find out as much as possible about the seismology of other worlds, and this information will help us understand more about our home planet. Key Concepts Crustal plate Tectonics Major plates Cause of tectonics Mid-Atlantic Ridge Pangea Problems 1. What is the largest plate? 2. How many plates are there? 3. Is Earth the only planet with plates? 4. What is pangea? LESSON 2 STUDY QUESTIONS ANSWER TRUE OR FALSE. CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 1 Volcanic eruption creates new land areas for animals and many useful rocks and Minerals,

2. To understand the science of geology, one must appreciate both volcanoes and the GeoChemical Rock Cycle and their relationship with each other.

3. Seismology involves the monitoring of natural earthquakes.

4. The location on the surface that is the closest point of the earthquake is called the focus. 5. The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale, another way of measuring earthquake strength, is the most commonly used scale today.

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6. Some quakes also occur under oceans, which then creates huge waves of water called tsunamis.

7. Minerals are combinations of one or more chemical elements which then create the continental drift. 8. The theory of continental drift states that today’s continents were

once joined together into one large tsunami.

9. It was theorized that millions of years ago, there was one, and only one, continent called pangea.

10. Current plate movement is making the Pacific Ocean larger, the Atlantic

Ocean smaller, and the Himalayan mountains shorter. ANSWERS TO LESSON 2 STUDY QUESTIONS

1. TRUE 6. TRUE 2. TRUE 7. FALSE 3. TRUE 8. FALSE 4. FALSE 9. TRUE 5. TRUE 10. FALSE


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LESSON 3 METEOROLOGY

In this unit, you will understand how Earth’s atmosphere came to be, how important water is to Earth, the physical aspects of oceans, and all about weather and climate. You will also learn how to predict weather using weather’s tools. Primary Atmosphere

Secondary Atmosphere

Current Atmosphere

Hydrologic Cycle & Erosion

Physical Oceanography

Weather and Climate

Extreme Weather

Tools to Predict the Weather

PRIMARY ATMOSPHERE Planet Earth is covered with an ocean of air called its atmosphere. The science or study of the atmosphere is called meteorology. It may sound like it includes the study of meteors and meteorites (rocks that fall from outer space), but it doesn’t.

The Greek word meteor means “high in the sky,” and thus, those who study the weather and the climate are really studying what is going on in the sky overhead – the air that is “high in the sky.” A person who studies the atmosphere actually studies the weather and is called a meteorologist. Yes, we can call the person a weather man or weather woman, but the scientific term is meteorologist. Most of the people that you see during the television news who talk about the weather, and have maps and

charts behind them, are meteorologists.

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And when one studies the atmosphere and the weather, one studies temperature, rain, snow, wind, and other things related to them. There are also scientists who are planetary meteorologists that study the atmospheres of other planets, since many other planets have air of their own. EXAMPLE - Well, then, what do we call a person who studies those rocky meteorites from outer space? A meteoriticist! Every professional person has a job title. A person who studies the stars is an astronomer. Sometimes people get confused and switch the word “astronomer” with “astrologer,” which is a person who tries to predict the future (a fortuneteller). And a person who studies the science of physics is a physicist. Sometimes people get mixed up and switch the word “physicist” with “physician,” which is a medical doctor. As Earth and the other planets were being formed, each was covered in a shroud of gases, mostly hydrogen and helium. This first, or “primary,” atmosphere existed on each and every planet. Its composition was very similar to the Sun’s composition, as the planets were made from leftovers in the solar nebula (Sun’s original cloud).

As the Sun’s composition includes many other gases, so the planetary atmospheres first had a similar make up. In Earth’s case, its air, or atmosphere, had not only hydrogen and helium, but also methane, ammonia, and other gases. Earth is close enough to the Sun to receive a fairly good dose of the Sun’s heat and radiation. Plus, Earth is relatively small compared to the giant planets, such as Jupiter, thus, Earth’s gravitational field is low compared to Jupiter’s. Because of the low gravity and high

temperatures on Earth, all the light gases (hydrogen and helium) “boiled away,” or escaped into space. This meant that virtually all of Earth’s primary atmosphere vanished, leaving an airless – and arid (dry) – world. This was also true of Mercury, Venus, and Mars. However, gases began bubbling up from beneath Earth’s surface, creating a new, “secondary” atmosphere. As we will learn later, the largest planets, the Jovians (the giant planets like Jupiter), never evolved past their primary atmosphere, and still have them today. So, how did Earth really lose its hydrogen and helium? As the Sun’s rays hit the hydrogen and helium gases, it heated them up. Hot gas expands, and then rises, or goes up. The hydrogen and helium kept rising higher and higher until they left the planet altogether, and Earth’s gravitational pull was


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not strong enough to hold on to them. It was sort of like the professor in the Wizard of Oz who went higher and higher in his hot air balloon! Once most of the Primary Atmosphere on Earth was gone, it was like opening a bottle of soda pop that you have just shaken! Key Concepts Primary Atmosphere meteorology meteoritics meteor primary atmosphere Jovian planets Problems 1. What is the job title of a person who studies meteorology? 2. What is the job title of a person who studies meteorites? 3. What was the composition of Earth’s Primary Atmosphere? 4. What happened to Earth’s Primary Atmosphere, and why? SECONDARY ATMOSPHERE In the previous lesson, we discussed the new, “secondary” atmosphere, which came to exist on Earth – and on Mercury, Venus, and Mars. But where did these new gases come from that made up the secondary atmosphere? They came from inside the Earth itself.

EXAMPLE - If you shake up a bottle of soda pop, then remove the bottle cap, you will notice that soda and bubbles come shooting out of the bottle. It’s sort of like a “local volcano.” That’s because the gases that were dissolved in the soda started to escape – rather quickly. This is the same thing that happened on Earth long ago. No, dozens of soda bottles were not opened all at the same time on Earth long

ago. Instead, it was like someone had pulled the bottle cap off a soda. When you take the top of the bottle off (or, if a can, you pop the top to open it), you immediately notice a “fizz” of bubbles coming up to the top. Maybe the fizz tickles your nose if you drink it right away. Before the bottle was opened, no gas (bubbles) could be detected. But once the pressure was released (sodas are bottled under pressure, then capped), gas bubbles appear and float to the top, then burst, releasing the gas into the air. Soda has carbon dioxide gas pumped into it under pressure, and that pressure is high enough to allow the carbon dioxide to dissolve into the fluid. When the pressure is released, the gas escapes. After a long while, all the gas leaves, resulting in a “flat” soda. This whole process is called “out-gassing.”

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On Earth, at first we had a primary atmosphere, which had air pressure. That pressure was great enough to keep other gases “bottled up,” or dissolved in the rocks and soil – underground. Once the primary atmosphere escaped into space, it left an airless world, with no air pressure. This is just like removing the bottle cap. Any gases that were dissolved in the ground and soil were able to “bubble up,” come forth above the surface, and “escape” into whatever was there. These gases included water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen (N2), and other gases. When volcano geologists study active volcanoes today, such as those in Hawaii, they always take a specimen of the gas that escapes to test what the gases contain. And what they find, even today, includes water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen (N2), and other gases. Water vapor makes up about 57% of the gas that comes out of volcanoes. Carbon dioxide comprises 23% of the out-gassed vapors. About 12% of it is sulfur dioxide. And nitrogen is about 6%. All of these gases had been dissolved underground, and apparently, quite a few are still there. While many years have passed since the primary atmosphere vanished, the Earth isn’t entirely “flat” yet. At least from a gas point of view. As mentioned before, Mercury, Venus, and Mars also had out-gassing, and their secondary atmospheres were probably very similar to that of Earth. Today, the current atmospheres on Earth and the other three inner planets is quite different. The Jovian worlds (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) however, are still mostly hydrogen and helium, with methane and ammonia – primary. These worlds are so far from the Sun, very little heat or energy reach them. And their masses are so large that their gravitational fields are rather strong. Hence, these worlds never lost their hydrogen and helium. They are pretty much the way they were when the Solar System formed. Key Concepts

outgassing secondary atmosphere air pressure

Problems

1. What is the secondary atmosphere? 2. Where did the secondary atmosphere come from? 3. What are the main gases that comprise the secondary atmosphere? 4. Name the four gases, in their order of highest to lowest concentration, along with their

percentages. CURRENT ATMOSPHERE The atmosphere that Earth has now, or its air, is comprised of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, water vapor, and carbon dioxide. These evolved from the secondary atmosphere. But how did this happen.


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The Composition of Air The secondary atmosphere was comprised 57% of water vapor (H2O), 23% of carbon dioxide (CO2), 12% of sulfur dioxide (SO2), and 6% of nitrogen (N2). However, our current atmosphere is made up of 78% nitrogen (N2), 21% oxygen (O2), 1% Argon (Ar), and varying small amounts of water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), and sulfur dioxide (SO2). [These numbers are averages and rounded to the nearest whole number]. So, what happened to the secondary atmosphere on Earth? Well, over time, Earth cooled enough to cause the water vapor in the atmosphere to condense into rain. And when it began to rain, it rained a very long time. Eventually, almost all of the water vapor had “fallen” out of the air, and covered much of the Earth. The water formed oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, and streams. Carbon dioxide was once about 23% of the atmosphere. But as the air temperature cooled, and as the air pressure began to go up, some of the carbon dioxide dissolved in the oceans, and some combined with the rocks and soil. Today, less than 1% of Earth’s air is carbon dioxide. The same events happened to sulfur dioxide, so less than 1% of Earth’s air is sulfur dioxide. Nitrogen, however, was a different matter. The nitrogen molecule acts very much like a highly-stable “noble” gas, and, thus, it does not react, or combine, with many things. Thus, once it was only about 6% of the air. But when the other gases “dropped out” just about the only gas left was nitrogen, and it is now about 78% of our air! Fortunately nitrogen is not poisonous and it does us no harm. Now, where did the oxygen and argon come from? Well, since there was so much water, and water is made of hydrogen and oxygen, it was inevitable that every once in a while the Sun’s hot rays would strike a water molecule “head on” and break the bonds that held the hydrogen to the oxygen. As a result, a hydrogen gas molecule was created. Since hydrogen is such a light gas, it escaped into space, as did the hydrogen from the primary atmosphere. The one atom of oxygen that was left over didn’t have to wait very long before it ran into another single atom of oxygen, and when they did, they combined to form the oxygen molecule – the oxygen that we breathe. The process of splitting a water molecule into hydrogen and oxygen by light energy is called phytolysis. The chemical equation is: 2 H2O + Eo = 2 H2 + O2, where Eo is the Sun’s energy. The gas argon is quite a different matter. Inside Earth’s crust and mantle are many minerals and elements. One abundant one is called potassium, which is just one of more than 100 elements. Most of the elements have two or more versions of themselves, or isotopes. Some isotopes are stable and last forever. Some isotopes are unstable (radioactive) and they “fall apart,” or decay. One of the radioactive isotopes of potassium decays and breaks into two new elements: argon and hydrogen. Of course, hydrogen escapes into space, but argon, though a gas, does not escape. It just happens to be that argon is a “noble” gas, and does not react or combine with anything.

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And argon is 18 times heavier than hydrogen, so Earth’s gravity can hold on to it. Also, like the nitrogen molecule, the argon atom is harmless to humans. Thus, water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxides are gases that “dropped out” of the atmosphere. Nitrogen gas remained behind. Oxygen was then created by phytolysis. And argon came about because some of the potassium atoms split apart into argon and hydrogen. As for the other planets, their secondary atmospheres are gone, too. Mercury is so close to the Sun, and so small, that all of its primary and secondary gases were lost into space. And any others that were out-gassed were also unable to remain there. Thus, Mercury is a dry, airless planet. Venus is much closer to the Sun than Earth, so its air remained very hot. The water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide did not “fall out.” Instead, over time the water vapor broke up into hydrogen and oxygen, and the oxygen combined with other materials. The carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide is still in the air. And the various combinations created a very toxic (deadly) atmosphere that contains sulfuric acid. Venus is very hot (around 1000 oF), very toxic, and has an air pressure 100 times greater than that on Earth. Mars lost its primary and secondary atmospheres, too. But some still lingers there. Even so, Mars is warm enough, and has low enough gravity, that it is difficult for it to hold on to whatever gases come out of the volcanoes there. Today most of the air on Mars is carbon dioxide, but the air pressure is less than 1% of what it is on Earth. The Levels of Earth’s Atmosphere In studying the Earth’s air, also known as the Earth’s atmosphere, scientists realize that the air is thickest, or heaviest, at the bottom. The air that is way up in the sky is thin, such as the air at the top of a mountain. Anyone who lives near the ocean, but vacations in the mountains, immediately notices a lack of enough oxygen when they go up high – causing them to gasp for breath. The Earth’s atmosphere has six lower levels. The lowest level of Earth’s atmosphere, which goes up to about 8 to 11 kilometers (5 to 7 miles) is called the “troposphere.” The Latin word tropo means “to change” or “to turn,” and, in fact, it has the same root as the word “tropic.” The word “sphere” means a ball. The troposphere is where we live. The air is most turbulent (windy) here.

The top of the troposphere varies from place to place, season to season, day to night. During the day, the Sun warms the air, and it expands, thus raising the “ceiling” for the troposphere. In summer it is higher, in winter it is lower. Over the equator it is higher, over the poles, lower. Above the troposphere is the mesosphere (meso means “middle”), and the two are


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separated by a boundary called the “tropopause” (“pause” means “to stop.”) The lowest level of the mesosphere is often called the “stratosphere,” for that is where the “jet stream” is and where commercial airline jets fly. The word “stratos” comes from the Latin stratus, meaning “to spread out.”

Large commercial jets fly above the troposphere because it is smooth there – not windy or turbulent. Of course, jets have pressurized cabins with their own air supply. Since jets fly at distances above 8 kilometers, if the plane cabins were not pressurized, there wouldn’t be enough oxygen to breathe, and everyone would pass out. Small planes are not, and do not need to be pressurized, but then, they cannot fly as high as a jet. If they did, then the pilot would pass out and that would be that. The safest place and time to fly would be over the ocean on a cold winter’s night. Then the “ceiling” would be very low, and the jet could fly in very smooth and

crystal clear air. Above the mesosphere is the ionosphere (from “ion,” a charged particle), where the air is extremely thin. However, the few atoms that are in the ionosphere get turned into ions (they lose electrons) when the strong solar rays hit them. The boundary between the mesosphere and ionosphere is called the “mesopause.” Finally, the most outer part of Earth’s air is the exosphere (exo means “away” or “out from,”) meaning the most far away sphere of air. It is virtually a perfect vacuum out there. Weather changes occur due to the Sun’s heat combined with the Earth’s rotation. Local conditions, such as mountains and nearness to water also affect weather. Clouds

Clouds are an important part of weather. Most people think clouds are made of water vapor. However, water vapor is invisible. Clouds are made up tiny water droplets, and they are constantly changing. You will never see the same cloud twice, even if you look away for one second. You may see different types of clouds twice, but not the exact same cloud. And different types of clouds exist at different levels. The Main Types of Clouds Are: 1. High – Cirrus family (Cirrus, Cirrostratus,

Cirrocumulus) 2. Middle – Alto family (Altostratus, Altocumulus) 3. Low – Stratus family (Stratus, Stratocumulus,

Nimbostratus) 4. Vertical – Cumulus family (Cumulus,

Cumulonimbus)

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Nimbus is Latin for “cloud.” The vertical clouds often lead to heavy summer thunderstorms. And sometimes there are very heavy desert thunderstorms, but the raindrops evaporate before they ever reach the ground! Key Concepts Current Atmosphere Hydrolysis Radioactive Decay of Potassium Cirrus Nimbus Stratus Cumulus Alto Problems 1. What is the current atmosphere? 2. What are the five main gases in Earth’s air today? 3. What are their percentages? 4. What happened to all the water, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide that was once in Earth’s

air? 5. Where did oxygen come from? 6. Where did argon come from? 7. What is it made of? 8. What are the six levels of Earth’s lower atmosphere? 9. What is the name of the outer atmosphere? 10. Explain what clouds are and where they come from.


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HYDROLOGIC CYCLE (During this lesson, do Lab 11: Water and Sand) The hydrologic cycle is a fancy way of saying “water cycle,” or cycle of how the water goes from land to the air and back to the land again. Essentially, it’s a series identifying water and all of its stages (and states) on Earth’s surface, underground, and in the air.

This cycle includes four stages: as a vapor in the air, as liquid droplets in rain, as flowing like in a river (often called “runoff,”) and as being held in “storage.” Water may be stored temporarily in seas, oceans, rivers, streams, lakes, and as a solid in the form of glaciers and icebergs. There are also underground lakes and reservoirs, such as in the “water table,” or “aquifer.” Some of the water, however, is “locked up” in frozen areas, and rarely is “free” to be part of the cycle. Water naturally and routinely evaporates from Earth’s surface and goes up into the sky. When the vapor reaches a certain height, the air is cool enough to condense the vapor back into water droplets that form clouds or fog. These droplets fall back to the ground, and it is called “precipitation” which includes all the forms of rain and snow. Eventually over time, the liquid water makes its way back to the ocean – unless it evaporates and goes into the air before it makes it to the ocean. Essentially, all the water on Earth has been here for billions of years, and just keeps getting recycled. “Dirty” water gets “cleaned” through natural filters as it seeps downward through the soil to groundwater reservoirs (aquifer).

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About 70% of Earth’s surface is covered with water. It can be salty (oceans and seas) or fresh (lakes, rivers, streams, ice packs, glaciers). Needless to say, there is a huge amount of water on Earth – about 400 quintillion gallons! And how much is 400 quintillion gallons? That would be 400 billion billions! And, there are about 3 quintillion gallons of water in the air at any one time. A gallon is a typical unit of volume measurement that we use in the United States. Other nations prefer using a unit called a “liter.” There are about 4 liters in a gallon. We are very used to the “gallon.” We buy milk or orange juice in one gallon cartons. We purchase gasoline for our automobiles in gallons. Most cars hold about 20 to 30 gallons. A typical in-ground back yard swimming pool has 20,000 to 30,000 gallons of water.

Almost all of the world’s ice is found in the polar ice caps and in the huge ice pack of Greenland. Not very green, huh? All the glaciers put together - formed in mountain valleys at high latitudes, are insignificant in volume compared to the polar caps and ice pack. If all of the ice melted, it would raise the sea level by about 80 meters (about 260 feet). This would considerably shrink the sizes of continents! All of Florida would be under water! Even so, most of the water in the polar caps and ice packs remains frozen for hundreds, or even thousands, of years. Since this water is “locked up,” it is not available to be part of

the water cycle. Groundwater is more accessible and supplies our regular water needs on Earth. Something called “permafrost,” a type of “frozen mud,” is water mixed with soil, and is frozen on a permanent basis. Water is locked up in the permafrost, and the permafrost acts like a wall or barrier to prevent access to groundwater. There is a lot of permafrost in northern Canada and Siberia where the average temperature never gets above freezing (below 0° C or below 32° F). Groundwater fills tiny holes and cracks in the topsoil and rocks. Where there are underground caves that have water, not very much water is located there. Most soils and sedimentary rocks are so tenuous (meaning, not dense) that up to 40% of that type of rock can be water. The further down one goes, the less water can be kept. The rocks which are that far down are crushed closer together and are denser, so there is less space to hold water. Therefore, most groundwater is in the top 15 kilometers (10 miles) of Earth’s crust. The only way that water below this depth can become available is through actions such as volcanic eruptions. Molecules of liquid water can spontaneously leave the liquid state and enter the air. This happens even if the surrounding air temperature is not hot. This process is called evaporation. But molecules of solid water (ice) can also spontaneously leave the crystal and go directly into the air. This type of evaporation is called “sublimation.”


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Water also escapes from pores in both plants and animals. This is called transpiration. About 300 quadrillion gallons of water evaporate each day from all sources – seas and oceans, rivers and lakes, land, animals, plants, and ice caps. However, an equal amount of water must precipitate and fall back to Earth every day. Thus, there is an equilibrium of water leaving Earth, and then falling back. If not, then either the oceans would all dry up, or the air would have no water in it. The rate of vaporization (also known as the evaporation rate) increases as it gets hotter. It also increases relative to how intense the sunlight is, how fast the wind is blowing, the amount of shade that is available from plants, and how damp the ground is. The rate of vaporization goes down as relative humidity goes up. That is because if the air is already full of water, it cannot hold any more, and there is no where for the evaporated water to go. Earth’s evaporation rate goes from about zero near the poles to 4 meters (13 feet) per year over the Gulf Stream. The average is about 1 meter (3.3 feet) per year. Without rain, snow, and other forms of precipitation, evaporation would lower ocean levels about 1 meter (3.3 feet) per year! Rain happens when water vapor molecules become cool enough to condense into water droplets. A large number of these droplets will form a cloud, and often those drops fall to Earth. Precipitation comes in many forms, including rain, sleet, snow, and hail. Storms can dump a huge amount of water. For example, a typical thunderstorm can drop 25 billion gallons of water! Plants absorb a lot of that water, especially in the desert. Arid, sparsely vegetated, and seemingly inhospitable, deserts look like nature’s wasteland. But despite the shortage of water (all underground) deserts host a wide variety of life forms, each of which has adapted in its own

way to life in the desert ecosystem. For example, Spadefoot toads can live underground most of their lives, waiting for some moisture before they come up to breed. A saguaro cactus (plural is cacti) is able to suck up a ton (2000 pounds) of water from one rain shower alone, and then do without rain for more than a year! On the flip side, in California’s Mojave Desert, each of the 110 golf courses uses 750,000 gallons of water, every day. Deserts have fragile ecosystems and they are being threatened. Once a desert landscape has been destroyed, it rarely recovers. Where rain is a regular occurrence, such as in Florida, if there is landscape damage, plants can grow back in a decade or two. Animals will return and re-establish themselves. In the desert, with little rain, it takes

centuries to recover – if ever. Without water in the desert, the plants die. Without plants, the animals die. In the end, we end up with a lunar landscape instead of a vibrant desert ecosystem. Meanwhile, each day brings about 25 trillion gallons of water to oceans and seas from the world’s rivers. The world’s largest river, Brazil’s Amazon River, is a source of 15% of this. Of

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course, since rainfall there is not constant, the amount varies from day to day and from season to season.

