Bull. Ind. Inst. Hist. Med Vol. XXI pp. 105 to 119

FROM METALS TO HUMAN BEINGS:MEDICAL ASPECTS OF EUROPEAN ALCHEMY

VLADIMIR KARPENKO «-

ABSTRACT

lhe evolution of medical alchemy, alchemical practices oriented on

human health, is !olJowed on the background of European