We humans (me, you, your relatives and ancestors, and other fellow humans) have been altering the water cycle for as long as humanity has been on Earth. For example, irrigation channels have been, and are still being, constructed to bring water to dry farmland. One great example is the Imperial Valley in Southern California, where the Colorado River is used to water the land. The Imperial Valley was once a vast, dry desert, but now it is an Eden for growing vegetables. In fact, the Colorado River’s water is used so extensively; it now dries up before it reaches the sea! We dig wells to get water from under the ground – especially in desert regions. Earthen dams, also known as “levees”,

have been, and are still being, built to control rivers, and dams often render rivers navigable, store water, and provide hydroelectric power – such as Hoover Dam on the Nevada-Arizona border, with the creation of Lake Mead. Evaporation of water from lakes that are created by dams is quite huge. This can best be seen at Lake Mead, next to Hoover Dam, where one cannot miss seeing how much lower the lake’s level has gone over the past many years.


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Human settlements have led to flooding, too. Where there was once thirsty soil to soak up the rains, there are now streets and parking lots. The rain cannot soak into the asphalt and concrete, so it runs off and ends up getting to creeks and rivers more quickly and in larger amounts than naturally. This new process leads to having these waterways exceed their flood level stages and before one knows it, basements become swimming pools. Since human population is ever rising, it is mandatory that we ensure the proper use and management of Earth’s water supplies. Some of the problems have been solved, but there are many more problems to tackle. EROSION As rain comes down, some of it is absorbed into the soil, and some of it begins to flow downhill. How much flows downhill is a function of how porous or absorbent the ground is, and what level of saturation that the ground has. If it has rained a great deal, the soil may be “full” and can’t take any more water – thus, it is saturated. In any event, running water (called “rain run-off”) is one form of erosion. Other sources of erosion include ocean waves, glacier movement, and to a lesser extent, wind. However, on the planet Mars, wind is the leading cause of erosion. Erosion is defined as “the movement of the top surface of the land (including rocks, topsoil, etc.) from one place to another.” The word “erosion” comes from the Latin words ex- and rodere, which means “gnaw away.” It is interesting to note that the word “rodent” also comes from rodere, which means, “to gnaw.” Rodents are small mammals, and include rats, mice, hamsters, beavers, squirrels, etc., and they are renowned for their sharp front teeth used for gnawing. Therefore, the weather, particularly wind, rain, waves, and glaciers, “gnaw away” at the land. The solid parts of Earth are continuously being carved into new shapes by erosion. As a result, the continents are always being changed, as the tides - which cause ocean waves – cut up the land while other materials, such as silt, are carried along by rivers to new areas and often make more land. The valleys of the world may have begun as simple runoff of rainwater. For example, the Colorado River has been cutting deeply into the rocks and soil of the Southwest for about 5 million years. One of the results is the magnificent Grand Canyon near Flagstaff, Arizona. This natural canyon is about one mile deep, 18 miles wide, and 200 miles long.

In arid (dry) regions, such as the desert, topsoil may expand from the blistering solar radiation. The layers of soil then crack and break away from the layers below due to the ambient (regular) aridity. Since rocks are made of two or more minerals, we find that one mineral may expand and crack at a different temperature and level of dryness compared with another mineral. This speeds up the decomposition

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of the rocks and soil. And flooding is quite a common occurrence in the desert. However, in cold regions, when it is warm enough to have liquid rain, the water seeps into the soil and rocks, later freezing as it turns cold, becoming frost (a form of ice). Solid water (ice) takes up more space than liquid water, so this process causes the rocks to break apart – sometimes even explode. Rain acts chemically as well as mechanically because the water droplets absorb carbon dioxide, and other gases in the atmosphere, before the droplets hit the ground. One product that this creates is carbonic acid, which dissolves and/or decomposes some minerals. In regions where there are more pollutants in the air, other more powerful acids form (such as sulfuric acid), causing widespread destruction of vegetation. This is known as acid rain. This higher acid ratio causes many plants to die. And when plants die, animals that rely on them for food and shelter also die. Plants are part of the weathering process, too, as their roots dig into the soil and remove minerals to sustain their own lives. And glaciers are very important in soil erosion. Slow-moving glaciers remove all the loose material from the surface below it, leaving scarred surfaces that are often

smooth and bare. Water waves cause erosion as well. Ocean waves cause coastal erosion. Lake waves cause, to a lesser extent, beach erosion. And rivers are always moving, taking not only the riverbank particles with them, but also whatever may be on the river floor. Thus, rivers never stop the erosion process. It has been said that “one can never step in the same river twice,” which means, if you step in a river, then remove your foot, only later to put your foot back in, the water that was there before is no longer there, but somewhere down stream. The

second time you’ve stepped into a different river. Wind-driven sand and dust are other forms of erosion - especially in arid regions like deserts. And, of course, the main cause of erosion on the planet Mars. The impact of humans and their activities on Earth’s ecology - up until around 1000 AD – was irrelevant. However, in the past 1,000 years, with the population explosion (there are about 6.5 billion people on Earth), and the technology explosion, soil erosion is staggering. And the topic of overgrazing, where ranchers raise large numbers of animals that strip a grassland of all its vegetation, leaving a virtual desert, has not even come up, yet. In summary, Earth’s hydrologic cycle and the process of erosion, which were once natural and balanced, have now been driven far to the right. If we wish to protect life as we know it on Earth, we will have to use the great knowledge of technology to keep things more natural and more balanced.


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PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY Oceanography includes the scientific study of the physical, chemical, and biological aspects of the oceans (and seas) of the world. In this lesson, we shall confine ourselves to the physical and chemical parts. The biological aspects, which include the study of fish, water mammals, crustaceans, algae, plants, and other life forms in the oceans is covered in depth – to a great depth – in Biology, which is a separate course. The study of fish is known as ichthyology. Essentially, the word “sea” is synonymous with ocean. In the song, “America the Beautiful,” the phrase

“from sea to shining sea” means from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. It is interesting to note that the dictionary gives identical definitions for “ocean” and for “sea.” However, additional definitions exist for “sea,” such as “large body of inland water” such as the Dead Sea. The word “sea” comes from the Old English language as sae. Ocean comes from the Greek word okeano which means “large body of water that covers Earth.” Oceans cover about 71 percent of Earth’s surface to an average depth of about 5 kilometers (3 miles). Its total volume is about 337 quintillion gallons. The three major oceans are the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and the Indian Ocean, which are bounded by continents. There are also other oceans that have names, such as the Southern Ocean – near Antarctica; the Arctic Ocean; and others. Let’s pretend that we could remove all the water from Earth, and put it in box for later. Yes, of course we can’t do that. But we can pretend. Now, if we were to take a strong touring vehicle and drive due east from Florida, we would eventually reach a mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. You learned about this range in Lesson 2.5. And, as you see, there are under water mountains. However, sometimes those mountains are not tall enough to reach the surface of the water, so they stay hidden. This Mid-Atlantic Ridge goes from near Norway through Iceland and the Azores islands, and all the way south in the Atlantic to almost Antarctica. There are other ridges in the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Aden, the Red Sea, south of Australia, and the eastern part of the South Pacific. The ridge in the eastern Pacific goes as far north as the Gulf of California. As a matter of fact, the islands of the Galápagos and Easter Island are really extinct volcanoes that became islands. They are part of this chain of under water mountains.

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Mid-ocean ridges are most critical in the study of “plate tectonics,” the science of Earth’s crust and its movement – which we also examined in Lesson 2.5. While our planet is made of several spherical shells or layers, the top layer is the “crust.” Below the crust is the “mantle,” and much of the mantle is not completely solid. Therefore, the crust actually “floats” on the mantle, much like a boat might float on a lake. Also, if we were to smooth out the Earth so there would be no ridges or mountains, and put the water back, the ocean would be 3 kilometers deep all around the globe. As mentioned before, the crust is not one complete solid. Rather, it is made up of many sections, like in a puzzle, and each section is called a plate. And the plates are moving relative to each other. For example, as hot, gooey mantle material rises up and hits the crust, it forces any two plates apart and creates new land. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is just one of those things. In fact, Europe and the United States are currently moving away from each other at the rate of more than one centimeter per year. So, if you want to visit Europe, do it now, because next year it will be one centimeter (about 0.4 inches) further away. Since there are mountains under water, you might expect valleys to also be under water. And there are. They are often called “trenches.” The Pacific trench near Japan are the deepest known – about 10 kilometers (7 miles) down. Its name is the Mariana Trench. Satellite technology is used to study and map the ocean’s floor. In addition, the technologies of sonar and seismology are also employed. The satellite research is supervised by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) – a branch of the U.S. Government. It was discovered that the floors of our oceans are actually covered with material that has been sinking from the top for millions of years. For example, the average thickness is about 500 meters (1500 feet), but in some areas, such as in the South Atlantic east of Argentina, the layer of sediments exceeds 6 kilometers (4 miles)! Seawater itself is a combination of several salts dissolved in water. This combination was a result of long-term erosion of land and run off into the sea. How salty is seawater? Well, that varies. The “salinity,” as we call it, can be close to zero near some continents to quite high in the Red Sea, to enormous in the Great Salt Lake.

The water temperature of the ocean’s surface is about 27° C (80° F) in the tropics. Thus, if you are on a tropical ocean cruise just about any time of the year, the seawater around the ship is about 27° C like to take a swim. And most cruise ships have one and sometimes two or more, on-board swimming pools that are fed directly from the ocean. One cruise line in particular, Seabourn, has a marina! The back of the ship opens, and a small dock or port comes out, and there are various small boats and floats one can take out into the surrounding ocean. Plus, this cruise line has a “swimming pool” in the marina. It is really a large cage lowered into the water, so one can swim in it, and not worry about dangerous sea creatures bothering you. There is a deck around the


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“pool” so you can lounge there, too. The water temperature is always just perfect. Near the north and south magnetic poles, the water temperatures are always close to minus 1.4° C (29.5° F). This is below the freezing point of water (0° C, or 32° F), but ocean water is not pure water – it’s seawater, with salt in it. The freezing point of seawater in the polar regions is –1.4° C (29.5° F). Thus, if you put a sealed container with pure water in it into the ocean hear the poles, the water inside would freeze solid. Swimming in such an area would be unwise., or a bit warmer. This is most delightful if you would The top few hundred feet below the surface of the ocean maintains almost the same temperature as the surface. But then below that, it gets much colder, until at the ocean’s bottom it is just above freezing. That is good, since if ice were to be locked up at the bottom of the ocean, we’d have much less water available for the hydrologic cycle. We all know that rivers flow and have “currents.” Well, under the ocean’s surface, they’re also ocean currents. Wind near the surface of the ocean governs any surface currents of the ocean, including astronomical forces, such as Earth’s rotation, which create the spiral direction of cyclones, tornadoes, hurricanes, and such. This astronomical force is called the “Coriolis Force.”

The most “famous” ocean current is most likely the one called the “Gulf Stream” which runs eastward through the Gulf of Mexico, through the Caribbean, and up the eastern shores of the United States out into the North Atlantic. This means that waters off the beaches will be relatively warm, as is well known. On the other hand, waters off the western shores of California, Mexico, Chile, and other nations tend to be much colder as the surface currents move away from the land, and that creates a vacuum, or suction, that draws up the deep, cold waters of the ocean. Thus, swimming in the ocean near California beaches is a challenge, as the water is almost always

“cold.” For example, during the really hot summer months in the Los Angeles area, where the air can be close to 37° C (100° F), the ocean water can be no warmer than about 21° C (70° F). This can be a good thing for residents and visitors to Southern California, if they wish to escape the oppressive heat of the air temperatures. In winter, the waters near Los Angeles are often well below 16° C (60° F). Meanwhile, the water off the Florida beaches is usually around 30° C (86° F) in summer, and 25° C (75° F) in winter, making it ideal for swimming without getting cold. Many people are now turning to the ocean to provide food to feed the world’s exploding population. Harvesting what is in the ocean is a great possibility, but we are also polluting the waters, and if we keep doing that, we shall wipe out a source of food for us. And we aren’t talking about just fishing, and we aren’t talking about building underwater farms. It is the life forms of all kinds, both plant and animal, that can provide us with food. Poisoning the ocean makes no sense, and it is, in fact, ecological suicide. And then the vast mineral reserves in the ocean have only recently been discovered. The ocean is believed to have about 10 billion tons of gold, and there are huge amounts of magnesium, bromine, table salt, and even diamonds!

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The ocean may be the “final frontier” as far as humanity is concerned, since is it teeming with life forms that can feed us, and other resources that can sustain us. Key Concepts ocean or sea ichthyology underwater mountains the chemical ocean ocean temperatures Coriolis Force NOAA Ocean currents Ocean trenches Problems 1. What is the meaning of the word “ocean”? 2. What is the name of the science that studies fish? 3. Name an underwater mountain range between the United States and Europe. 4. What is a typical water temperature in the Caribbean? 5. Explain the Coriolis Force 6. What is the deepest ocean trench? WEATHER & CLIMATE Weather What is weather, anyway? Weather has to do with what is going on in the air, or the atmosphere. Planets like Mercury, and natural satellites, like the Moon, have no air, no atmosphere. And, thus, they have no weather. On those airless roads, it never rains, snows, blows wind, or any such thing. Yes, it does get very hot or very cold, but, again, that is not an “air” temperature. Therefore, weather has to do with air temperatures, air pressures, air moisture (rain or snow), and air movements (wind).

Climate Climate (from the Greek klima, meaning the angle of the Sun) is the average type of weather in a certain location, over a period of many years. It would be okay to say, “The weather today will be….” but it would be silly to say, “The climate today will be…” as the climate in any one place is the same for many centuries.


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EXAMPLES – Climatic regions can be classified in a number of ways. However, for this textbook, we shall use only two: by temperature and by precipitation. There are five climate zones based upon temperature: 1. Tropical (averages above 20° C or 68° F all year). Examples are the tropics, such as the

Caribbean. 2. Subtropical (averages above 20° C at least 4 months and the rest no colder than 10° C).

Examples include states like Georgia and Alabama. 3. Temperate (4 - 12 months at 10° - 20° C). States like Missouri and Illinois. 4. Cold (at least 1 month at 10° - 20° C, and the rest cooler). Canada is an Example. 5. Polar (averages are below 10° C all year). Northern Alaska. There are eight climate zones based upon precipitation (rain or snow): 1. Equatorial (rain all year). Examples would include the Amazon. 2. Tropical (rainy summers and dry winters). South Florida. 3. Semiarid (dry most of the year, with some summer rain). Parts of Texas and New Mexico. 4. Arid (dry all year). Las Vegas 5. Dry Mediterranean (dry most of the year, but some winter rain). Los Angeles 6. Mediterranean (dry summers and rainy winters). Nice, Rome, Athens 7. Temperate (rain all year – but not as much as Equatorial). Missouri. 8. Polar (little rain or snow all year). Pt. Barrow, Alaska; Novosibirsk, Russia. The one city in the United States with the “best” all-around weather is San Diego, California. It is about 75° F every day and about 55° F every night all year round, with many sunny days and not much rain. Yuma, Arizona, is the “sunniest” city, with 360 days of sunshine per year. It is in the desert southwest; the southwest is very hot and very dry in the summer. The Southeast is very warm and very humid in the summer. The Northern Plains and Northern New England are bitterly cold in the winter. And there are many other examples. Consult your local newspaper or news & weather station for daily and yearly temperatures and precipitation. The coldest city in the United States, meaning the harshest weather, is Point Barrow, Alaska, with an average temperature of 9° F. While this lesson is rather short, it is designed to be, as the most interesting thing about studying weather is the examination of its extremes in all forms, which is covered in Lesson 3.7. Key Concepts climate climatic regions as a function of temperature climatic regions as a function of precipitation

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Problems 1. Explain the difference between weather and climate 2. What are the 5 major climatic regions, as a function of temperature? 3. What are the 8 climatic regions as a function of precipitation? 4. What is the sunniest city in the United States? 5. Which city has the most average “perfect” weather? 6. Which city has the harshest (coldest) weather?

EXTREME WEATHER (During this lesson, do Lab 12: Homemade Cyclones) In this lesson, we will learn about temperature extremes, hurricanes, tornadoes, and other stuff. Temperature Extremes The average temperature on Earth is 15 °C (59 °F) at sea level. However, temperatures vary as a function of time of day, how high above sea level the location is, how far the location is from the equator, the season, and local conditions. EXAMPLE In general, there is a relationship between temperature and height. This relationship is:

T = Ts – (6.5 °C)(h) Where T = the temperature in Celsius, °C, at the location, Ts is the Celsius temperature at sea level (at the same latitude, same time of day, same season), and “h” is how high above sea level (in kilometers) the location is. Using Fahrenheit degrees, the formula would be

T = Ts – (19 °F)(h) Where T would be in degrees Fahrenheit, and “h” would be the height in miles. This is why it is colder in the mountains than at sea level. Thus, for the “mile-high city”, Denver, Colorado, h=1 mile so temperature is 19 °F colder. The highest recorded air temperature on land was 57.7° C (135.9 °F) in Al'Aziziyah, Libya (in northern Africa) on September 13, 1922. [It is interesting to note that the highest recorded air temperature on land in the United States was almost that high: 56.7 °C (134.0 °F) in Death Valley, California, on July 10, 1913.] Meanwhile the lowest recorded air temperature on land was -89.2 °C (-128.6 °F) at Vostok II, Antarctica, on July 21, 1983.


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Hurricanes Hurricane is the name applied to a large rotational storm that germinates and grows over warm, ocean waters, and it tends to travel hundreds, and sometimes thousands, of kilometers before it blows itself out. Rotational motion of a storm is called cyclonic motion, from the word “cyclone.” Therefore, hurricanes are a type of cyclone. Tropical hurricanes are very common over the region of the West Indies region - including the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico. Hurricane-type cyclones in the western Pacific are called “typhoons,” but they are the same thing. As we learned in Lesson 2.5, there is a physical dynamic called the Coriolis Effect, and it is just this dynamic that governs the direction of rotation of all cyclonic storms. In other words, in the northern hemisphere, hurricanes and tornadoes rotate counterclockwise as observed from above, and in the southern hemisphere, it is the opposite. It goes without saying that there are no cyclonic storms at the equator. The way the Coriolis Effect works is rather simple, really. Objects in the northern hemisphere that travel northward veer off to the right (east) since Earth is rotating faster nearer the equator than away from it. Objects traveling south also veer off to the right (west) since the object came from a slower moving part of Earth. As a result, blowing winds create circular motion that ends up being counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere. The opposite happens in the southern hemisphere. The British Navy was at one time able to dominate the seas because its engineers understood the Coriolis Effect, and could adjust their ship-board cannons to fire accurately and destroy enemy vessels and forts. However, when the British traveled to the southern hemisphere, they failed, as their cannons were set to specifications in the northern hemisphere. EXAMPLE – Just for fun, take a bath, and then drain the water. As you watch the water go down the drain, nine times out of ten it will create a swirling motion that is counterclockwise – all due to the Coriolis Effect. Hurricanes usually begin in the equatorial regions, and either drift north or south, depending on the prevailing conditions. Hurricanes in the northern hemisphere rotate, or spin, counterclockwise, as observed from above them. It is just the opposite in the southern hemisphere. Hurricanes are made of high-speed winds that blow in a circular pattern around an area of low-pressure. This low-pressure area is, itself, rather calm, and is often called “the eye of the storm.”

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Between the outer edge of the storm and its center, the air pressure drops quickly with a rapid increase in wind speed. The wind speed is maximum nearest to the point of lowest pressure [(about 724 torr, or about 28.5 in. of mercury)]. The diameter of the area affected by winds of destructive force may exceed 240 kilometers (150 miles)! Then there are slower, gale winds, which cover an even larger area, averaging 480 kilometers (300 miles) in diameter. Hurricanes are rated by levels of strength. For example, the weakest is called a “Category 1” hurricane, and it has sustained winds of at least 120 kilometers per hour (74 miles per hour). If the maximum sustained windspeed does not equal or exceed 120 km/hr, then it is NOT a hurricane. Hurricane specialists developed this designation somewhat arbitrarily. The strongest hurricane is a level 5 category and has sustained winds that exceed 250 kilometers per hour (155 miles per hour). Interestingly, within the eye of the hurricane, which averages 24 kilometers (15 miles) in diameter, the winds are actually calm. There may not even be a breeze blowing. Often times, it’s a clear, sunny, lovely scene – at least until the eye passes over the area, and the hurricane’s violence begins at its greatest. Hurricanes don’t stand still and spin around forever. Eventually then begin to move. Their path may be somewhat like a straight line, or a loop-de-loop, or a curve, like the geometrical pattern of a parabola or hyperbola. Their speed and direction is guided by the several high and low atmospheric pressures all around them. North of the equator, hurricanes typically move west, then northwest. After they travel far enough north, they often begin an easterly, or northeasterly movement. It is correspondingly the opposite south of the equator. The National Hurricane Center is in Miami, Florida, and the scientists there follow each storm via numerous computer simulations and satellite photos. Aircraft are often sent out into the hurricane to collect more data about it. The strongest hurricanes in recent times include Gilbert, which devastated Jamaica and parts of Mexico in 1988; Hugo, which slammed into the Carolinas in 1989, and Andrew, which in late

August 1992 caused $15.5 billion in damage, and left thousands homeless – not to mention the 50 or so deaths. More recently, in 2004, the state of Florida was hit by no fewer than four hurricanes: Charley, Frances, Ivan, and Jeanne. And, in 2005 Katrina flooded much of New Orleans, forcing the complete evacuation of this city. Tornadoes A smaller and less damaging cousin of the hurricane is the tornado. It, too, is a cyclone, of violently rotating wind. However, instead of being vast and huge in their diameters, tornadoes are relatively small. The smallest tornadoes may be 20 to 50 meters across, while the largest ones are more nearly 2


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kilometers (1.2 miles) in diameter. The average tornado has a diameter of about 50 meters (160 feet). While the strongest tornadoes may sweep houses from their foundations (as in the movie Wizard of Oz), their paths of destruction are very “surgical.” They can actually leave the house across the street unaffected at all. In some cases, the bottom “tip” of the tornado may destroy one house, then lift its tip off the ground and “jump over” a house, then come back down and destroy a third house. Some tornadoes have been seen tossing cars, trucks, buses, and even railroad cars, as if they were toys. Animals, such as cattle, and even humans, have been picked up, swirled around, and dropped gently back to Earth with hardly a scratch – many miles from their homes! Like hurricanes, tornadoes in the northern hemisphere rotate, or spin, counterclockwise – if observed from above them. (In the southern hemisphere tornadoes rotate clockwise). Tornadoes, like hurricanes, also have an extremely low atmospheric pressure in their centers. Peak wind speeds can range from 120 kilometers per hour (75 miles per hour) to 500 km/h (300 mph). A tornado’s path can be slowly random with little movement, to actually traveling in a straight line at about 110 km/h (70 mph)! Tornadoes develop out of special types of thunderstorms known as supercells. But, what is a supercell? It is a large rotating thunderstorm that may last for hours, and it may end up traveling hundreds of miles. It is not unusual for a supercell to produce several tornadoes. In 1971, Meteorology Professor Fujita of the University of Chicago developed a ranking of tornado strength. This is now known as the Fujita Scale for Tornadoes, or just the “F-Scale.” The range in numbers goes from F0 to F6. An F0 tornado is called a “Gale Tornado” with windspeeds about 40 to 72 miles per hour (mph). The resulting damage may include damage to chimneys, broken tree branches, removal of poorly-rooted trees, and destruction of billboards. The next step up is the F1, or “Moderate Tornado,” with winds of 73 to 112 mph. These winds can peel the surface off roofs; mobile homes can be blown over; cars on the road can be pushed off the road; and only the strongest garages will remain intact. Higher speeds will result in what is called a “Significant Tornado,” or F2. Significant Tornadoes have speeds of between 113 and 157 mph, causing quite a bit of damage. For example, roofs are generally torn off; mobile homes are not merely overturned, but they are completely demolished; railroad boxcars are pushed over; large, deep-rooted trees are snapped or uprooted; and any relatively light objects not glued down become airborne projectiles. If that weren’t bad enough, an F3, or “Severe Tornado” packs winds of at least 158 mph, and may go as high as 206 mph. Most well-built homes will have walls and roof ripped off; trains are overturned; and no tree has a chance of survival.

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A “Devastating” or F4 tornado has to be amazingly strong. With winds between 207 and 260 mph, virtually all homes will be wiped off the surface of the planet. Major office and other massive buildings may be blown off their foundations; cars and trucks are picked up and tossed many dozens of miles or more. A tornado would surely be “Incredible” at F5 with windspeeds a staggering 261 to 318 mph! Most buildings would be destroyed, and locomotive engines would be scooped up and deposited at vast distances, while traveling at a very high rate of speed – much faster than the train itself could ever obtain. The landscape after would look similar to the Hiroshima Atomic Bomb Blast in August 1945. While no real tornadoes have ever been officially observed to have windspeeds greater than 318 mph, a theoretical scale number of F6 is given to such “Inconceivable Tornadoes.” However, these windspeeds are very unlikely to occur. Thus, in trying to solve the mystery of the great Kansas Tornado that happed to Dorothy and her family, the one that sent her home to the Land of Oz, it is most likely that it was between an F4 and F5. The fictional character, Dorothy, is lucky to have survived.

Tornadoes are caused by updrafts - currents of warm humid air that rise skyward through the center of the thunderstorm. The updrafts interact with the winds in the storm, which cause the updrafts to rotate. After this, strong downdrafts - currents of cooler air that move downward – appear on the backside of the storm. Similar condensation processes create ocean and lake “tornadoes” called waterspouts. However, waterspouts are much weaker than storm-generated tornadoes on land. Waterspouts are most prevalent over tropical waters. Another type of “tornado” is a small, localized, rotating dust storm called a dust devil.

While dust devils can occur almost anywhere, they are seen mostly over dry, dusty areas, such as deserts. The process is quite simple. On a clear, sunny day, the sun hits the soil, heats it up quickly, and causes the air around it to get hot. In turn, the hot air expands and rises, leaving a vacuum at ground level. Cooler air rushes in, and rotates as it does so. If there is enough fine dust on the ground, one can actually see the event. It is not uncommon to be driving across the daytime desert and see three or four dust devils at the same time! Again, these are quite harmless and very interesting to observe. Technically tornadoes, they are not even classified as an F 0 level storm.


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The highest average number of tornadoes per year happens in the United States. Around 800 tornadoes are confirmed each year. Australia ranks second in tornado frequency. Tornadoes also occur in many other countries, including China, India, Russia, England, and Germany. Bangladesh has been struck several times by devastating killer tornadoes.

While tornadoes occur in all 50 of the American states, the most tornadoes happen in a location dubbed “Tornado Alley.” This is a large path in the Midwest that extends from the Gulf Coastal Plain of Texas all the way north into South Dakota. But “Tornado Alley” is not the only place with large numbers of these so-called “twisters.” In “Dixie Alley,” large numbers of tornadoes are spawned. This region also starts in the Gulf Coastal Plain, and its path is south and east, all the way through Florida. In fact, Florida is

a prime location for tornadoes, as they often are created by the large tropical storms and hurricanes that pass by, or through, Florida. The worst tornadoes in the United States include the seven that hit three states on March 1925. Seven tornadoes hit Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on that one day. It is estimated that 740 people died in those storms. Another series of tornadoes killed 315 people from Alabama north to Ohio on April 3rd and 4th, 1974. Scientists recorded 148 tornadoes - the most known anywhere! The National Weather Service issues warnings when severe weather is imminent; their messages are sent through radio, television, and other media. Meteorologists issue tornado watches when weather conditions are oriented toward the development of tornadoes and severe thunderstorms. Warnings and such are issued hours before severe weather develops covering one or more counties – or even across states. A warning is definitely issued if a tornado has been confirmed to have touched down, if a funnel cloud is observed, or if Doppler radar shows that strong rotation inside a thunderstorm’s updraft. What should one do when a tornado warning is issued? Find shelter immediately! If at home, go down to the basement, or, if you have no basement, find the part of the house that is nearest the center, preferably in a small room. If in a mobile home – leave and find stronger shelter if you can, since mobile homes often get blown over or blown away. The same is true for cars. If you happen to be outside, stop, drop, and crawl into the nearest ditch; cover your head and hope for the best. You could also take refuge under a highway overpass. Sometimes tying yourself to a solid post will help, unless flying debris hits you. In other words, tornadoes are not something to ignore.

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If you live on planet Earth, you will experience storms eventually. While it is true that hurricanes don’t happen in the desert southwest of the United States, there are other natural events that can cause alarm. On the other hand, there are no earthquakes in Florida.

There is a good side to storms – they often bring the water needed to sustain life. Storms demonstrate the power of “mother nature.” To many people, storms are fascinating. Every thunderstorm includes thunder – otherwise it wouldn’t be called a thunderstorm. And thunder is the sound that lightning makes, so lightning must accompany thunder. Lightning is both exciting and dangerous. Many believe that lightning starts from a cloud and heads toward the ground, when it is usually the other way around. But lightning does also jump from cloud to cloud and thus avoid the ground altogether. Some people get hit by lightning and survive. But others don’t. For example, a 47-year-old golfer and his 16-year-old son were struck by lightning in Denver, Colorado on May 28, 2004. They did not

survive. Apparently, the man was standing on a slight rise in the ground, with his metal golf club extended high over his head. It was cloudy at the time, but it was not raining. Then, all of a sudden, “boom!” a brilliant flash of light lit up the sky, and the next thing the other golfers could see was the man and his son knocked flat. A few attempted CPR on the men, but to no avail. Usually what kills people when hit by lightning is that the super-charged electricity jolts the body and stops the heart. Of course, many golfers get hit by lightning. Why? They are typically out in a field away from trees, so the golfer himself is the tallest thing around. Secondly, most golf clubs are made of electrically-conducting metal. Getting ready to swing puts the metal club towards the sky, and it acts like a lightning rod. Golfing may be fun, but it is often deadly. Those people who are hit by lightning but survive often end up with burns, especially at the point of contact and the point of exit. The lightning must hit the skin somewhere, travel through the body, and then exit to the ground from some other point. Another interesting phenomenon is the loss of memory by some people who are struck by lightning. In rare cases, the electricity actually polarizes parts of the brain which results in having the memory erased. This would be like re-formatting a hard drive in a computer. The person may be perfectly healthy, but have no memory of anything, and be like a little child. We are not speaking of amnesia. We’re talking about complete loss of everything learned. The person has to learn how to walk, talk, and so forth.

Even so, there are some simple rules to follow to increase one’s safety in stormy weather. For example, don’t play in floods or try to become a human lightning rod. More people die from


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lightning and floods than any other storm-related event. Most of the flood victims die when they try to drive their motor vehicle through flooded streets. And while taking shelter under a tree during a thunderstorm may seem like a good idea, remember that the tree is the tallest thing around, and it’s wet. So it will conduct electricity very well. And if you are under that tree, you will become part of the tree. For tornadoes and hurricanes, it is a good idea to build, or create, a “safe room” which can withstand the high winds. In many places, that could be in a basement. However, if there is flooding, the water will fill the basement causing death and other harmful side effects. Many people used to build, and still do have, storm cellars. Essentially, they are underground rooms built especially for disasters. Most of the time, these rooms are separate from the house. Just remember Dorothy in the Wizard of Oz. Her family made it into the storm cellar, but she was too late, and she ended up being blown to the Land of Oz. Glaciers Glaciers, particularly those created during various ice ages, are also extreme types of weather. The word “glacier” comes from the Latin word glacies, which means “glass.” In later forms of the word, the French called ice “glace” and thus, a glacier is like icy glass. But what is a glacier, anyway? It is most complex. It includes ice & snow, water & rock, and other debris all mixed together, and moving slowly due to the force of gravity. In general, glaciers last a long time. About 10% of solid land is covered by glaciers; however, during the last ice age, about 30% of the land was covered with ice. Approximately 80% of Earth’s fresh water is “permanently” frozen in glaciers and large land-mass sheets of ice, such as in Greenland and Antarctica. There has been some concern with global warming, since if all of this ice melted, the oceans would rise about 80 meters (260 feet). Since quite a few of Earth’s residents live in or near coastal areas, they would end up underwater. A recent popular cartoon film called Ice Age told the story of various animals trying to survive the coming of an ice age. During ice ages – and the last one began around 22,000 years ago and lasted about 9,000 years – much larger parts of land are covered with ice. In fact, some of the glaciers were about 1.5 kilometers (1.0 mile) thick! Since most of this water had to come from the oceans, at that time the oceans were lower by 120 meters or so (390 feet). Just imagine how that would be. If the ocean were 120 meters lower now, then those current coastal residents would be inland many miles, and not on the coast at all. More land would be available in temperate climates, but, of course, much of the northern and southern lands (such as Canada, Scandinavia, Siberia, etc.) would not be available for habitation, as they would be covered with ice. Glaciers are very effective at shaping Earth’s surface. Wherever glaciers move the surface is changed. Glaciers erode the soil and rocky material as they move, and drop that material farther

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along their paths, forming a number of easily recognizable features that are characteristic of areas that were once glaciated. Obviously, glaciers are very sensitive to long term changes in weather. As a result, scientists can use glacier history to determine chronological events on Earth. One can actually drill down into glaciers and get geologic evidence by studying the layers of ice, just as one does with rocks. Our planet is now in a period that is fairly warm in-between glaciers. At the end of the last ice age, about 13,000 years ago, the land bridge between Alaska and Russia (where the Bering Strait is) was flooded, and thus closed that pathway for people to travel back and forth across this “bridge.” However, there is no reason why another ice age may come across the land. Over the last 20 years several mountain valley glaciers have disappeared. In 2003 a large piece of Antarctica’s ice cap broke off into the ocean. The Arctic Ocean now has open channels of water (no ice) in the summer. What exactly causes long-term climate changes is not well known. However, we humans are doing a great job increasing the overall temperature of our planet, and that could result in long-term, severe coastal flooding. Key Concepts Temperature Gradient Cyclonic rotation Coriolis Effect Hurricanes Tornadoes Glaciers The F-scale Problems 1. If it were 75° F at ground level, and then you called a friend on the phone who was at the top

of a 5000-foot (about one mile), hill, what would the temperature there be? 2. Which direction do cyclones rotate in the northern hemisphere? 3. What is the Coriolis Effect? 4. List the 5 categories of hurricanes 5. Where are the most tornadoes in the United States? 6. How much land do glaciers cover? 7. List the various levels of the F-scale.


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TOOLS TO PREDICT THE WEATHER (During this lesson, do Lab 13: Observing the Weather) Meteorologists, who are the scientists who study the weather, have developed a whole host of “tools” to measure anything and everything dealing with weather and climate. The most recent and important of these tools include Doppler radar, radiosondes, and Earth-orbiting satellites.

Radar was developed long ago for the military purposes. First, the Army Air Corps (now the Air Force) and later the U.S. Navy, used radar to track enemy airplanes. In peace time, it was discovered that radar can also be used to determine where water-laden storms are, and the direction that they move. It uses the same type of technology that air traffic controllers use for tracking

airplanes, and the same as police officers trying to find out the speed of a car. At this time, there is a large number of these radar units throughout the United States, and elsewhere. A radiosonde is an instrument that measures temperature, pressure, and humidity up to about 20 miles. The radiosonde is attached to a high-altitude balloon. When it gets high enough, the internal gas pressure of the balloon causes it to explode, and the radiosonde parachutes safely to the ground. The instruments are then retrieved intact, and the data gathered are studied. Higher than either a radar device or a balloon, a satellite is sent out into space to get a view of clouds, storms, and other weather-related phenomena. Geostationary satellites orbit the Earth in 24 hours – the same as the time it takes for Earth to rotate. Thus, they will seem to always be stationary and not move. Essentially, geostationary satellites remain over the same region on Earth.

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Polar orbiting satellites are able to map the entire globe’s weather in a day’s time. The data gathered are then radioed back to receiving stations on Earth. But some older tools are still in effect, including the thermometer, barometer, hygrometer, anemometer, and rain gauge. The term “thermometer” comes from two words, therm, which, in Greek, means “heat,” and meter, which means to measure.

The thermometer was first invented in the early 1600’s by Galileo, the Italian physicist and astronomer. His thermometer is a cylinder of liquid in which glass spheres are free to rise and fall, depending on the temperature. These still can be purchased at gift stores. Then, later, another physicist and astronomer, Sir Edmond Halley of England, developed the first coil (metal spiral band) thermometer in the late 1600’s. The metallic band was composed


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of two different metals that would expand and contract at different rates as a function of temperature. This is the same type thermometer that we use in house-hold thermometers, for thermostats to control our heater and air conditioner, and to test the internal heat of a roasting turkey. The German physicist, Gabriel Fahrenheit, developed the mercury-in-glass thermometer. Since the development of these early thermometers, scientists have developed a whole series of different kinds of thermometers to measure specific things. And it is likely that even more shall be invented.

The barometer is a device that measures the air pressure. Evangelista Torricelli, an Italian physicist, first invented it in 1643. The word comes from the Greek baros, which means “weight.” Essentially, a barometer measures the weight of the air. The air is the heaviest (or densest, or has the highest pressure) at, or below, sea level. The air is the lightest on a high mountain top – or higher still. Barometers also measure small changes in air pressure, which, in turn, often indicate the coming of storms. Typically, as the air pressure drops and becomes a low pressure, the chances of rain or snow increase. High pressure, on the other hand, generally indicates clear skies and nice weather. A hygrometer indicates the amount of moisture

that is in the air. The Greek word hygros means “wetness,” so a hygrometer measures the wetness of the air. Leonardo da Vinci built the first crude hygrometer in the 1400s. Francesco Folli invented a more practical hygrometer in 1664. In 1783, Swiss physicist and geologist, Horace Bénédict de Saussure built the first hygrometer using a human hair to measure humidity.

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Hygrometers that use a human hair to determine moisture content are based on the principle that organic substances (such as a human hair) grow and expand when they absorb water that is in the air. When the air becomes dry, the moisture in the hair evaporated, and the hair shrinks in size. The growth or decrease in the hair’s size causes a needle to move. The best known modern hygrometer is the "wet- and dry-bulb psychrometer." This device has two mercury thermometers, one with its base wrapped in a small piece of wet cloth. The other thermometer is dry. The water in the wet cloth absorbs heat energy from the air, and causes it to evaporate at a certain rate. This evaporation cools the wet bulb thermometer (just like perspiration cools our skin) causing the temperature to go down. Then, using a comparison table that was developed over time by experimentation, the temperature reading from the dry thermometer and the amount of decrease in temperature from the wet thermometer are used to determine the

relative humidity. Other kinds of hygrometers use changes in electrical resistance, using a thin piece of a semi-conductor, such as lithium chloride, and then measuring the value of the electrical resistance. Water changes the rate that electricity is conducted, and the rate of conduction is just the opposite of resistance. An anemometer measures the speed and direction of the wind. From the Greek word anemos, meaning “wind,” this device can often tell the strength of winds during a storm and the direction that the wind is going. A typical anemometer has three or four

vanes or cups attached to short, thin horizontal poles that are connected at right angles to a vertical pole. The wind blows the vanes causing the vertical pole to rotate. The rpm’s of the device (revolutions per minute) are then used to calculate the

speed of the wind, using gears, very similar to how an automobile speedometer works.


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Leon Alberti invented the first mechanical anemometer in 1450. Instead of cups or vanes, he used disks. The English physicist, Robert Hooke re-invented the anemometer in the 1600’s, as he was unaware of Alberti’s work. Research has recently shown that the Mayan people of Central America were also building anemometers – actually wind towers – about the same time as Hooke was doing so. Needless to say, the Mayans didn’t know about Hooke or Alberti. The modern hemispherical cup anemometer was developed in 1846 by Irish researcher, John Robinson and consisted of four cups, and how it works has been described above. The rain gauge is a device used to determine the amount of rainfall. Rain drops are collected on a flat surface, and the height of the rain is measured by a rain gauge. Typically, the amount is listed to the nearest ¼ (0.25) millimeter or 1/100 (0.01) inch. The rain gauge was originally invented for political and economic reasons. A one King Munjong of Korea created a simple rain gauge device at the request of his father, King Sejong, in 1441. King Sejong was a member of the Choson Dynasty in Korea. This is a dynasty that lasted a very long time - from 1392 to 1910. He was often called “the Great,” as he invented the Korean alphabet to become distinct from the Chinese alphabet. Sejong ruled from 1418 to 1451. Meanwhile, King Sejong was always looking for ways to improve his kingdom, and agricultural technology was one of them. He wanted to make sure that his subjects had enough food and clothing. While his efforts strived to improve the agricultural technology, his work accidentally also improved understanding in both astronomy and meteorology. For example, he invented a calendar for the Korean people and set his engineers on a path to improve the accuracy of clocks. Since occasional droughts wreaked havoc on the farming plans in his country, Sejong directed that each village keep a record of how much rain fell. In order to assist in these efforts, Sejon’s son, the crown prince – and later, King Munjong – invented the rain gauge while measuring rainfall at his father’s palace. King Sejong was so pleased, he had enough rain gauges manufactured for every village, and sent them one. Of course, as one might expect, Europeans at the time had no knowledge of the invention of the rain gauge. Ultimately, British astronomer and architect Christopher Wren created a rain gauge in 1662. With the advent of Doppler Radar and video data, software engineers have been able to create computer programs that simulate the creation, movement, and behavior of tornadoes – a virtual twister. These programs are run easily on desktop and laptop computers. When a storm is brewing in real time, meteorologists can enter current data which then causes the program to continuously update the expected progress of the possible tornado. This kind of technology will continue to assist the National Weather Service issue accurate warnings that may save many lives, and some property. It goes without saying that taking direct measurements of tornado wind speeds is difficult and dangerous. Even so, there are a number of both professional and amateur “tornado chasers” that

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bring with them either very advanced and sophisticated equipment (as in the movie, Twister), or they bring merely a simple camcorder. It is not recommended that any amateur begin to chase tornadoes. Key Concepts Thermometer Barometer Hygrometer Anemometer Rain Gauge Doppler Radar Radiosonde Geosynchronous Weather Satellites Problems 1. Who was the inventor of the thermometer? 2. How does a barometer work? 3. What is a hygrometer? 4. An anemometer measures what? 5. Under what circumstances was the Rain Gauge invented? 6. How does Doppler Radar work? 7. A radiosonde can work only if it is sent where?


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1. Planet Earth is covered with an ocean of air called its atmosphere. 2. Water vapor makes up about 57% of the gas that comes out of volcanoes.

3. The atmosphere that Earth has now, or its air, is comprised of

nitrogen, oxygen, argon, water vapor, and carbon dioxide. 4. The process of splitting a water molecule into hydrogen and

oxygen by light energy is called phytolysis. 5. Clouds are made up of water vapor.

6. The hydrologic cycle is a fancy way of saying “water cycle.”

7. Erosion is defined as “the movement of the top surface of the land (including

rocks, topsoil, etc.) from one place to another.”

8. Thunder is the sound that lightning makes.

9. Geostationary satellites orbit the Earth in 24 hours.

10. Oceanography includes the scientific study of the physical, chemical, and biological aspects of the oceans (and seas) of the world.

ANSWERS TO LESSON 3 STUDY QUESTIONS

1. TRUE 6. TRUE 2. TRUE 7. TRUE 3. TRUE 8. TRUE 4. TRUE 9. TRUE 5. FALSE 10. TRUE


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LESSON 4

ENERGY In this lesson, you will understand how virtually all of Earth’s energy comes from the Sun. You will also learn about the main sources of surface-based energy, their strengths, and their limitations. This unit includes: Solar Energy

Hydroelectric Power

Geothermal Reserves

Fossil Fuels

SOLAR ENERGY Solar energy is, well, energy from the Sun. Our star, the Sun, is one of several hundred billion stars in the Milky Way Galaxy. Each star is a nuclear-burning “factory,” creating its own energy, much like a nuclear power plant does on Earth.

What really happens is that, in the core of the Sun, or any star, hydrogen atoms are crushed, or squeezed, so hard by the sheer mass and volume of the star itself, that the hydrogen atoms begin to “stick together.” In reality, four hydrogen atoms are fused together to create a new element – an atom of helium. And in doing so, a lot of energy is released. The scientific equation for this event is: 4 1H

1 = 2He4 + 2�+ + E where (4 1H

1) represents the four hydrogen nuclei; (2He4) represents the nucleus of the new atom of helium; (2�+) represents the creation of two tiny positive particles of anti-matter called positrons; and (E) represents the enormous amount of energy released. Sometimes this is called the “proton-proton reaction.”

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This is also the equation for a hydrogen bomb. In essence, billions of hydrogen bombs are exploding every second at the center of our Sun. This creates a lot of stored energy, which is then “lost” into space. Scientists noticed that (4 1H

1) was heavier than (2He4), so they asked, “Where did the extra mass go?” The answer is in (E). In fact, Albert Einstein studied these reactions long before the hydrogen bomb was made,

and determined that the “extra weight” or mass that “disappeared” was actually transformed into pure energy. The formula that he developed was: E = mc2 Where “m” is the amount of mass “lost,” and “c” is the speed of light, or 300,000 kilometers/second (186,282 miles/second). The Sun provides virtually all the light and heat that Earth gets. Without the Sun, all life forms would freeze into popsicles in less than 10 minutes. The solar energy from the Sun comes to Earth in the form of light, or electromagnetic radiation. Solar radiation, sometimes called Solar “flux,” is about 1360 watts of energy per second per square meter (square yard). Air and clouds absorb, reflect, or deflect about half of that. One can capture solar energy directly by using another of Einstein’s ideas: the electric eye. Solar radiation hits a panel and causes electricity to flow. We can then store this energy in batteries, or use it in “real time.” This method uses the technology of “photovoltaic cells.” This is known as “active solar energy.” One can also capture solar energy by placing a large panel of water tubes outside facing the Sun. The water inside will get really hot, and by using a water pump, one can circulate that hot water to use for cooking, cleaning, or whatever. This is known as “passive solar energy.” Windmills are a way to get indirect solar energy, as the Sun heats the air, and along with Earth’s rotation, causes it to move (wind). Plants are able to absorb solar energy directly, and they turn this into a food. Animals, including humans, then eat these plants, and get solar energy that way. This process that plants use is called photosynthesis. Plants are able to harness the Sun’s energy directly and change it into a food (glucose) by the process: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Eo = C6H12O6 + 6 O2 where the food, glucose, is C6H12O6 and Eo is the Sun’s energy. Notice that this process releases free oxygen into the air – that animals can use!


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Key Concepts Energy from the Sun Proton-Proton Reaction (nuclear reaction) Electromagnetic Radiation Speed of Light Solar Flux Photosynthesis Problems 1. Where does the Sun’s energy come from? 2. How does the Sun’s energy get to Earth? 3. What is the speed of light? 4. How much is the Solar Flux at Earth? 5. Describe Photosynthesis. HYDROELECTRIC POWER Hydroelectric power comes to us from letting gravity pull water down. Essentially, when water “falls” from a high point to a low point, it releases potential energy. The word “hydro” comes from old Greek hydor, meaning “water,” and “electric” from the Greek elektron, meaning “amber.” (In the old days, amber could be rubbed by a cloth to produce static electricity). So, hydroelectric power is electricity that comes from water. For example, if you build a device that water must go through, and you put things in its way to slow it down and block its fall, in the end, water will get through and end up at the bottom. Thus, it is a good idea to create some kind of wheel that water can spill over it, so that the wheel will turn. A turning water wheel is a water mill. Turning wheels can do work.

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A more advanced technology includes having water turn electric turbines (special kinds of electric wheels) in a controlled environment, such as in a dam. Most hydroelectric plants need a large reservoir of water - upstream of the dam. A good example is the Hoover Dam that harnesses the power of the Colorado River. Water always flows downhill. It never flows uphill. However, one should never say “never,” and in a few rare cases, water has flowed

uphill. One time occurred on the Mississippi River in the early 1800’s when a powerful earthquake, centered near New Madrid, Missouri, caused the land to heave upward, thus stopping the natural flow of the Mississippi River southward towards New Orleans, and, instead, sending it back upriver. But that is a rare occurrence, as mentioned. Water mills, or water wheels, have been used for thousands of years. Most of the time, the purpose was to grind grain into flour – a form that could be cooked and eaten. Sure, humans can do that, too, but it’s very time-consuming and takes a lot of energy. And, yes, some cultures have used animals, mostly oxen, to supply the labor. But water is “free,” and one doesn’t have to feed it or clean up after it. Early American towns used sawmills, paper mills, and grain mills. The family name “Miller” was derived from a person who worked in a mill. The first American Astronomer, David Rittenhouse of Pennsylvania, owned a paper mill that his great-grandfather had started. Watermills have eventually declined in popularity.

However, inventor Thomas Edison arrived on Earth in 1847 and by the early 1900’s he had developed a whole series of electrical contraptions. In fact, Edison founded the General

Electric Company. As soon as electric generators began being built, commercial power companies (like Union Electric, New York Edison) started to develop a host of hydroelectric


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plants near major urban centers. By 1920, hydroelectric plants created 40% of the electric power in the United States. About 19% of the electricity used by humans on Earth was created by hydroelectric sources in 1999. However, we are not even at capacity. Much more could be done. While windmills are not a new invention, they have become much more popular in recent times. This device, similar to the post-card pretty Dutch windmill, converts wind into useful energy. The Dutch, and others, used the windmills to grind their grains and do other farm-related chores. Today, most windmills cause turbines to rotate and generate electricity. A huge “farm” of modern windmills was built near Palm Springs, California, in the early 1980’s.

Key Concepts Water mill Paper mill Grain mill Hydroelectricity Hydroelectric power plants Wind mill Problems 1. What does “hydroelectric” mean? 2. What is a “mill”? 3. How do mills transform the kinetic energy of a flowing stream into electric energy?

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GEOTHERMAL RESERVES (During this lesson, do Lab 14: Geysers)

“Geothermal” Energy is energy from “geo,” or Earth, and “thermal,” or heat. Thus, geothermal energy is derived from internal heat sources inside the solid Earth. This heat continues to emanate up and out of Earth’s crust. This is a vastly underutilized source of “free” energy. Interestingly, the nation of Iceland has the highest usage of geothermal energy sources. Beneath the crust, core temperatures can reach 3000° C or more (5000° F). While the inner most core is solid due to the intense pressure, the outer core is pure liquid – mostly nickel and iron.

Natural hot springs and geysers are part of the geothermal network on Earth. In certain locations, water seeps down through cracks and holes in the Earth’s crust. At some point, it comes in contact with very hot rocks and it is heated to super hot temperatures. Part of the super hot water can make its way back to the surface in the form of hot springs or geysers.

EXAMPLE - Former U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt used to frequently visit natural springs at Hot Springs, Arkansas and Warm Spring, Georgia. It is believed that the natural, hot mineral waters have some healing effect. Even so, some of this hot water may remain underground and thus create reservoirs of geothermal energy. These reservoirs can sometimes be hotter than 350° C (700° F), and therefore, they can provide an untapped source of energy. But remember; water boils at 100° C, so one would expect that there would be only water vapor at 350° C. That’s true. But the underground water is often “trapped” to a certain extent, allowing very high pressures to occur. This is very much like a “pressure cooker,” and the water can still be a liquid at 350° C.


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If you descend into an underground cave, the temperatures can be quite cool as compared to even the hottest outside temperatures. For example, Meramac Caverns near St. Louis, Missouri are always about 16° C (61° F), even if a summer day’s outside temperature is over 38° C (over 100° F). However, this cooling down cannot be sustained, as it is extremely hot at Earth’s core, in spite of Jules Verne’s science fiction novel, Journey to the Center of the Earth. As

one goes deeper and deeper into Earth, the temperatures increase anywhere from 10° to 30°C for each kilometer (30° to 90° F for each mile). Now that is hot! It is the rocks and soil that insulate Meramac Caverns from the blistering summer heat, or the bitter cold winters. The caverns, while underground, are still quite far above sea level. Engineers are able to tap the heat energy from geothermal reservoirs if they are no deeper than about 5 kilometers (about 3 miles). This is done by drilling a well. The hot water and/or steam from these wells are used to spin turbines in generators and then produce electricity. This is a geothermal power plant. There are many great opportunities for communities and nations to research more of this kind of energy source. Interestingly, as mentioned before, a land that is almost always covered in ice has the biggest geothermal network - in Reykjavík, Iceland. There is hardly a structure there that is NOT run on geothermal heat. About 15% of Iceland’s energy comes from geothermal sources; the remainder is hydroelectric. EXAMPLE - Iceland and the Scandinavian countries (Denmark, Sweden, and Norway) all have extensive tourist centers where the hotels, and most the furniture, are made out of ice. In many ways, it is like building an igloo. However, instead of the typical hemispherical igloo that might shelter a small family, the entire structure is made of blocks of ice. Using naturally occurring geothermal energy just below the surface makes it rather cost effective. The blocks of ice act as excellent insulators to keep out the much colder outside air. And the heat inside, which does slowly melt the very thick walls, is not enough to cause any flooding. Drainage systems are also built into them. Of course, in summer, just like Frosty the Snow Man, they vanish. An excellent example of such an ice structure was portrayed in the James Bond movie, Die Another Day. In the U.S., there are 18 regions that use geothermal sources for energy. These are primarily in parts of Idaho, and Southern California. However, more are being tapped into elsewhere. Like solar energy, geothermal energy is a renewable resource – up to a point. Core heat from Earth’s center continues to radiate outwards. Eventually the core will cool down, but not for many millions of years. Fortunately, geothermal factories have almost no negative impact on the environment. And they can be operated just about anywhere.

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One must realize, however, that geothermal water sources are not the same kind of water that one can use for drinking – there are too many obnoxious chemicals in geothermal waters. Thus, technology has developed ways to prevent geothermal water from mixing with fresh groundwater from normal wells. However, overall, geothermal sources are a clean and efficient way to get energy. The good news is that the energy available from geothermal waters is greater than all other sources combined (solar, nuclear, coal, fossil fuels, natural gas, and any others). The bad news, if any, is that it will take time and money to locate and “harvest” these multiple geothermal energy sources. Key Concepts Geothermal Energy Hot springs Geysers Problems 1. Where does the geothermal energy come from? 2. How does a geyser work? 3. What U.S. President promoted the use of hot springs? 4. Which country uses more geothermal energy than any other?

FOSSIL FUELS Fossil fuels are really a misnomer (they are misnamed). A fossil is a permanent geological (stone) impression of a dead plant or animal. One cannot toss fossils into a generator and get energy out. Far from it. However, the nickname for these hydrocarbon fuels is “fossil fuels” because they came into existence primarily because of the death and decomposition of plants and animals (including dinosaurs). And so did fossils. Gasoline is a prime example of a fossil fuel. Gasoline is a part of (and separated from) petroleum (crude oil). The chemical equation for the burning of gasoline is: 2 C8H18 + 25 O2 = 16 CO2 + 18 H2O + ENERGY

where two molecules of gasoline (2 C8H18) combine with twenty-five molecules of oxygen (25 O2) and the reaction produces sixteen molecules of carbon dioxide (16 CO2) and eighteen molecules of water (18 H2O). Plus, of course, it gives off energy that is needed to run your car engine (ENERGY).


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Ideally it would be wonderful if gasoline (which is just one of many types of hydrocarbons) were burned efficiently, where 100% is changed into water and carbon dioxide. Unfortunately, we have never been able to make an engine that is 100% efficient, so, in reality, other junk comes out of our cars’ tail pipes, including deadly carbon monoxide (CO). Hydrocarbon fuels (also known as fossil fuels) that combine with oxygen to give off heat include methane (CH4), acetylene (C2H2), propane (C3H8), butane (C4H10), gasoline (C8H18 ), turpentine (C10H16), Kerosenes (C12H26 to C15H32), and paraffin (C30H62). Methane is also known as “natural gas” and is used as a fuel for gas ranges and ovens in many home kitchens. Acetylene is a gas that burns very hot, and is used in welder’s torches. Propane is a gas that many campers and outdoor enthusiasts use to fuel their barbecue grills. Butane is a liquid under

pressure, but a gas at room temperature. Butane burns well, and is the main component in cigar lighters. Gasoline is a liquid, of course. Turpentine is a liquid and is used to thin, or remove, paint. Kerosene is a liquid, and more of a type of fuel oil than a gasoline – albeit, thinner than oil. Sometimes kerosene is used in oil lamps. Kerosenes are also sold to homeowners who choose to heat their homes with oil. Paraffin is the stuff wax candles are made from. Do not confuse gasoline with gas. A gas is any substance that expands to fill completely its container (like body order, oxygen gas, water vapor), not gasoline. Many of the hydrocarbons burn very fast – explosively – like methane, propane, and gasoline. However, the heavier hydrocarbons burn much more slowly, like the paraffin in wax candles. As most people know, candles don’t explode when you light them. Well, maybe Roman Candles used in fireworks celebrations, but then, they aren’t really wax candles.

Do not confuse hydrocarbons with carbohydrates. They sound similar, and their chemical formulas are similar, but while cars can “eat” hydrocarbons, humans cannot. Even so, humans can eat carbohydrates (like potatoes, etc.), but cars cannot. This is an important rule. Don’t drink gasoline, and don’t stuff potatoes down your car’s gas tank. More specifically, fossil fuels are full of energy that formed after a

very long process that turned dead plants and animals into hydrocarbons. Chemically, fossil fuels are hydrocarbons made of hydrogen and carbon – as one can see from the above formulas.

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Hydrocarbons formed from organisms that were alive millions of years ago. After their death, they were buried under layers of sediment (meaning, small particles of sedimentary rock). Millions of years of sediment layers put a great deal of pressure, and heat, on these deceased organic forms, and that “cooked” them into what is known as hydrocarbons. Most dead plants or animals are destroyed while still on the surface, by oxidation or by other life forms (maggots, for example) eating them. However, some organic material survives and ends up being buried under sediments or dumped in other oxygen-poor environments. When this is done, it begins a series of chemical and biological transformations that end at petroleum, natural gas, or coal. Petro-engineers, or geologists that deal with fossil fuels, use a whole host of tools to locate petroleum, natural gas, and coal. Acid rain and global warming are two of the most serious environmental issues related to large-scale fossil fuel combustion. Other environmental problems, such as land reclamation and oil spills, are also associated with the mining and transporting of fossil fuels. The bad news about fossil fuels is environmental. When they are burned, sulfur, nitrogen, and carbon combine with oxygen to form compounds known as oxides. When these oxides are released into the air, they combine with water in the air and form a number of harmful acids, such as sulfuric, nitric, and carbonic. These acids eventually rain down on the ground and poison the soil, which kills both plants and animals. Runoff of this acid rain finds its way into lakes, rivers, streams, and into the ocean. This is a bad thing.

Of course, carbon dioxide and water are the by-products of burning fossil fuels. In and of themselves, they are not a problem. However, too much of them creates a greenhouse on Earth. Gardeners are able to extend growing seasons of plants by creating a “greenhouse,” especially in cooler climates. What happens is that sunlight enters the greenhouse, which has walls and a roof made of transparent glass. The Sun’s rays hit the plants and soil, giving them raw material for food. The Sun also causes the soil to heat up, thus warming the inside of the greenhouse.

As the soil gets warmer and warmer, it begins to radiate, or give off heat energy, in the range of infrared. It just happens to be that infrared light rays cannot penetrate glass, so instead of having an equilibrium of solar heat coming in and the energy then going out, we end up with an imbalance – in other words, no equilibrium. The inside gets warmer and warmer until, at some point, the greenhouse as a whole radiates energy out. But meanwhile, instead of having temperatures similar to the outside (such as maybe 10° F), it is more like 80° F – and humid, too.


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The same thing happens to an automobile that is parked out in direct sunlight for hours, such as at a shopping mall. Upon returning to one’s car, one notices that the interior temperature is very hot – perhaps 140° F or more. This is because hot sunlight came into the car through the clear glass windows and heated up the dashboard, seats, and so forth. The inside got hot, and began to give off infrared energy – but, alas, that infrared energy cannot pass through the glass. In the end, the inside gets really, really hot. So hot, in fact, that it can melt CD’s, tapes, and a whole bunch of other stuff. It can also lead to the death of children and animals who are left in such cars. The planet Venus has a greenhouse effect, and as a result, has temperatures over 1000 °F. That is precisely what we don’t want to have happen on Earth. That would kill all life forms. Greenhouse gases (water vapor and carbon dioxide) absorb and retain solar heat, keeping Earth warm. However, too much water and carbon dioxide causes the average air temperature to rise, which then causes polar caps and ice bergs to melt, and the ocean level to rise. It also causes more water to be evaporated, and it “snowballs” until the air is too hot for us to live in. We need to preserve life forms that give us free oxygen to breathe (forests and the ocean), and we need to cut down on the polluting gases that absorb and retain solar heat (carbon dioxide). There are some environmental concerns that are created when deep wells are drilled for oil. Removing the oil is only part of it; sometimes large amounts of water – salt water to be exact – also are brought to the surface. Most of the time the salty water is separated from the petroleum, and returned to its previous location. But removing such high-density fluids can also cause the ground to compress, or collapse. Crude oil from wells is not usually right next to oil refineries. Instead, the petroleum must be transported long distances by tanker or pipeline to get to an oil refinery. As we all know, moving crude oil from one place to another is not always perfect, and spills do occur. Oil spills are very damaging to life forms. We often wonder if oil is a never ending source of energy. Of course, it can’t go on forever, but at this point, it is not known how long it can supply the world’s energy needs. Yes, we do have a very good idea how much oil exists in known reserves, but we most likely will find many other locations where oil exists. At the end of the 20th century, it was estimated that there are about 1 trillion barrels of oil yet to be pumped out. Humans consume about 27 billion barrels of oil per year. Dividing 1 trillion by 27 billion is 37 years – assuming that the human demand does not go up. Thus, unless new reserves are discovered, we will have run out of oil around 2037. There are about 1,500 trillion cubic meters of natural gas available. The people of the world use about 2.4 trillion cubic meters per year. Thus, natural gas will run out in over 600 years, assuming no change in the rate of use. What about coal? About 1 trillion metric tons were known to exist by the year 2000, and every year, about 4 billion metric tons a year are burned. So, with no growth of use, coal will last about 250 years.

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Because fossil fuels are being used up faster than they can be restored to the Earth’s crust, we will eventually run out of these nonrenewable resources. For the longest time, the United States was able to pump out enough oil to provide all the energy needs in this country, with some to spare for exporting. Since 1970, the United States has had to import oil, since the amount coming out of the ground in the U.S. is now less than what U.S. citizens use. Key Concepts Hydrocarbons Fossil Fuels Carbohydrates Chemical Reactions of Hydrocarbons Problems 1. Give three examples of hydrocarbons 2. What do hydrocarbons combine with to burn and give off energy? 3. What heavy hydrocarbon burns very slowly? 4. Are fossil fuels a renewable resource? Explain.


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1. The solar energy from the Sun comes to Earth in the form of light, or Electromagnetic radiation.

2. Plants are able to harness the Sun’s energy directly and change it into a food

(glucose).

3. By 1920, hydroelectric plants created 40% of the electric power in the United States.

4. Iceland has the highest usage of geothermal energy sources.

5. Gasoline is a prime example of a fossil fuel.

6. Former U.S. Theodore Roosevelt used to frequently visit natural springs at Hot Springs, Arkansas and Warm Spring, Georgia.

7. Water mills, or water wheels, have been used for thousands of years.

8. In the U.S., there are 18 regions that use geothermal sources for energy.

9. Energy available from geothermal waters is greater than all other sources combined

(solar, nuclear, coal, fossil fuels, natural gas, and any others).

10. A gas is any substance that expands to fill completely its container. ANSWERS TO LESSON 4 STUDY QUESTIONS

1. TRUE 6. FALSE 2. TRUE 7. TRUE 3. TRUE 8. TRUE 4. TRUE 9. TRUE 5. TRUE 10. TRUE


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LESSON 5

TECHNOLOGY In this unit, you will understand how humans found energy sources and how they used technology hand-in-hand as energy was available. You will also learn about supply and demand limitations on local energy sources, long-term effects of energy use on Earth, and what technology can do for seeking life beyond the Solar System. This lesson includes: History of Human Uses of Energy – the Evolution of Technology

Long Term Effects on Earth

HISTORY OF HUMAN USES OF ENERGY – THE EVOLUTION OF TECHNOLOGY

We have often heard that “Love makes the world go ‘round.” Well, it doesn’t. Technology does. And energy drives the technology. Energy is very important. Without energy, our society, and even life, would cease to exist. By the late 20th Century, it became obvious that we couldn’t put “all of our eggs in one basket,” i.e., rely on oil, and only upon oil. But perhaps a short history of energy would help understand this situation. Wood was the first and, for most of human history, the major source of energy.

Why? Well, extensive forests grew in many parts of the world and wood was readily available. In addition, the amount of wood needed for heating one’s home, and to cook meals was far less than the supply. Of course, wood comes from trees. Trees are plants. Plants get their energy from – the Sun! So, wood is an indirect source of energy, having come originally from the Sun. (Remember photosynthesis?) Certain other energy sources were also used in ancient times, such as fats and oils from animals,

including whales; from peat and coal, and from other things. Eventually regular wood was replaced by charcoal, which comes from wood. This depleted many forests. A terrible example of this is on the island nation of Haiti, where most of the trees have been cut down to make charcoal.

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Then, coal was found to be abundant and burn very well. it was used extensively for well over 100 years, and the existing coal reserves are still huge. Before about 1860 crude oil (petroleum) was not used very often. However, after that, engineers found ways to make a whole variety of products from crude oil, including fuels to run machines, factories, cars, boats, and airplanes.

After the first successful oil well was dug in Pennsylvania, oil companies began to spring up. These companies then began extensive searches for oil reserves in the United States. Entrepreneurs in Holland, Britain, and France began to search for oil in many parts of the world, especially in their colonies. In fact, the British brought the first oil field online in 1914 in what is now Iran. And Iran is still a valuable source for oil. The demand for fuel oils during World War I was high, and at that time

two-thirds of the world’s oil supply came from the U.S. However, by the end of the war the amount of oil that remained was not even enough to fuel a peaceful post-war America, and the U.S. ended up importing foreign oil for a few years. Fortunately, about 11 years later, huge deposits of crude oil were discovered under the surface of eastern Texas, and that once again turned the U.S. into an oil exporter. And for about 30 years everything was “great.” However, in 1960, governments of the major oil-exporting countries formed the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, or OPEC. This was due to the enormous political power held by


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the private oil companies – and all these companies were headquartered in Europe or the United States. OPEC’s goal was to try to protect themselves and to get a larger “piece of the pie.” Then in 1973 the Arab-Israeli War threatened to cut off Mid-Eastern oil to western nations. This set off a series of panic attacks among the major oil companies, and eventually led to the oil fields becoming owned by the individual nations. In 1978 Iranian oil production went way down, due to the revolt that removed the Shah of Iran. A year later, Iraq and Iran, both oil producers, began a war with each other, and that also cut back oil production. By 1981 the price of crude oil was 19 times higher than what it was in 1970! Recent conflicts in the Middle East have not made people more secure over oil reserves. However, a number of new nations, who are not members of OPEC, have taken a large lead in producing oil. These countries include Mexico, Brazil, Egypt, China, India, and part of what was once the Soviet Union. Russia contains the majority of what were once the Soviet Union’s oil fields. There are also additional supplies in the North Sea, operated by Britain. As mentioned above, coal is another source of energy, and the world’s coal reserves are vast. The amount of coal that is recoverable under present conditions is five times as large as the reserves of crude oil. Four regions of the world have 75% of the world’s coal reserves: the United States, 24%; the former Soviet Union, 24%; China, 11%; and Western Europe, 10%. Thus, while fuel oil may be preferred, coal is in huge abundance. In spite of the generally low cost of coal and its huge reserves, coal use has not grown much in the past 30 years. This is probably because coal is associated with more problems than oil: workers in coal mines often contract black lung disease; the surface of the land over the coal mines often sinks (sinkholes); and a by-product of coal mining is the drainage of acid into water tables. Solving problems dealing with energy production is one for technology. It is also expensive. Who should pay? Sources of energy, and their problems, include wood (destruction of forests), coal (air pollution, disease), oil (air pollution and politics), nuclear power (radioactivity disasters like Chernobyl). There are no easy answers. Well, how about a synthetic fuel? Well, gasohol is a mixture of gasoline (made from oil) and alcohol (made from corn). A large-scale production of fuel from coal may be a great ideal, but high costs and pollution problems will also likely limit it. While these issues may be locally better than in other areas, it is not probable that synthetic fuels will make an important contribution to the world’s energy supply in the near future. However, we still can build nuclear power plants, as long as all the safeguards are in place. Plus, the geothermal sources mentioned previously can provide an almost infinite source of “clean” energy with virtually no environmental problems. Energy, from the Greek energos, meaning “active,” is expended when an exerted force moves some object. In other words, if you push a baby stroller the distance of 100 meters, then first you

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had to exert a force on the baby stroller, and it had to move a certain distance. It took energy for you to push that stroller.

Energy has the units of joules. Say what? This is because a British scientist named James P. Joules studied energy. Anyway, energy comes in many forms: heat, light, electricity, mechanical, acoustical, and so forth. However, no matter what, the units are joules. And joules are really units of force x distance. In a equation, that would be E = F x d. The concept of energy is very straightforward. If you apply a force to an object, and if the object moves, then you have expended

(or used) energy. EXAMPLE – If I exerted 1.0 N of force on an object and if I were able to move that object a distance of 1.0 meter, then the energy that I expended would be (1.0 N) x (1.0 m) = 1.0 Newton-meter, which is defined as a Joule, named for James Joules, a 19th Century British Scientist. Energy can be expressed in many ways, and there are many forms of energy. There’s gravitational energy, potential energy, kinetic energy, thermal energy, electrical energy, acoustical energy, light energy, mechanical energy, nuclear energy, and so forth. Their units are all in Joules, but occasionally one hears of other units of energy, such as ergs, electron volts, calories, and so forth. Potential energy (PE) is energy that is stored and available to use in some way, such as the electrical energy stored in a battery. Gravitational potential energy (GPE) is nothing more than the energy’s potential at a certain altitude, i.e., gravitational energy equals the mass times the acceleration due to gravity times the distance the object can fall, or

GPE = mgh, where m = mass, g = m/s2, and h = the distance the object can fall. This is why waterfalls are excellent sources of gravitational potential energy, and such natural phenomena are harnessed to change the gravitational potential energy into hydro-electric power (“hydro” means water). Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy of an object as it is traveling at a certain velocity. The word “kinetic” comes from the Greek word kinetikos, which means “to move.” The relationship to determine how much kinetic energy an object might have is

KE = ½ m v2

This means that an object of mass, m, has a kinetic energy, KE, equal to ½ its mass, multiplied by the velocity, v, squared (or v x v = v2) Thermal energy (TE) is the amount of energy an object has due to the heat stored in it. The relationship is:

TE = 3/2 k T


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where “k” is a constant, and T is the temperature of the object in absolute values, or in what we call in Kelvin temperature. Electrical energy (EE) is the amount of energy in an electrical system, and its value is

EE = q V where “q” is the electrical charge value, and “V” is called the potential. In other words, V is sort of like the potential energy stored up that can be used. In electricity, we usually use the energy units of electron volts. Acoustical energy (AE) is the energy of sound. Light energy (also known as electromagnetic radiation, or EMR) is the energy stored in a particle of light (or a wave of light). In brief, light energy is equal to a constant multiplied by the frequency of the light itself, or

E = h�, where “h” is called “Planck’s constant,” for the German scientist Max Planck. The symbol, “�,” is from the Greek letter for “n,” and is called “nu.” This sounds just like “new.” And this symbol stands for something called “frequency.” One of the laws is that the speed of light, symbolized by the letter, “c,” is not only a constant, with a value of about 300,000 km/s, but it is equal to the wavelength of the light, �, multiplied by the frequency of the light, �. In other words,

�x ��c Mechanical energy (ME) is the energy that can be applied to build, destroy, re-shape, or move an object – such as the energy that a bowling ball would release if it fell 10 stories to the street below. Shortly after impact, both the bowling ball and the concrete sidewalk would be broken and smashed – due to the mechanical energy that was released. There is also an energy called “nuclear energy” or NE. There are several forms of this, but suffice it to say that it is similar to gravitational energy of a planet orbiting the Sun, or a moon orbiting a planet. This energy deals with both a relatively weak force and a strong force. Inside the nucleus, there is tremendous energy that keeps the nuclear particles “stuck” together. This is a very powerful force. If one releases this energy too quickly, it becomes an atomic, or nuclear, bomb. Finally, another form of energy is “work.” Essentially, if you do work on something, then you expend energy. Thus, Force times distance = work, and the units are joules.

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EXAMPLE – We often say that we are “going to work” and then we leave our homes for many hours, while we are at “work.” When you are at work, do you really do any “work”? When you exert some sort of force, do you move something, or, in other words, get something accomplished? Scientific observations during the 19th century led to the conclusion that although energy can be transferred, it cannot be created or destroyed. This concept, known as the conservation of energy, constitutes one of the basic principles of classical mechanics. The principle, along with the parallel principle of conservation of matter, holds true only for phenomena involving velocities that are small compared with the speed of light. At higher velocities close to that of light, as in nuclear reactions, energy and matter are equal. In conclusion, humans have been trying to harness different types of energy since they discovered how to make fire. Without these energy sources, there would be no technology, as all technology requires energy. Key Concepts Energy Force Local Energy Sources Problems with Current Energy Sources Sources of Energy The Best Route to Take Types of Energy Ways to Solve Problems Work Problems 1. What natural resource that the United States has is quite vast, and how much of the world’s

supply of this is in the United States? 2. What two sources of energy cause air pollution? 3. What energy source could cause radioactive pollution? 4. What may be the best long term solution to Earth’s energy needs? 5. What type of energy is used when an object is broken? 6. If you pushed all day against a building with all your “force,” how much work would you

have done? Explain. 7. What is the name of the energy that is stored up and used later? 8. What drives technology?


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LONG TERM EFFECTS ON EARTH Earth is a space ship traveling around the Sun, as the Sun, itself, hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy. But it is not immortal. We must do all we can do preserve a healthy environment on Spaceship Earth. An “environment” includes all of the factors affecting life forms. These factors may be other living organisms (biotic factors) or nonliving variables (a-biotic factors), such as water, soil, climate, light, and oxygen. All interacting biotic

and a-biotic factors together make up an ecosystem. While scientists are working to understand the long-term consequences that human actions have on ecosystems, most of this study is best covered in a course on biology. The science of ecology is the study of the interactions of all plant and animal life forms. Another way of saying it, ecology explains the reasons why any life form lives where it does. In that way, the study is more like demographic geography than Earth Science. EXAMPLE – Despite a shortage of water and the extreme temperature variations, a desert can support many varieties of life forms, each of which has adapted in its own way to the desert’s ecosystem. However, desert creatures are very sensitive to disturbance. Country clubs and lawns in subdivisions located in desert regions soak up vast amounts of groundwater. Earthmovers destroy habitats when new developments are built. All-terrain vehicles also cut through and damage the desert’s life-sustaining sections. And we haven’t really discussed how much household pets (like cats and dogs) can quickly make some species become extinct. (This means all of the creatures in this species die out and there are no more). Deserts are not designed for quick recovery like tropical areas are. And in nature’s wisdom, most desert plants and animals reside at safe distances from each other to prevent the spread of a major fire caused by lightning strikes. While many deciduous forests need occasional forest fires to clean out the forest’s carpet, deserts have no such botanical plan to recover from fires. To understand the serious nature of a fire threat, realize that buffel grass from Kenya is beginning to take hold in the American deserts. It was imported by Texas cattle ranchers to feed their herds. But the buffel grass has now migrated westward. Buffel grass is very hardy and grows easily in dry soil, forming a large dry carpet of blades that burn “like wildfire.” If buffel grass is not contained, it will eventually change the desert into a savanna grassland. If plants die, then the food and shelter for animals vanishes. Without that, the animals die. And who knows what comes after that?

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Many desert residents are now trying to do their parts to protect the desert ecosystem. Instead of water-thirsty grass lawns and plants, many are opting for plants that are native to the region, such as Arizona rosewood, petrified wood, ocotillo, prickly pear, and desert willow. Unless we humans take care of the Earth, no one will, and it will perish (and then, so will we). Of course, Earth is not a separate life form, but it can be viewed as a single ecosystem. NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) collaborates with other U.S. governmental agencies in the use of satellite technology to study all aspects of our globe. On a more personal scale, the environmental movement is rooted in the 19th-century philosophy called transcendentalism. Writers Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau were leaders in this worthy cause.

Another protector of American lands was President Theodore (“Teddy”) Roosevelt. Protection of lands in the United States became the raison d’etre (main reason of being) of his term in office. “TR” greatly expanded both the national forest and national park systems and created a system of national wildlife refuges. Roosevelt was a friend of Scottish-American naturalist and essayist John Muir, founder of the Sierra Club. And John Muir was a great supporter of saving the environment. Later, when Teddy Roosevelt’s 2nd cousin, Franklin D. Roosevelt assumed the U.S. presidency in 1933, he continued to expand on the conservation efforts begun earlier in the century. He created the Civilian Conservation Corps to replant forests and improve recreational opportunities on public land; and he created the Soil Conservation Service to protect valuable topsoil. The year 1970 was a major one for saving our planet. Beginning in that year, the political-environmental organization Greenpeace, the first Earth Day, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) all got their start. On Earth Day, Americans gathered at various sites across the country to protest abuse of the environment by greedy corporations and disinterested government agencies. It has become much more commonplace for organizations and governments to work together to help keep Earth healthy. The Environmental Protection Agency began to focus on solving the problems of air and water pollution and to establish sets of environmental quality standards. The EPA was given the responsibility for the well-being of the environment of the United States. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration came about mostly due to Theodore Roosevelt’s belief that human health was a precious natural resource. OSHA’s mission is “to assure so far as possible every working man and woman in the Nation safe and healthful working


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conditions.” While not strictly environmental, healthy people are happy, and will contribute more good than unhealthy people. As the mission has to do with the workplace, it was decided to place this organization under the Department of Labor. The challenges before us regarding the environment are very complex and quite huge. For example, if we don’t take immediate action on preserving the world’s rain forests, they shall be gone, forever. If we cannot control run-away air pollution, the global warming issue will turn Earth into another planet like Venus. And, over time, we are depleting the atmospheric ozone layer, which will lead to wide-spread melanoma (skin cancer). Polluting the ocean will kill off not only a large source of food, but also a large source of oxygen from the algae. Overpopulation will increase disease, crime, and dwindling resources. And these are just a few of our concerns.

Sadly, it seems as if the growth of human population and its interaction with nature is at the root of all of the world’s environmental evils. By 2005, there were about 6.5 billion inhabitants on the planet, increasingly at the alarming rate of 200,000 people per day. In December 2004, a great tsunami wave killed as many as 200,000 people in Asia. However, a day later another 200,000 people were born somewhere on Earth. As the number of people increases, more pollution is

generated, more natural habitats are destroyed, and more natural resources are used up. People have long acted as if the oceans, seas, lakes and rivers - those bodies of water – could serve as limitless dumping grounds for wastes. Raw sewage, garbage, and oil spills have begun to overwhelm the diluting capabilities of the oceans, and most coastal waters are now polluted. Beaches around the world are closed regularly, often because of high amounts of bacteria from sewage disposal, and marine wildlife is beginning to suffer. The rate at which species are becoming extinct – mostly due to us humans – is enormous. Most educated people remember reading about some creatures that used to exist on Earth, but are no longer here. One example is the Dodo Bird. EXAMPLE – The Dodo Bird was about the size of a turkey, with a large hooked bill. As it had undeveloped wings, it was a flightless bird. Most of the Dodo birds lived in the forests of Mauritius, an island off the eastern coast of Africa, and east of the island of Madagascar. The Dodo laid a single, large egg in a ground nest made of grass. The Dodo was first reported by Dutch settlers, who wrote that it was a lazy and loathsome bird that was not afraid of humans. About 83 years later, the Dodos became extinct. Their rapid demise is a result of both human hunting, and by other animals imported to Mauritius by the

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Dutch. For example, escaped hogs ran off to the woods, multiplied, and found Dodo eggs to be a good source of food. Hogs still survive, but Dodos do not. By the way, the name “Dodo” was derived from the Portuguese word duodo, meaning “stupid.” The Dutch abandoned the island of Mauritius in 1710 – about twenty years after the extinction of the Dodo. The French took over the island for 100 years, then the British took control, until it became an independent island nation in 1968. There are about 1 million humans on Mauritius, but no Dodos. Thus, the Dutch arrived, stayed 112 years, killed off the Dodos, and left. Currently, there are between about 10 and 13 million species. It is estimated that 27,000 species are becoming extinct each year. This translates into an astounding 10 to 100 species per day or 3 species per hour. The leading cause of extinction is habitat destruction, such as in the defoliation of the tropical rain forests and breaking up of coral reefs. At the current rate at which the world’s rain forests are being cut down, they may completely disappear by the year 2030. If growing population size puts even more pressure on these habitats, they might well be destroyed sooner. Since the European colonization of the western hemisphere, North America has been transformed: Some 98% of tall-grass prairies, 50% of wetlands, and 98% of old-growth forests have been destroyed. Bug killer (pesticide) residues on crops and high levels of mercury in some fish are examples of toxic substances that are encountered in daily life. Many industrially produced chemicals may cause cancer, birth defects, genetic mutations, or death. The world cannot continue to rely on the burning of fossil fuels for much of its industrial production and transportation. Fossil fuels are in limited supply; in addition, when burned they contribute to global warming, air pollution, and acid rain. Fortunately, global destruction is not inevitable. But something better happen soon, or it will be inevitable. The most developed nations need to assist and encourage developing countries to follow along. Sadly, some locations are past the point of no return. Haiti is a prime example. Key Concepts Ecosystem Ecology The Desert as an Ecosystem Environmentalism Earth Day Environmental Agencies Global Warming Acid Rain Extinction Ozone Layer Rain Forests


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Problems 1. Who were some of the first environmentalists? 2. What did President Theodore Roosevelt do to help the environment? 3. What is the EPA, and what is its mission? 4. When did Earth Day first begin? 5. How does the ozone layer protect us? 6. How many species become extinct each day?

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LESSON 5 STUDY QUESTIONS ANSWER TRUE OR FALSE. CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 1. Wood was the first and, for most of human history, the major source

of energy.

2. While fuel oil may be preferred, coal is in huge abundance. 3. Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy of an object as it is traveling at a certain Velocity. 4. If you apply a force to an object, and if the object moves, then you have expended (or used) energy. 5. Thermal energy (TE) is the amount of energy an object has due to the heat stored in it. 6. Scientific observations during the 19th century led to the conclusion that although energy can be transferred, it cannot be created or destroyed. 7. The environmental movement is rooted in the 19th-century philosophy called transcendentalism. 8. In 1970, the political-environmental organization Greenpeace, the first Earth Day, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) all got their start. 9. It is estimated that 27,000 species are becoming extinct each year. 10. The leading cause of extinction is habitat destruction.

ANSWERS TO LESSON 5 STUDY QUESTIONS.

1. TRUE 6. TRUE 2. TRUE 7. TRUE 3, TRUE 8. TRUE 4. TRUE 9. TRUE 5. TRUE 10. TRUE


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COURSE OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this course is to develop and apply concepts basic to Earth, its materials,

processes, history, and environment in space. The student will:

Know that the vast diversity of the properties of materials is primarily due to variations in the forces that hold molecules together.

Know that the connections (bonds) form between substances when outer shell electrons are either transferred or shared between their atoms, changing the properties of substances.

Understand how knowledge and energy is fundamental to all the scientific disciplines (e.g., the energy required for biological processes in living organisms and the energy required for the building, erosion and rebuilding of Earth).

Know that the structure of the universe is the result of interactions involving fundamental particles (matter) and basic forces (energy) and that evidence suggests that the universe contains all of the matter and energy that ever existed. Know that acceleration due to gravitational force is proportional to the mass and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between objects.

Know how climactic patterns on Earth result from an interplay of many factors (Earth’s topography, Earth’s rotation on its axis, solar radiation, the transfer of heat energy where the atmosphere interfaces with lands and oceans and wind and ocean currents.

Know that the solid crust of Earth consists of slowly-moving, separate plates that float on a denser, molten layer of Earth and that these plates interact with each other, changing the Earth’s surface in many ways (e.g., forming mountain ranges and rift valleys, causing earthquakes and volcanic activity and forming undersea mountains that can become ocean islands).

Know that changes in Earth’s climate, geologic activity and life forms may be traced and compared.

Know that Earth’s systems and organisms are the result of a long, continuous change over time.

Understand the interconnectedness of the systems on Earth and quality of life. Understand the relationships between events on Earth and its moon, the other planets and the Sun.

Know how the characteristics of other planets and satellites are similar to and different from those of Earth.

Know the various reasons that Earth is the only planet in our Solar System that is capable of supporting intelligent life forms.

Know that the stages in the development of three categories of stars are based on mass: stars that have the approximate mass of our Sun, stars that are two- to three-solar masses and develop into neutron stars, and stars that are more than three solar masses that develop into super dense stars known as black holes.

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Identify the arrangement of bodies found within and outside our galaxy.

Know astronomical distance and astronomical time.

Understand stellar equilibrium.

Know various scientific theories on how the universe was formed.

Know the various ways in which scientists collect and generate about our universe (e.g. x-ray telescopes, computer simulations of gravitational systems, nuclear reactions, space probes and supercollider simulations).

Know that mathematical models and computer simulations are used in studying evidence from many sources to form a scientific account of the universe.

Know that layers of energy-rich organic materials have gradually turned into great coal beds and oil pools (fossil fuels) by the pressure of the overlying Earth layers and that humans burn fossil fuels to release the stored energy as heat and carbon dioxide.

Know that changes in a component of an ecosystem will have unpredictable effects on the entire system but that the components of the system tend to react in a way that will restore the ecosystem to its original condition.

Know that the world ecosystems are shaped by physical factors that limit their productivity.

Know the ways in which humans today are placing their environmental support systems at risk (e.g. rapid human population growth, environmental degradation and resource depletion).

Know that investigations are conducted to explore new phenomena to check on previous results, to test how well a theory predicts and to compare different theories.

Know that from time to time, major shifts occur in the scientific view of how the world works, but that more often, the changes that take place in the body of scientific knowledge are small modifications of prior knowledge.

Understand that no matter how well one theory fits observations, a new theory might fit them as well or better, or might fit a wider range of observations, because in science, the testing, revising and occasional discarding of theories, new and old, never ends, and lead to an increasingly better understanding of how things work in the world, but not to absolute truth.

Know that scientists in any one research group tend to see things alike that therefore scientific teams are expected to seek out the possible courses of bias in their design of their investigations and in their data analysis.

Understand that new ideas in science are limited by the context with which they are conceived, are often rejected by the scientific establishment, sometimes spring from unexpected findings and usually grow slowly from many contributors.

Understand that in the short run, new ideas that do not mesh well with mainstream ideas in science often encounter vigorous criticism and that in the long run, theories are judged by how they fit with other theories, the range of observations they explain, how well they explain observations and how effective they are in predicting new findings.


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Understand the importance of a sense of responsibility, a commitment to peer review, truthful reporting of the methods and outcomes of investigations and making the public aware of the findings.

Know that scientists assume that the universe is a vast system in which basic rules exist that may range from very simple to the extremely complex but that scientists operate on the belief that the rules can be discovered by careful, systematic study. Know that scientists control conditions in order to obtain evidence, but that when that is not possible, for practical or ethical reasons, they try to observe a wide range of natural occurrences to discern patterns.

Know that performance testing is often conducted using small-scale models, computer simulations or analogous systems to reduce the chance of system failure.

Know that technological problems often created a demand for new scientific knowledge and that new technologies make it possible for scientists to extend their research in a way that advances science.

Know that the scientists can bring information, insights and analytical skills to matters of public concern and help people understand the possible causes and effects of events.

Know that funds for science research come from federal government agencies, industry and private foundations, and that this funding often influences the areas of discovery.

Know that the value of a technology may be different for different people at different times.

Know that scientific knowledge is used by those who engage in design and technology to solve practical problems, taking human values and limitations into account.

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INDEX – EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE Topic Lesson

A - C D - F G - J L-M

Acid rain 4 Air pressure 4 Aircraft - early 2 Alto Clouds 4 Anemometer 4 Ångström 2 Asteroid 2 Atmosphere 1 Balloon Flight,

History 2 Barometer 4 Binary stars 2 Carbohydrates 5 Cause of tectonics 3 Chemical Reactions

of Hydrocarbons 5 Cirrus 4 Climate 4 Climatic regions as a

function of precipitation 4

Climatic regions as a function of temperature 4

Comet 2 Compass 3 Composition of

Earth 3 Constellation 2 Core layers of Earth

3 Coriolis Force;

Effect 4 Crest 2 Crustal Plates 3 Cumulus 4 Current Atmosphere

4 Cyclonic rotation 4

Desert ecosystem 4 Doppler Radar 4 Dunite 3 Earth 2 Epicenter 3 Erosion 4 Evaporation 4 Fault lines 3 Feldspar 3 Flight and space

travel stories 2 Flooding 4 Focus 3 Fossil Fuels 5 Frequency 2 Frost 4

Galaxy 2 GeoChemical Rock

Cycle 3 Geomagnetism 3 Geosynchronous

Weather Satellites 4 Geothermal Energy 5 Geysers 5 Glaciers 4 Grain mill 5 Ground water 4 Hertz 2 Hot springs 5 Human races, the

five1 Hurricanes 4 Hydrocarbons 5 Hydroelectric power

plants 5 Hydroelectricity 5 Hydrologic cycle –

stages 4 Hydrolysis 4 Hygrometer 4 Ice caps 4 Ice pack 4 Ichthyology 4 Igneous 3 Jet age development

2 Jovian planets 4 Jupiter 2

Lava 3 Lead crystal 3 Leonardo da Vinci’s

inventions 2 Light speed 2 Luna and Moon 2 Magellanic Clouds 2 Magma 3 Magnets 3 Major plates 3 Mars 2 Mercury 2 Metamorphic 3 Meteor 2 Meteoritics 2 Meteorology 4 Mid-Atlantic Ridge 3 Minerals 3 Moon – Theories 2 Moon 1 and 2: Multiple star systems

1


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N - P Q – S T - Z

Natural Satellite 2 Neptune 2 Nimbus 4 NOAA 4 Nuclear-burning star 2 Ocean 4 Ocean currents 4 Ocean temperatures 4 Ocean trenches 4 Ocean, The chemical 4 Oceans and continents 1 Olivine 3 Outgassing 4 P and S waves 3 Paleomagnetism 3 Pangea 3 Paper mill 5 Phases of the Moon 2 Photosynthesis 5 Planet 1 Pluto 1 Population bomb 1 Population density 1 Precipitation 4 Pressure 3 Primary Atmosphere 4 Proton-Proton Reaction (nuclear

reaction) 5 Pyroxene 3

Quartz 3 Quasar 2: Radioactive Decay of Potassium 4 Radiosonde 4 Rain Gauge 4 Richter Scale 3 Rocks 3 Run off 4 Saturn 2 Sea 4 Secondary atmosphere 4 Sedimentary 3 Seism 3 Seismogram 3 Seismograph 3 Seismology 3 Seismometer 3 Solar Energy 5 Solar Flux 5 Sound speed 2 Spacecraft 2 Speed of Light 2 and 5 Speed of sound 2 Star 2 Star systems with planets 2 Starlight 2 Stars - twinkling 2 Stratus 4 Sun 1

Tectonics 3 Temperature Gradient 4 Theories of Moon’s formation 2 Thermometer 4 Tides 2 Tornado F-Scale 4 Tornadoes 4 Triangulation 3 Trough 2 Underwater mountains 4 Uranus 2 Van Allen Belts 3 Velocity as a function of

wavelength and frequency 2 Venus 2 Volcanic and tectonic earthquakes

3 Water mill 5 Water table 4 Wave packet 2 Wavelength 2 Waves 4 Wind 4 Wind mill 5 Work 6

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APPENDICES TABLE OF CONTENTS

Appendix 1 Glossary of Terms .......................................................................... 125

Appendix 2 : Lab 1 The Solar System to Scale ..........................................................

Lab 2 Phases of the Moon .....................................................................

Lab 3 Constellations .............................................................................

Lab 4 Planes and Rockets .....................................................................

Lab 5 Water Waves ...............................................................................

Lab 6 Make a Volcano ..........................................................................

Lab 7 Earthquake ..................................................................................

Lab 8 Minerals and Rocks ....................................................................

Lab 9 Magnetic Compass ......................................................................

Lab 10 Ivory Soap in a Bathtub ............................................................

Lab 11 Water and Sand .........................................................................

Lab 12 Homemade Cyclones ................................................................

Lab 13 Observing the Weather .............................................................

Lab 14 Geysers .....................................................................................

Appendix 3: Answers to Problems ............................................................................

Appendix 4 Scientists and Writers Involved in Earth & Space Science ..................


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APPENDIX 1 Glossary of Terms

Acid Rain – the rain that mixes with chemicals in the air before it falls to the ground,

bringing these chemicals with it.

Air pressure – the weight of the air divided by the surface area

Alto – a type of cloud

Anemometer – A weather tool to determine wind speed and direction

Ångström – a small unit of length, equal to 1/10th of a nanometer; named for a Scandinavian scientist

Asteroid – a minor planet

Atmosphere – the air that covers a planet

Balloons – early flying devices

Barometer – a weather tool to measure air pressure

Binary star – a system of two stars that orbit each other

Biplane – an early type of airplane with two sets of wings: one above, one below the fuselage

Blimps – a large, cigar-shaped balloon with a passenger carriage underneath, and used for transporting people

Boeing 707 – a very popular commercial (passenger) jet

Carbohydrates – complex molecules that contain Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen

Chirality – the concept of being left handed or right handed; direction

Cirrus – a type of cloud

Climate – the average weather in a certain area, over many years

Comet – a dirty snowball orbiting the Sun; left over from the formation of the Solar System

Compass – a tool to determine which direction is North; uses a magnetic needle

Composition of Earth – what Earth is made of

Constellation – one of 88 groupings of stars that, when observed from Earth, make up some sort of “dot to dot” pattern in the night sky.

Continent – solid land on Earth, not in any ocean

Core layers of Earth – the different levels of Earth’s insides

Coriolis Effect – the effect of causing moving objects to veer right or left when propelled forward; caused by Earth’s rotation

Crest – the top point of a wave; from one crest to another is a wavelength

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Crust – the upper most level of Earth’s many layers. It extends from the surface down to between 8 and 40 kilometers (5 to 30 miles) or so

Crustal Plates – one of several interconnecting surface plates making up Earth’s crust, and floating on the mantle

Cumulus – a type of cloud

Current Atmosphere – made mostly of Nitrogen and Oxygen gases

Cyclonic rotation – how a storm might spin in the Northern or Southern Hemisphere

Cyrano de Bergerac – French author of the 1600’s who wrote a story about how he “flew” to the Moon

Da Vinci, Leonard – Italian scientist and painter

DC-3 - Model of a commercial jet aircraft made by McDonnell-Douglas

Desert – arid ecosystem (enclosed region) on Earth with little rain; often very hot in summer

Dirigibles – another word for “blimp”

Domingo Gonzales – Spanish explorer who allegedly flew to the Moon with a trained flock of geese

Doppler Radar – A weather tool that allows meteorologists to monitor the progress of rain storms; uses radio wave technology

Earth – Third planet from the Sun

Earth Day – Typically the 3rd Saturday in April; a day set aside to reflect and respect our planet

Earthquakes – a shaking or quaking event occurring below the surface, but often felt on the surface

Ecology – the study of a symbiotic relationship between and among life forms, and Earth

Ecosystem – a specialized type of geographical environment; viz., a desert, or a savanna, or the tropics

Electrical magnets – iron wrapped in copper coils in which electricity passes

Electrolysis – the chemical reaction that breaks the bonds between hydrogen (H2) and Oxygen (O) in water (H2O) to create free hydrogen (which escapes into space) and free oxygen (that then combines with something else, including itself)


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Electromagnetic Radiation – includes all the levels of electromarnetic energy, Radio, Microwave, Infrared, Visible, Ultraviolet, x-ray, and gamma ray

Energy – the quantity that allows things to exist, whether animate or machine

Environmental Agencies – different parts of the government that regulate different aspects of the environment

Environmentalism – a philosophy that promotes taking care of the environment

Epicenter – the point on the surface of Earth closest to the exact point of origin of an earthquake

Erosion – a wearing away of the topsoil (and rock) on Earth’s surface, caused by wind, rain, and other weather-related factors

Evaporation – the process by which a liquid becomes a gas

Extinction – the complete end and finality to the existence of a particular life form

Fault lines – junction points between crustal plates, whether major or minor

Flooding – the overflow of water, often due to too much rain and not enough places to put the rain (where the ground cannot absorb any more water)

Focus – the exact point of origin for an earthquake

Fokker – Dutch-American inventor who created a very fast airplane in the early part of the 1900’s

Force – a type of energy push that is needed to accelerate an object

Fossil Fuels – different types of gases, liquids, and solids that are made of carbon and hydrogen, and that “burn”; their origin is from millions of years of decomposition of plants and animals, with heat, and pressure

Frequency – the number of cycles per second of a moving wave.

Frost – a type of “snow” that forms when water vapor gas molecules land on a very cold object (below freezing) and instantly freeze, without going through the liquid phase. Rarely happens in Florida; more popular in Connecticut in late fall and early spring

Galaxy – a huge, massive group of billions of stars

GeoChemical Rock Cycle – the pathway of an amount of original material (magma) which starts in the upper mantle, crosses through the crust, exits through volcanic action, and then travels through several forms such as lava, igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic, and then through anatexis, is buried inside Earth as magma, thus, beginning the cycle again.

Geomagnetism – the natural magnetism of a planet, thus giving rise to the north and south magnetic poles on Earth

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Geosynchronous Weather Satellites – artificial satellites, launched by rocket, that orbit Earth in 24 hours, the

same period as Earth’s rotation time, thus, appearing to remain “stationary” over one spot

Geothermal Energy – heat energy from the naturally very hot Earth’s core

Geysers – hot “fountains” of water ejected violently through “holes” in Earth’s surface

Glaciers – huge ice packs that have routinely advanced and retreated over many millennia depending on the climate

Global Warming – the result of the Earth’s atmosphere heating up due to having too much water vapor and carbon dioxide in the air – both of these trap heat and warm the air; this is primarily as a result of the burning of fossil fuels and coal

Goddard, Robert – American scientist who perfected the rocket-spacecraft

Gonzales, Domingo – Spanish explorer who allegedly flew to the Moon with a trained flock of geese

Grain mill – a mill that is used to grind grain into flour.

Ground water – underground water that is at the level of the “water table”

Hertz – the unit of wave frequency, in cycles per second; named after a German Scientist

Hot springs – lakes or reservoirs of very hot water, fed from sources of hot water underneath the surface

Hurricanes – cyclonic storms of massive proportions

Hydrocarbons – a chemical family of molecules with carbon and hydrogen

Hydroelectric power plants – plants, or facilities, that generate electricity from the result of allowing water to fall from a higher level to a lower level. This is typical for man-made dams

Hydroelectricity – electricity produced by hydroelectric power plants

Hydrologic cycle – the cycle of water, from ocean to sky to land to water table, and back to the ocean

Hygrometer – a weather tool used to determine the relative humidity in the air

Ice caps – sections of Earth, near or at the poles, that has permanently frozen water

Ice pack – other sections of Earth, near the poles, that has a virtually permanent frozen amount of water

Ichthyology – the study of fish

Igneous – a very basic type of rock, recently out of the volcano

Intelligent Life – maybe humans

Jovian planets – the four largest planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune)

Lava – magma that has just erupted and is now on Earth’s surface

Lead crystal – a special kind of glass that includes lead


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Leonardo da Vinci – Italian scientist and painter

Life – organic material that can reproduce, respire, etc.

Luna – another name for the Moon

Magellanic Clouds – two satellite galaxies that orbit the Milky Way

Magma – liquid rock beneath Earth’s surface

Magnets – polarized iron; attracts other iron materials

Major plates – the largest of the crustal plates

Mantle – the layer inside Earth just beneath the crust

Metamorphic – the oldest and densest type of surface rock

Meteor – a flash of light made by a falling meteorite

Meteorite – a “rock” that falls to Earth from outer space

Meteoritics – the study of meteorites

Meteorology – the study of the weather

Meter – a unit of length about 3 inches longer than a yard

Mid-Atlantic Ridge – a tall mountain range that lies at the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean

Mill – a structure that uses rotating wheels to do work

Millennium Man – a human ancestor whose fossilized remains were found in eastern Africa, and may be close to 6 million years old

Minerals – material made of several chemical elements; minerals then make up rocks

Moon – Earth’s natural satellite

Nanometer – a small unit of length equal to one billionth of a meter

Natural magnets – iron-rich rocks that were polarized while still molten, and that solidified in a polarized state

Natural satellite – an object that revolves around a planet, that is made by nature, not a man-made satellite

Nimbus – type of cloud

NOAA – the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (US Government)

Nuclear-burning star – a star which generates energy by nuclear fusion

Ocean – large body of salty water

Ocean currents – “rivers” of water within the ocean

Ocean trenches – deepest parts of the ocean floor

Outgassing – the process of gasses that were trapped under Earth’s surface escaping into the air

Ozone Layer – a layer of the Earth’s atmosphere that is very high up, and has an abundance of ozone (O3)

P waves – the pressure waves of an earthquake

Paleomagnetism – the study of Earth’s early magnetic field

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Pangea – believed to be the one, original continent, that later broke into today’s continents

Paper mill – a mill that turns wood into paper

Phases of the Moon – eight major “faces” that the Moon makes during a month

Photosynthesis – the creation of food by plants using the Sun’s light

Planet – celestial object that orbits a star; reflects light

Population density – the number of humans per square kilometer (or per square mile)

Precipitation – rain, snow, etc.

Pressure – force or weight per area

Primary Atmosphere – Earth’s original atmosphere; mostly hydrogen and helium

Proton-Proton Reaction – a nuclear reaction involving hydrogen as the reactant and helium as the product

Quartz – Silicon and oxygen combined to form a crystal mineral; SiO2

Quasar – quasi-stellar radio source; may be the nucleus of a newly forming galaxy far distant

Radioactive Decay – the natural decomposition of an element into one or more lighter elements

Radiosonde – weather tool sent aloft by a balloon or dropped from an airplane.

Rain Forests – original forests rich in vegetation and a main source of oxygen

Rain Gauge – weather tool to measure how much rain has fallen

Robert Goddard – American scientist who perfected the rocket-spacecraft

Rock – a combination of two or more minerals

Run off – rain or other precipitation that flows downhill, and cannot be absorbed

S waves – shear earthquake waves

Sea – another term for ocean

Secondary atmosphere – the result of outgassing on Earth after the Primary atmosphere had escaped; water vapor, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen

Sedimentary – second in a chain of rock types, after igneous

Seism – a quake or shaking; earthquake

Seismogram – a piece of paper which traces the trembling of an earthquake.

Seismograph – the machine that writes the seismogram

Seismology – the study of earthquakes

Seismometer – the scientific device, buried underground, that senses earthquakes

Solar Energy – energy from the Sun

Solar Flux – the amount of light energy from the Sun; on Earth, it is 1.36 watts per square meter

Sopwith Camel – a type of biplane used by British pilots to fight in the first World War

Spacecraft – a type of aircraft that travels in space

Speed of light – 300,000 kilometers per second (186,282 miles per second)


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Speed of sound – 343 meters per second (1100 feet per second) at standard temperature and pressure (in air)

Star – self-sustaining, nuclear-burning massive sphere of gas

Starlight – light from stars

Stellar systems – stars with one or more planets

Stratus – type of cloud

Sun – our self-sustaining, nuclear-burning massive sphere of gas

Surface – the top of something

Tectonics – the study of the movement of the crustal plates

Temperature Gradient – the change of temperature as a function of height

The F-Scale – a scale of how strong tornadoes may be

Theories of Moon’s formation – there are 3: capture, daughter, co-planet

Thermometer – weather tool to determine the temperature

Tides – the raising and lowering of ocean waters due to the Moon’s gravity

Tornadoes – local and powerful cyclonic storms

Triangulation – a method used by surveyors and astronomers to determine distances

Trough – the lowest point in a wave

Twinkling stars – the effect that Earth’s air has on extraterrestrial light

Van Allen Belts – protective magnetic fields that surround Earth

Wan Hu – Chinese inventor who set off to travel to the Moon using rockets

Water mill – a mill that uses falling water (on a water wheel) for its energy source

Water table – the elevation of the surface of underground water above sea level

Wave packet – a complete wave; or series of waves

Wavelength – the size of a wave, from crest to crest

Waves – undulating patterns

Wind – the movement of Earth’s atmosphere due to differences of air pressure from one place to the next

Wind mill – a mill that uses wind (and a propeller type object) to generate energy

Work – an entity equal to energy

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APPENDIX 2


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Earth Science Lab 1

I Title: Solar System to Scale II Purpose and Theory The Sun is larger than any of the planets. In fact, the Sun is larger and heavier than all the planets combined. Each of the nine major planets travels around the Sun in its own path, or “orbit.” Each orbit is at a different distance from the Sun. Our desire here is to find an object large enough to represent the size of the Sun, and then find, or make, smaller objects that will represent the sizes of the planets, to scale. Then we want to place each planet at its distance from the Sun using that same scale. The nine major planets, in their order from the Sun, their sizes, and their distances (in kilometers) are in the table below. Object Diameter (kilometers) Distance (Kilometers) Sun 1,400,000 - Mercury 4,900 58,000,000 Venus 12,100 108,000,000 Earth 12,800 150,000,000 Mars 6,800 228,000,000 Jupiter 143,000 780,000,000 Saturn 121,000 1,431,000.000 Uranus 51,000 2,880,000,000 Neptune Pluto

49,000 2,300

4,500,000,000 5,910,000,000

You may notice that there are some really large numbers here. Therefore, in order for us to make it more reasonable, we can create a new table with relative sizes and relative distances. For example, you can see that Earth is about 150,000,000 miles from the Sun. Astronomers have defined that distance as one astronomical unit, or 1.0 A.U. Let’s imagine taking a basketball and making it the Sun. A regulation basketball is 9.4 inches wide. [1.0 inch = 2.54 centimeters] If that represents the size of the Sun, how big will all the other objects have to be? Earth would be 2.2 millimeters (0.086 inches) Using this scale, the Earth’s distance from the Sun (1.0 AU) would be 28 yards (26 meters). Using a regulation-size basketball to model our sun, then the scale is 1 million kilometers in our solar system = 6.7 inches (17 cm) in our model. Use the diameters and distances in table above to complete this table.

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Object Diam. Metric Diam. U.S. Dist. Metric Dist. U.S. Sun 24 cm 9.4 in - - Mercury Venus Earth 2.2 mm 0.086 in 26 m 28 yards Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto 0.4 mm 0.015 in 1.0 km 1100 yards III Equipment Regulation basketball marble 1.5 cm (0.59 in) dime 1.7 cm (0.67 in) penny 1.8 cm (0.71 in) nickel 2.1 cm (0.83 in) quarter 2.3 cm (0.91 in) paper pen or pencil ruler measuring tape compass (pencil and point to make circles) scissors IV Procedure 1. Make a scale model of the Solar System, using a basketball as the Sun. 2. Using the table above, make a scale model of each of the planets based on the size of the Sun

(basketball) being 9.4 in. You may use either the metric system or the U.S. system of measurement.

3. You may use a nickel for the planet Saturn, as it is the right scale size. 4. Find other objects around the house (ball bearings? Other small balls?) and measure them

with your ruler. If you cannot find spheres that are small enough, draw different sized circles for different sized planets. Measure the width of each circle. Divide the width of the paper circle by the diameter of the corresponding planet listed in the chart above (use the same units). On your paper circle, write your answer as the Magnification factor represented by that circle. Then cut out the circles.

5. After you have the “Sun” and all the “planets”, then lay them out, side by side, and see how large, or small, they are, to scale. Describe what you observe.

6. Make a scale model of the distances of the Solar System. In other words, place the Sun

(basketball) down on the ground, and then walk away the first distance on the chart. Place the object that you are using for “Mercury” on the ground.

7. Continue your scale distances by walking away from Mercury as shown on your chart. Place the object that you are using for “Venus” on the ground.


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8. It may be best to do this lab in a large park, or on a beach, or on a football field. 9. If you were going to continue to do this, how far would you have to go, in meters, or

kilometers, or yards, feet, miles, or steps, to reach Pluto? 10. This can be done more easily if you choose to use TWO scales. One scale for the relative

sizes of the Sun and planets (the basketball, etc.), and another scale for the distances, so that you could actually fit in the whole Solar System. How far would Earth have to be from the Sun if you were able to fit the whole Solar System inside a football field?

V Data and Calculations Place your data and observations in this section. VI Results In this section, explain if you were successful in doing this lab, and why, or why not. VII Error If you made mistakes in doing this lab, write down here what they were, and what you could do in the future to avoid those mistakes. VIII Questions

1. How many planets have moons? 2. Which planet has the largest number of moons? 3. How large (wide) is Earth relative to our Moon? 4. How many Moon diameters is the Moon away from Earth?

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Earth Science Lab 2:

I Title: Phases of the Moon II Purpose and Theory Our Moon orbits, or travels around Earth every 27.3 days. However, since our planet, Earth, is also moving – around the Sun – it takes the Moon and extra couple of days to “catch up” with Earth so that the Moon will have the same face, or “phase” as it did the previous “moonth,” or month. The Moon has four primary phases, and some intermediate phases. The primary phases are (1) new moon, (2) first quarter, (3) full moon, and (4) last quarter, also called 3rd quarter. The intermediate phases include crescent (smaller than a quarter moon) and gibbous (larger than a quarter moon). This lab will take about a month to do. You will need to go out every clear night, or at least, every other night, if it’s clear, to observe and sketch the Moon. This is NOT an art class, so don’t worry about your sketches. You can find out when the Moon rises and / or sets by looking in your local newspaper, or go to the newspaper’s website. For example, in Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, one can go to www.sun-sentinel.com. It is important that you check the times that the Moon will be out, or you may miss it altogether. Some people believe that the Moon is out every night. Some people are wrong. It isn’t. In fact, a few nights each month, the Moon is “new” or near new moon phase, and thus, is not visible at all. Thus, looking for it then is educational, as you will get frustrated trying to see an invisible moon! III Equipment paper to do your sketches pencil to draw the sketches time to go out and look newspaper or website eyeballs to see the Moon IV Procedure 1. Pick a convenient date to begin, such as when the First Quarter Moon is out. You may have

to scan the newspaper for a few days to find out when this happens. But any date that you start is okay.

2. Find out from the local newspaper what time the Moon rises for that night. It may already be up, so the newspaper may tell you when the Moon sets for that night. Remember that the Moon rises in the EAST, and sets in the WEST. If you don’t know which directions those are from where you observe, you better find out. HINT: get up early one morning and look for the Sun. It also rises in the EAST. Then, around dinner, go out and look for the Sun. It sets in the WEST.


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3. Wait at least one hour after the time of Moonrise. It takes some time for the Moon to get “high enough” in the sky to see easily. Why? Usually there are trees or buildings in the way. So, if the newspaper says that it will rise one night about 9 PM, wait until after 10 PM to go out and look for it. If the newspaper says that the Moon will set one morning about 5 AM, you should go out at least one hour before 5 AM. However, if it does set at 5 AM, that means it rose the day before around 5 PM, so you can observe it at night, and not wake up early to catch it.

4. Each night that you go out and observe, write down the date, time, and your location. Describe the weather (clear, partly cloudy, raining, etc.). If the weather is so bad that you can’t see it, that’s okay. Just record that you went outside, but couldn’t see it due to the weather. However, you will have to eventually sketch all the phases, and you don’t want to have to do this for six months to complete it.

5. Each time that you actually see the Moon, sketch what you see, and that will be one of your “sets” of data.

V Data and Calculations This is where you will put your sketches, and your weather observations. VI Results Over a month’s period, did you get to observe at least the FOUR primary phases? Why or why not? If not, keep observing each night until you do. VII Error What sources of error happened in this lab? What would you do to avoid these mistakes if you were to do this lab again? VIII Questions

1. How many Moons does Earth have? 2. Research the mythical story of the Sun and the Moon as told by the Masai Tribe of

Africa. Write a brief synopsis of that story. 3. How does the Moon affect the levels of the ocean? 4. What is the Moon made of?

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I Title: Constellations II Purpose and Theory Under ideal conditions with clear skies and dry air, the naked eye can see about 4,000 stars. Some people can see even more. For thousands of years humans have been looking skyward at night and seeing those stars. Some stars are very bright, but most are not. As a result, generations of other cultures have imagined different forms, figures, creatures, heroes, and legends among the stars, identified by the brighter stellar objects. As children, we all remember how much fun we had when we were able to “draw” pictures by “connecting the dots.” We’d start with dot #1, and then draw a line to dot #2, and so on, until we finally were finished and had some kind of recognizable image. And so that is the way it was among the early peoples. For the most part, this lab is going to focus on the star legends of Greek and Roman times, drawn from Greek mythology. Among those 4,000 stars, there are 88 constellations. The word “constellation” comes from the Latin words con and stella, meaning "with” and “star.” Thus, a constellation is “with stars,” or group of stars that makes up some kind of picture. Well, at least it would if we connected the dots. As a result, we must use our imaginations to go out and see those constellations. The purpose of this lab is to have you go outside on a clear night, and identify at least 3 of the 88 constellations. You can’t see all 88 at one time anyway. Some constellations are best seen in winter. Some are best seen in summer. Some are visible only from the Southern Hemisphere (like in Australia) and some are visible only in the Northern Hemisphere. You will need to beg, borrow, or steal an astronomy book. That’s just a joke. You can buy one at a bookstore, or check one out from a library. Or you can go online and search for the word “constellation.” There are even books just about constellations. The classic book, Mythology, by Edith Hamilton is ideal to get the background stories on all these celestial legends. You can also visit a local planetarium, and that can help. III Equipment Clear, dark sky Good eyes Time and patience Paper to sketch the constellations Pencil to sketch the constellations


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IV Procedure 1. Do your research to find out which constellations are visible during the season that you are

doing this lab exercise. For example, in Winter, December through February, prominent constellations include Orion (the hunter), Canis Major (big dog), Gemini (twin brothers), Taurus (the bull), and so forth. In summer, you can see Scorpio, Sagittarius (the archer), Hercules, etc. Almost any astronomy book will give images of the night sky in each season.

2. Pick 3 constellations that you want to see. Go out and observe them. 3. Sketch the 3 constellations. Also, describe the date, time, your location, and the local weather

while you are observing them. 4. You may use books to help your sketch, but, remember this is not an ART class, so don’t

worry about your ability to draw. 5. From your research, write a brief story about the background of the constellation that you

have chosen. Again, Edith Hamilton’s book is perfect for this. You may check it out from any library.

V Data and Calculations These are your sketches and your descriptions of the sky, weather, time, date, etc. VI Results Describe or explain how successful you were with this lab, and why or why not. VII Error List any things that may have caused you to do poorly on this lab. If it is merely the weather, then try another night. VIII Questions

1. Name one constellation from each Season. 2. Most bright stars have their own “names.” All stars, however, have their Greek

names: a Greek letter followed by the name of the constellation. What is the Greek letter for the brightest and most famous star in any constellation?

3. How far above the horizon is the North Star from where you are? Hint: the North Star is not the brightest star in the sky; it is about the 50th brightest.

4. How many constellations have dogs in them. (The word you look for will be Canis or Canes).

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I Title: Planes & Rockets II Purpose and Theory From the beginning of time humans have marveled at the flight of birds. Many scientists and inventors have tried to build “heavier than air” vehicles that could fly. This lab will, in some small way, help the student gain an appreciation, and some experience, regarding air flight and space flight. The student will be involved either directly or indirectly in these endeavors. III Equipment paper, to make a paper airplane paper clip, as part of a paper airplaine balloon (2): one filled with air, one with helium (party store) small, model airplane, made of balsa wood, or similar (hobby store) small, radio-controlled airplane (optional) (hobby store) air-propelled rocket (toy store) water-propelled rocket (toy store) IV Procedure

1. Build a paper airplane and keep trying to “fly” it until it actually flies (it will glide, rather than “fly”) at least 5 times. For help, see the resources at the end of this lab. Write down your observations and experiences in making and flying this paper airplane.

2. Acquire some medium to larger balloons and fill them with air, and tie them off. Let them “go” and observe what they do. Repeat until you have done this 5 times. Observe and record your observations.

3. If there is a safe way for you to fill a balloon with “hot” air, try it. The balloon should rise. Record your observations. Do not let the source of heat touch the plastic balloon.

4. Acquire a helium-filled balloon (available at most large grocery stores and toy stores). Go into an enclosed area, so the balloon cannot escape into the sky. Release it, observe, and record. Do this until you have done it 5 times. When you are finished with the helium-filled balloon, do NOT release it into the air. Eventually, it will return to the ground where such balloons have trapped and killed wildlife.

5. Obtain a balsa wood airplane kit (at most toy stores). Assemble it. Keep trying until it flies at least 5 times. Observe and record.

6. Optional: obtain a radio controlled airplane, and learn how to fly it. Record your observations.

7. Obtain an air-propelled rocket and launch it 5 times. Record your observations. (See the resources at the end of this lab).

8. Obtain a water-propelled rocket and launch it 5 times. Record your observations. (See the resource list).

V Data and Calculations

Put your observations here


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VI Results How well did you do in your aeronautical endeavors? Why or why not? VII Error List any errors you may have done, and what you could do to avoid them. VIII Questions

1. Why does a “hot air” balloon rise, while a “cold air” balloon will not? 2. Why does a “helium” balloon rise? 3. Why don’t we use the gas, hydrogen, in our balloons? After all, hydrogen is lighter

than helium. Search for the Hindenburg. 4. What do real rockets use to get the thrust force that propels them into space?

Resources 1. For help and instructions on how to build a paper airplane, go to a library, bookstore, a toy store, or go to the website called: “Build the Best Paper Airplane in the World” at this web address: http://www.zurqui.co.cr/crinfocus/paper/airplane.html, 01/23/2006 2. For help and instructions on how to build or acquire a hot air balloon or an air-propelled rocket, go to a library, bookstore, toy store, or go to the University of Michigan’s Physics Website at this web address: http://phys-advlab.physics.lsa.umich.edu/Olympiads2004/Rockets.htm, 01/23/2006 3. For help and instructions on how to build or acquire a water-propelled rocket, go to a library, bookstore, toy store, or go to the website at this web address: http://www.etacuisenaire.com, 01/23/2006 * In the Product Search window at the top right-hand corner of the opening screen, type “water rocket”, then mouse-click “go”. Then click on the image to learn more.

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I Title: Water Waves II Purpose and Theory There are many different types of waves, and many ways to represent them. One of the easiest ways to observe waves is to use water, and to “make waves.” This can be done in a swimming pool, bath tub, sink, or in other types of receptacles. The whole point of this lab is to observe and record the behavior of waves, as shown by water waves. III Equipment Water Water holder (swimming pool, bathtub, sink, etc.) The shallower, the better. Paddle or other object that can be used to make waves. One can even use a hand or finger.

The paddle should remain straight. Rocks, pebbles, or similar IV Procedure 1. Go up to the edge of a calm swimming pool; OR, fill a bathtub with water, and when it is full

enough, and calm, proceed; OR, fill up a sink with water; OR etc. 2. Slowly lower your paddle, or hand or finger into the water, and begin moving it back and

forth, about once per second. Make the distance back and forth only an inch or two. 3. Observe the waves as they proceed from the paddle to the sides of the water holder. Observe

and record. Describe the waves you see (crest, trough, direction, speed, etc.) 4. About how much time does it take to get to the farthest point in the water holder? 5. Wait until the water calms down and is smooth again. This time, toss a rock or pebble in.

Observe what happens. Record. Again, describe the waves you see (crest, trough, direction, speed, etc.)

V Data and Calculations Place your observations and descriptions here. VI Results How successful was your lab? Explain. How do water waves affect a floating cork or a crumpled wad of paper? VII Error What are the sources of error, if any, and how can they be avoided? VIII Questions

1. How did the waves made by the paddle (or finger) compare to the waves made by the rocks or pebbles? (Describe the waves regarding their crests, troughs, directions, speeds, etc.)

2. What would you consider a “wave packet”? 3. Does it matter if the pebbles are heavy or light? 4. Do you think that sound would travel faster or slower in water, compared with air?

Explain your reasoning.


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I Title: Make a Volcano II Purpose and Theory Volcanoes are shaped like inverted cones, with the hole at the top through which gas and molten lava exit. But, much like an iceberg, there is a whole lot more going on beneath the volcano itself. In this exercise, we are merely going to make a pretend volcano, with just the obvious outgassing results. III Equipment Sheet of wood – about 3 ‘ x 3’ (1 m x 1 m) to use as the base Cylindrical tube, about 12 inches long (30 cm), and 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter. This can be

metal, glass, or ceramic – e.g. cardboard tube from an empty roll of paper towels. Old newspapers Papier-mâché (made from paper, water, glue; see Resources at end) Baking soda (see Resources at end) Vinegar Red food coloring IV Procedure 1. Decide where you will build the volcano, as it can be very messy. Outside would be a good

idea, if weather permits. 2. Secure the cylinder to the wooden base 3. Adhere crumpled newspaper to the cylinder such that a cone is made, with the base being

almost 1 meter in diameter, and the top the size of the cylinder 4. After making the papier-mâché mixture, begin to fashion it around the cylinder and

newspaper so as to mold a wide cone. 5. When finished, allow a day to dry. 6. After it is dried, cover with a sealant, then paint it. 7. When ready, fill the cylinder one-third of the way with baking soda 8. Take about 8 ounces of vinegar (one cup) and add a few drops of red food coloring, so it

looks red. 9. Cautiously poor some of the baking soda into the cylinder, and step back to watch the

“volcano erupt” 10. Observe, and record your observations. 11. Clean up the mess. V Data and Calculations Take a photo (or make a sketch) before, during, and after eruption. Include it in the data. Also, include your observations. VI Results Did the volcano work? Why or why not? Keep trying until it does work. Change the ratio of the baking soda to the vinegar.

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VII Error What would you do differently if you had to do this all over again? Explain. VIII Questions 1. In the United States, where are most of the volcanoes located? The active ones? The

“dormant,” or sleeping ones? 2. Is it safe to wander around near an active volcano? Explain. 3. What elements or molecules are outgassed from volcanoes? 4. Volcanoes can be a source of what kind of energy? Resources 1. Baking soda, with the chemical formula of NaHCO3, is an alkali – a base. It is used in making bubbly (effervescent) beverages, and for removing odors from inside refrigerators. It is also called bicarbonate of soda. 2. Papier-mâché – to learn more about how to make this, go to the library, a bookstore, or go to the website below: http://www.papiermache.co.uk/


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I Title: Earthquake II Purpose and Theory Every day thousands of earthquakes strike. They are not all in the same area, or are they the same strength. Our planet, Earth, is very hot inside, and has been for aeons. As it slowly cools, it shrinks here and there, making pops and cracking sounds. This is similar to a big old house cooling down after a warm day. We may go to bed at night, and before doing so, we may turn off all the normal sounds of radio, television, and, of course, our own voices. As we lie still, we often “hear things” that we just never hear during the morning or afternoon. There are still pops and clicks, but we are so active that our own noise drowns them out. In this simple lab, we are going to “experience” an earthquake, as if you were awakened one morning to your bed dancing around the room.

III Equipment bed two helpers

IV Procedure 1. Lay quietly on a bed with your eyes closed. 2. Have two helpers grab and shake the bed, first in one direction, then in several directions,

including up and down. Remember the types of earthquake waves. 3. While keeping your eyes closed, imagine that you are in the middle of an earthquake. What

do you feel? What do you do? 4. While the bed is still shaking, open your eyes and look, first at the ceiling, then the walls

around you. Pretend your helpers are not there. Concentrate on what you feel and what you remember.

5. After a minute or so, ask the helpers to stop. 6. Straighten and make the bed, and put the room in order. 7. Write down your observations and feelings; first, when you had your eyes shut; then after

you opened them.

V Data and Calculations These are your observations and feelings.

VI Results Did it feel as if you could have been in an earthquake? The author of this lab exercise went through that exact episode, with a real earthquake, on February 9, 1971, in Southern California, when a 6.6-earthquake struck.

VII Error Sources of error, if any?

VIII Questions 1. If this had been a real earthquake, where would the safest place for you to be in that room? 2. If you were outside, say in a field, what action would you take during an earthquake? 3. What if you were in a car? 4. What if you were in an airplane?

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Earth Science Lab 8

I Title: Minerals and Rocks II Purpose and Theory. To find as many types of rocks – and minerals - as possible. There are three main types of rocks: Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic. The object is to find at least one of each type of rock on your expedition outdoors. You may search your yard, or a park, or the beach, or wherever you may find rocks. However, all three types may not necessarily be in the same location. III Equipment Comfortable Shoes Magnifying glass Small hammer Sack to put rocks in IV Procedure

1. Select the place(s) you choose to look 2. Search the area(s) that you have selected 3. Find one of each type of rock, and collect the sample

V Data and Calculations (The data will be your rocks) VI Results Now that you have done 7 labs, you should know what to put here. VII Error Ditto. VIII Questions

1. What is the difference between these three types of rocks? 2. How old are the different types of rocks? 3. Explain the GeoChemical Rock Cycle.


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Earth Science Lab 9 I Title: Magnetic Compass II Purpose and Theory

The magnetic compass (as opposed to the pencil & point compass used to make circles) helps a person determine which direction is North, and thus, each and every direction. While a person can also use the stars, or the Sun, or a stick & shadow, or a face watch, sometimes it is necessary to use a magnetic compass. III Equipment Magnetic Compass (toy store) steel furniture (such as a Filing Cabinet) NOT aluminum or PVC D-Cell Battery (1.5 volts) Insulated copper wire, about 1.0 meter (from a hardware store) Large, iron nail Box-shaped battery (9.0 volts) IV Procedure- Part I 1. Procure a functioning magnetic compass. Test it in Earth’s magnetic field. 2. Locate a metal filing cabinet, or similar. 3. Walk in the direction of the filing cabinet. 4. Stop in front of the filing cabinet. 5. While steadily holding the magnetic compass in your hand, with the compass parallel to the

floor, slowly move the compass to the top of the filing cabinet, as close to the filing cabinet as possible, without touching it.

6. Now, slowly move the compass earthward, while continuously observing any changes in the direction of the compass needle. Record your observations.

Part 2

1. Take your iron nail, and test it for a magnetic field, similar to what you did for the Filing Cabinet. Record.

2. Remove about 1.0 cm of insulation from both ends of the insulated wire. 3. Wind your ~ 1.0 meter of insulated wire tightly from just below the nail’s flat head, to just

above its sharp point. 4. Connect one end (a “lead”) of the wire to the (+) positive terminal on the battery (top), and

the other end to the (-) negative terminal of the battery (bottom). 5. Test your electrical, magnetically-induced nail for a magnetic field, as you did in Part 2. Step

1. Record. 6. Switch the leads on the terminals, and repeat Step #5. Record your observations. 7. Repeat with a box-shaped battery (9.0 volts)

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V Data, Observations, Calculations This is where you write your observations and stuff.

VI Results

You were supposed to have learned about natural and induced magnetism. Describe how successful you were. VII Error Well? VIII Questions 1. Did the compass needle change direction, at all, during your pass over the Filing Cabinet?

Explain. 2. Did the compass needle change direction, at all, during your pass over the naked iron nail?

Explain. 3. Did the compass needle change direction, at all, during your pass over the electrical

magnetically induced iron nail? Explain. 4. Research to find out the strength of Earth’s magnetic field, on average, and give the magnetic

field strength at 4 locations (of your choosing) on planet Earth.


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I Title: Ivory Soap in a Bathtub II Purpose and Theory This is not an experiment to see if a bar of Ivory Soap really floats. It does. Rather, we are going to observe a demonstration of how Earth’s crustal plates float on the Mantle. We use Ivory Soap since it has a density less than that of water, so it floats. All other bars of soap sink. III Equipment Bathtub, sink, or similar water holder At least one bar of Ivory Soap. The larger the better IV Procedure 1. This is a fun lab if you take a bath while doing it. Or if you give your young child a bath.

But, you can do it in the sink, if you wish. 2. Fill the bath or sink with water, but don’t overflow it. 3. Place the bar of Ivory Soap in the water. 4. Observe what the bar of soap does. Record your observations. 5. As a comparison, place a different brand of bar soap in the same water, such as Zest, or Dial,

or Irish Spring, or any other you choose. Observe and record the difference. V Data and Calculations Place observations here VI Results Tell it all VII Error Any? Why? VIII Questions 1. Why did we use Ivory Soap rather than a boat or rubber ducky? 2. What would happen if we had used Ivory Snow (the white detergent for baby’s clothes)? 3. Imagine what would happen if you filled the entire bathtub with bars of Ivory Soap, so there

was virtually no room left to add another. Describe what you think it would look like, and what would happen over, say, a 10-minute period.

4. How many bubbles are in a bar of soap?

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I Title: Water and Sand II Purpose and Theory Water always flows downhill. When we pour water on sand, since Earth’s soil has a lot of sand in it, the water should “disappear” into the sand, just like rain that is soaked up by the ground. When the ground is saturated, it will not absorb any more water. III Equipment Clean sand (about 5 pounds) from beach or fish store A Box for the sand Cup of regular room temperature tap water IV Procedure 1. Put the sand in the box 2. Pour a cup of water over the sand 3. Observe and record. 4. Keep pouring more and more water in the box, until the water will no longer be absorbed.

Write your observations. V Data and Calculations Your descriptions go here. VI Results What were the results? VII Error Did you use a paper box? Water destroys it. VIII Questions 1. Where does the water go that you pour into the sand? 2. Once the sand is “completely full” where does the water go? 3. Compare this experiment with a real scenario where it may rain heavily non-stop for an

extended period of time.


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I Title: Homemade Cyclones II Purpose and Theory Storms and weather systems that rotate are called cyclones. They include hurricanes and tornadoes. We shall observe this on a small scale. III Equipment Bathtub or sink or large drinking water cooler that holds 5-gallon plastic jugs of water Water IV Procedure 1. Fill a bathtub or sink, and wait until it calms down. Or do the water cooler trick (see further

down). 2. Pull the plug and watch the water go down the drain. Repeat until you have done this 5 times.

Observe and draw conclusions. 3. If you do the water cooler trick, wait until the water is all gone, then replace with a new, full

5-gallon jug. As the water drains into the cooler, grab the plastic jug and revolve it around the center of the cooler so a water spout forms inside the water jug. It will go away once the water has completed its level.

V Data and Calculations Explain your observations. VI Results What were the results? VII Error Don’t spill any water. VIII Questions

1. If you do this in the Northern Hemisphere, the waterspout that you create will almost always rotate counterclockwise, as seen from above. Why is this? (Hint: Coriolis)

2. There are never hurricanes near the equator. Explain why.

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Earth Science Lab 13

I Title: Observing the Weather

II Purpose We wish to study wind, sky, rain, clouds, and other weather-related items, as we live within the confines of weather wherever we go. III Equipment Access to a weather reporting source (newspaper, TV, radio, Internet) Calendar Thermometer Barometer (optional) measures atmospheric pressure Anemometer (optional) measure wind speed and direction IV Procedure

1. Check local listings of the highs and lows for the past 5 days. Record 2. Check local listings of the weather conditions for the past 5 days (cloudy, windy, rainy,

sunny, etc.) 3. Observe the weather over the next 5 days (highs, lows, conditions) and record. 4. Make a prediction of the weather over the next 5 days (without cheating and looking in

the paper). Record. 5. After that 5 days, check the local listings of what the weather really was, and compare

what really happened with what you had predicted. V Data and Calculations (The data will be your table of temperatures, etc., vs. dates) VI Results Well? VII Error If you were not exactly correct, why not? VIII Questions

1. Why do they call meteorology an inexact science? Isn’t science exact? 2. How many climate zones are in the United States? 3. Which city has the most moderate, or, even temperature, in the U.S.?


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I Title: Geysers II Purpose and Theory Geysers occur when underground water and hot gas mix, and it causes the solution to “boil over” or explode, shooting the liquid out a small hole in the ground. III Equipment Tea kettle Water Range IV Procedure 1. Put some water in a tea kettle (or tea pot) 2. Turn on the range so the water heats up. 3. When the water boils, observe and listen. 4. Record what you see and hear. 5. Turn off the range. V Data and Calculations Put your observations here. VI Results Were you able to boil water? VII Error Don’t burn yourself. VIII Questions 1. What came out of the teapot? 2. Why did this come out so fast? 3. Why didn’t the gas and liquid stay inside the teapot?

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APPENDIX 3


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Solutions to Problems Lesson 1 pg. 15 1. The name our star is Sun, or Sol. 2. The name of the family of our star is Solar System 3. Each planet got its name from Greek and / or Roman mythology. 4. The hottest terrestrial planet is Venus 5. The largest planet is Jupiter. 6. The “leftovers” of the Solar System include comets, meteorites, and asteroids. Lesson 1 pg. 17 1. The 8 phases of the Moon are New, waxing crescent, first quarter, waxing gibbous, Full,

waning gibbous, last (or third) quarter, waning crescent. 2. The three theories of the Moon’s formation include capture, daughter, and co-planet. 3. Earth has two moons: the Moon, and Toro. The small rock, Toro, is really a captured asteroid 4. A 180-pound man would weigh on the Moon 1/6th or 30 pounds. Lesson 1 pg. 20 1. The name of the closest star to the Sun is Alpha Centauri. 2. The nearest star to the Sun is about 4.3 light years away, or 25 trillion miles, 40 trillion

kilometers. 3. The speed of light is 300,000 km/sec (186,282 miles per second) 4. The life cycle of a star includes starting as a large, irregularly shaped blob of gas and dust.

Gravity pulls this into a sphere. As gravity continues to cause the sphere to shrink, the ball gets hotter and hotter, becoming a proto-star. Eventually, it gets so hot at the center or core, that hydrogen is fused into helium, making it a self-sustaining, nuclear-burning star. It remains this way for about 10 aeons, or 10 billion years. Then it runs out of hydrogen at the core, and it begins to turn helium into carbon. It becomes, first, a Red Giant star, and later, a White Dwarf. Depending on its mass, it may simply burn out, or it may later become a neutron star and then a black hole.

Lesson 1 pg. 22 1. We got the name “Milky Way” for our galaxy from the Greek word galactos which means

“milky way.” 2. There are about 20 galaxies are in our “local neighborhood.” 3. The largest galaxy in our neighborhood is the Andromeda Galaxy – 2.1 million light years

away. 4. A Quasar is a quasi-stellar radio source – and may be the nucleus of a newly forming galaxy

at the edge of the universe. Lesson 1 pg. 30 1. Wan Hu was a Chinese explorer and inventor, and tried to fly to the Moon using 47 rockets. 2. Domingo Gonzales was a Spanish explorer and inventor; he tried to train a flock of geese to

fly him to the Moon. 3. The three gases often used in large balloons to get them airborne are hydrogen, helium, and

hot air. 4. The aviation inventor who almost came out with manned flight before the Wright brothers

was Samuel Langley.

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5. The first man to walk on the Moon was Neil Armstrong, a civilian. Lesson 1 pg. 34 1. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz was a German scientist who studied wavelengths and frequencies of

light. 2. Anders Ångström was a Scandinavian scientist who studied light waves. 3. The frequency of a beam of red light whose wavelength is 6000 Ångströms is determined by

the relationship that �� = c, so the frequency, �, is = c / � = (3 x 108 m / sec) divided by 600 nanometers, or (3 x 108 m / sec) / (600 x 10-9 m) = 5 x 1014 cycles/sec

4. The speed of sound at STP is 342 meters/sec = 1100 feet/sec 5. If you see an ocean wave hit the beach every 8 seconds, its frequency is 1/8th cycle per

second or 0.125 Hz 6. A typical radio wave, which has a frequency of 560 kilohertz, has a wavelength of � = c /

� = 300,000 km/sec divided by 560,000 cycles per sec = 300 / 560 kilometer = 0.536 km or 536 meters

Lesson 2 pg. 41 1. The difference between a rock and a mineral is that a rock is made of two or more minerals. 2. The three primary minerals that make up rocks include quartz, olivine, and pyroxene. 3. Examples igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks include basalt, limestone, and

gneiss, respectively. 4. The air pressure at sea level is 1 atmosphere = 14.7 lb/in2 = 1 million dynes / cm2 Lesson 2 pg. 47 1. The two primary types of earthquake waves are the P waves and the S waves. 2. The Greek word seismos means “quake” or “shake”. 3. The Moon cannot have earthquakes because it is the Moon. It can have moonquakes. 4. The large wall of water often associated with under the ocean quakes is called a tsunami. 5. The epicenter is on the Earth’s surface, and the focus is below ground level, where the

earthquake actually occurs. Lesson 2 pg. 49 1. The difference between rocks and minerals is that rocks are made of two or more minerals. 2. The mineral is found abundantly on the Moon, in meteorites, and in Earth’s mantle is

dunnite. 3. The most abundant mineral on Earth is quartz. 4. Ordinary glass is made by melting together quartz and lime and letting them cool slowly.

Lead crystal is formed by substituting lead oxide for lime. Lesson 2 pg. 52 1. A magnet is made of iron that has been polarized. 2. A magnet can attract only iron. Sand is made of non-metals. 3. A compass works because a magnetized needle inside aligns itself with Earth’s magnetic

field. The needle is carefully balance on a tiny support. Placing a magnetized needle gently on smooth water would also work.

4. Paleomagnetism is the study of Earth’s magnetic field long ago.


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5. Earth’s various levels, in other words, its core, include the very center, called (1) the inner core, made of solid nickel and iron, with a density of about 11 grams per cubic centimeter, or 11 g/cm3; above and surrounding that is (2) the outer core, made of liquid nickel and iron, and with a density of about 9 g/cm3; above the outer core is (3) the mantle, made of a mixture of iron, nickel, silicate, and other materials, and with a density of about 4 to 7 g/cm3; finally, covering the entire planet is a thin layer called (4) the crust, about 8 to 30 kilometers thick, with a density of about 2.5 g/cm3.

6. The Van Allen Belts, named for astronomer James Van Allen, are part of Earth’s magnetic field projected out into space. They act like a shield and protection to Earth from high-energy charged particles that come from the Sun and other locations.

Lesson 2 pg. 55 1. The largest crustal plate is the North American Plate. 2. There are seven major crustal plates. 3. Earth is not the only planet with plates. All solid planets have them, albeit, the plates

elsewhere may have “congealed” due to internal cooling. 4. Pangea comes from two words: “pan,” meaning all; and “gaea” meaning Earth. So, Pangea is

“all Earth,” or the one original huge continent. Lesson 3 pg. 59 1. The job title of a person who studies meteorology is “meteorologist.” 2. The job title of a person who studies meteorites is “meteoriticist.” 3. The composition of Earth’s Primary Atmosphere includes hydrogen and helium, with lesser

amounts of other gases. 4. Earth’s Primary Atmosphere escaped into space, since it was made of very light gases

(hydrogen and helium). This is similar to a party balloon filled with helium. Once you let go, it rises way up into the sky and “disappears.” In reality, the balloon pops, and falls back to Earth; the helium that was inside continues to rise to the top of the atmosphere, then escapes into outer space. Meanwhile, some hapless animal finds the remains of the popped balloon, and gags to death trying to eat it.

Lesson 3 pg. 60 5. The secondary atmosphere is the one that replaced the primary atmosphere. 1. The secondary atmosphere came from outgassing, mostly through volcanoes. 2. The main gases that comprise the secondary atmosphere are water vapor (H2O), carbon

dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen (N2). 3. The four gases, in their order of highest to lowest concentration, along with their percentages,

are water vapor (57%), carbon dioxide (23%), sulfur dioxide (12%), and nitrogen (6%). Lesson 3 pg. 64 1. The current atmosphere evolved from the secondary atmosphere – which is no longer here. 2. The five main gases in Earth’s air today include Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon, and lesser

amounts of water vapor and carbon dioxide 3. Their percentages are Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), Argon (1%), and varying amounts of

water vapor and carbon dioxide. 4. The water that was once in Earth’s air cooled, condensed, turned into rain, and fell to Earth;

now 70% of Earth is covered with water; carbon dioxide combined with the rocks, soil, and

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oceans and thus, dropped out of the air; sulfur dioxide also combined with the rocks, soil, and oceans, and dropped out of the air.

5. Oxygen was generated by a process called phytolysis. This occurred when solar energy broke the molecular bonds in water to free the hydrogen (which escaped into space) and the oxygen (which is still here). The chemical equation is: 2 H2O + Eo = 2 H2 + O2, where Eo is the Sun’s energy.

6. Argon, with atomic number 18, is a noble gas. A radioactive isotope of potassium, with the number 19, decayed to produce Argon and hydrogen – which escaped into space. The chemical equation is: 2 19K

38 = 2 18Ar36 + H2 7. Potassium is a naturally occurring element in Earth’s soil. 8. The six levels of Earth’s lower atmosphere include the troposphere, tropopause, stratosphere,

mesosphere, mesopause, and ionosphere. These are also called the thermosphere. 9. The outer atmosphere is the exosphere. 10. Clouds are large groupings of water droplets. They form from rising, cooling water vapor. Lesson 3 pg. 70 1. The four stages of the hydrologic cycle include vapor, precipitation, run-off to ocean, and

storage. 2. Evaporation occurs when liquid water molecules separate from each other to form water

vapor and leave the liquid. Precipitation is when water is deposited on the surface of Earth through rain, snow, or other forms of weather.

3. Glaciers cause erosion since they are always moving. At the bottom of the glacier it is a liquid, and the glacier flows, but as it does, the tremendous pressure of the weight of the glacier carves out the surface of Earth.

4. Acid rain is caused when pollution in the air is absorbed by falling rain and the reaction yields an acidic product, which then hits Earth.

5. In addition to Earth’s weather, wind plays a key factor in erosion on Mars. Lesson 3 pg. 73 1. The word “ocean” comes from the Greek word okeano, which means “large body of water

that covers Earth.” 2. The name of the science that studies fish is ichthyology. 3. A major underwater mountain range between the United States and Europe is the Mid-

Atlantic Ridge 4. A typical water temperature in the Caribbean Sea is 80° F, or 27° C. 5. The Coriolis Force causes projectiles to veer right in the Northern Hemisphere, and left in the

Southern Hemisphere, due to Earth’s rapid rotation. 6. The deepest ocean trench is the Marianas, near Japan.


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Lesson 3 pg. 76 1. Weather is what happens during any day/night. Climate is the average weather over many

years. 2. The 5 major climatic regions, as a function of temperature are

a. Tropical b. Subtropical c. Temperate d. Cold e. Polar

3. The 8 climatic regions as a function of precipitation are: a. Equatorial b. Tropical c. Semiarid d. Arid e. Dry Mediterranean f. Mediterranean g. Temperate h. Polar

4. The sunniest city in the United States is Yuma, Arizona. 5. The city that has the most average “perfect” weather is San Diego, California. 6. The city that has the harshest (coldest) weather is Point Barrow, Alaska Lesson 3 pg. 85 1. If it were 75° F at ground level, and then you called a friend on the phone who was at the top

of a 5000-foot (about one mile), hill, the temperature where your friend was would be: T = Ts – (19° F)(h) = 75° F – (19° F / mi)(1 mile) = 56° F.

2. Cyclones rotate counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, as observed from above. 3. The Coriolis Effect: see Lesson 3.5, Problem #5. 4. The 5 categories of hurricanes are: 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Level 1 is the weakest, and level 5 is the

strongest. These are the Saffir-Simpson scale levels. 5. Most tornadoes in the United States are along “tornado alley,” or a region roughly from the

Gulf Coastal Plain of Texas all the way north into South Dakota 6. Worldwide glaciers cover approximately 10% of solid land. 7. The tornado strength, F-Scale, is based upon level of winds and damage, and ranges from an

F 0 tornado, with winds 42 to 73 mph, all the way to F 6, with winds over 318 mph. Lesson 3 pg. 90 1. The inventor of the thermometer was Galileo Galilei. 2. A barometer works by measuring differences in air pressure. 3. A hygrometer is a tool that measures how much moisture (water vapor) is in the air. 4. An anemometer measures windspeed and direction. 5. The Rain Gauge invented by the son of a Korean King to help in the agricultural process. 6. Doppler Radar sends off a radio signal at the speed of light, and it bounces off a moving

object and reflects back to the device, showing a slight change in wavelength, which translates to a speed.

7. A radiosonde can work only if it is sent high in the air with a balloon.

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Lesson 4 pg. 94 1. The Sun’s energy comes from internal nuclear reactions – fusion. Essentially, it is the process

of converting hydrogen into helium, by the nuclear equation 2. 4 1H

1 = 2He4 + 2�+ + E 3. The Sun’s energy gets to Earth as the Sun’s light – electromagnetic radiation that emanates

out into space. 4. The speed of light is about 300,000 km/sec = 186,286 mi/sec 5. The Solar Flux at Earth is 1360 watts/m2 6. Photosynthesis is the creation of food energy from light energy, using the Sun’s light energy,

and the plant’s own formal process. The chemical equation is 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Eo = C6H12O6 + 6 O2

Lesson 4 pg. 96 1. The word “hydroelectric” means “water” “electricity.” It is the main word used to describe

energy derived from water falling through a dam. 2. A “mill” is a building using wheels, gears, and pulleys to create a product, such as flour from

grain, wood pulp from wood, energy from wind or water. 3. The flowing water makes paddles on a wheel turn that wheel, which rotates a shaft connected

to an electricity generator. Lesson 4 pg. 99 1. Geothermal energy comes from the internal heat of Earth. 2. A geyser works by having overheated water pushed through channels by hot, expanding

gases. 3. Franklin D. Roosevelt was the U.S. President who promoted the use of hot springs (served

1933 – 1945). 4. The nation of Iceland uses more geothermal energy than any other. Lesson 4 pg. 103 1. Three examples of hydrocarbons include: propane, butane, and gasoline. 2. Hydrocarbons combine with oxygen (O2) to burn and give off energy. 3. Paraffins (wax) are the heavy hydrocarbons that burn very slowly. 4. Fossil fuels are not a renewable resource, as they were created over millions of years from

decomposition of plants and animals (like dinosaurs). Lesson 5 pg. 110 1. Coal is the vast natural resource that the United States has. About 24% of the world’s supply

of this is in the United States. 2. The two sources of energy that cause air pollution are the burning of crude oil (oil, gasoline,

etc.), and the burning of coal. 3. The energy source that could cause radioactive pollution is nuclear fuel, gleaned from

nuclear power plants. 4. What may be the best long-term solution to Earth’s energy needs is geothermal. 5. Mechanical energy is used when an object is broken. 6. You would do NO work If you pushed all day against a building with all your “force,”

because Work = Force x distance. Since the building did not move at all, distance = 0, so Work = Force x 0 = 0.


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7. Energy that is stored up and used later is called potential energy. 8. Energy drives technology. Lesson 5 pg. 114 1. Some of the first environmentalists included Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau,

and Theodore Roosevelt. 2. President Theodore Roosevelt helped the environment by starting a program to preserve

nature by the creation of national parks and such. 3. The EPA is the Environmental Protection Agency, and its mission is to protect the natural

environment, by enforcing laws against polluters, by encouraging citizens to be locally responsible, by assisting in passing laws that protect nature, etc.

4. The first Earth Day was April 26, 1970. 5. The ozone layer protects us, and all life forms, by intercepting, absorbing, and reflecting

harmful ultraviolet rays from the Sun. The ozone layer consists of triatomic oxygen (O3) molecules, and it is very high up in the atmosphere. Ozone itself is poisonous for humans.

6. Between 10 and 100 species of life become extinct each day.

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APPENDIX 4


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Scientists and Writers involved in Earth & Space Science Ader, Clément; (1841 – 1925) French engineer; built a steam-powered airplane; piloted

the first heavier-than-aircraft in 1890 Alberti, Leon; (1452-1485) Italian architect, artist, and scientist; contemporary of Leonardo da Vinci Ångström, Anders Jonas (1814-74) Swedish astronomer and physicist Baum, L. F. (1856-1919) American Writer; wrote The Wonderful World of Oz Blanchard, Jean (1753-1809) French aeronaut; also called François Blanchard Blériot, Louis (1872-1936) French engineer and pioneer aviator Bradbury, Ray (1920 - ) born Douglas Bradbury. American Writer of Science Fiction (Martian Chronicles) Brahe, Tycho; (1546-1601) Danish astronomer and nobleman Burroughs, Edgar (1875 – 1950) American Writer of Science Fiction (Captain John Carter on Mars) Cayley, Sir George (1773-1857) English nobleman and inventor; developed the concept of the modern airplane; the founder of the science of aerodynamics. Celsius, Anders (1701 – 1744) Swedish Astronomer; developed temperature scale Charles, Jacques (1746-1823) French chemist, physicist, and aeronaut Copernicus, Nicolaus; (1473 – 1543)Polish intellectual; member of the clergy; writer, astronomer; military officer; physician;mapmaker and adventurer Curtiss, Glenn (1878-1930) American aviator and inventor Cyrano De Bergerac, Savinien; (1619-1655) French writer of Science Fiction Da Vinci, Leonardo; (1452 – 1519) Italian inventor and painter Daedelus (c. 1600 B.C.) Athenian architect and inventor who designed wax wings to fly; worked for King Minos of Crete. De Coriolis, Gaspard; (1792 – 1843) French Physicist

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De Saussure, Horace Bénédict; (1740 – 1799) French-Swiss geologist and meteorologist, invented the hair hygrometer in 1780 Doolittle, Jimmy (1896-1993) American aviator and army officer Edison, Thomas (1847 - 1931) American Inventor Einstein, Albert; (1879 – 1955 German-Swiss-American Jewish discoverer of Relativity Emerson, Ralph Waldo; (1803-1882)American writer and a leader of transcendentalism. Fahrenheit, Gabriel; (1686 – 1736) German who developed a temperature scale Fokker, Anthony Herman: (1890-1939)Dutch-American aircraft designer Folli, Francesco; (1624 – 1685) Italian scientist Fujita, Tetsuya Theodore (1920 – 1998) Japanese American scientist; developed the F Scale for Tornadoes Galileo (1564 – 1642) Italian astronomer; developed two of the three laws of motion Giffard, Henri; (1825 – 1882) French engineer and inventor; made the first successful airship in 1852 Goddard, Robert; (1882-1945) American rocket engineer Gonzales, Domingo: (c. 1450) Spanish Inventor of Geese- aircraft Halley, Sir Edmund: (1656 - 1742) British Astronomer Hanno of Carthage: (c. 600 B.C.) Phoenician Adventurer and (1738 – 1822) British-German- Jewish Astronomer Hertz, Wilhelm Heinrich; (1857 – 1894)German who studied light Hooke, Robert: (1635 – 1703) British Physicist Icarus: (c. 1600 B.C.) son of Daedelus Jeffries, John (1744-1819) American Physician and Aeronaut Joule, James (1818-1889) British Physicist Langley, Samuel: (1834-1906) American Astronomer and Aviator


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Miller, Stanley (1930 - ) American Chemist and ExtraTerrestrial Scientist Mitchell, Billy (1879-1936) American Military Aviator and Officer Mohorovičić, Andrija; (1857 – 1936)Croatian Scientist and Geologist Montgolfier, Jacques; (1745 – 1799)French Aeronaut Montgolfier, Joseph; (1740 – 1810) French Aeronaut Muir, John; (1838-1914) American naturalist, explorer, and writer Munjong, King of Korea; (c 1418 – 1445) invented rain gauge Newton, Sir Isaac; (1642 – 1727) Briton who discovered law of gravity; developed 3 laws of motion Planck, Max; (1858 – 1947) German who studied light frequency Rittenhouse, David; (1732-1796) American Astronomer; friend of George Washington and Benjamin Franklin Robinson, John; (c. 1750 – 1810) American Aeronaut Roosevelt, Franklin D. (1882 – 1945) 32nd President of the United States, and an advocate of Hot Springs (Geothermal energy) Roosevelt, Theodore (1858 – 1919) 26th President of the United States, and an advocate of protecting the environment Thoreau, Henry David; (1817-1862)American Writer and Naturalist Torricelli, Evangelista; (1608-47) Italian Scientist; invented Barometer Urey, Harold; (1893-1981) American Chemist Van Allen, James (1914 - ) American Astrophysicist; discovered Van Allen Belts Verne, Jules (1828-1905) French Writer of Science Fiction;Journey to the Center of the Earth, and From the Earth to the Moon, among others Von Zeppelin, Count Ferdinand; (1838-1917) German Inventor, Aeronaut, and Military Officer Wan Hu (c. 1500 A.D.) Chinese Rocket Scientist

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Washington, George (1732 – 1799) 1st President of the United States and an Engineer & Surveyor Wegener, Alfred; (1880-1930) German Earth Scientist Wren, Christopher (1632-1723) British Astronomer and Architect Wright, Orville (1871–1948) American Inventor and Aviator Wright, Wilbur (1867-1912) American Inventor and Aviator

fsc earthsc 09 text updated and appendices added feb 18

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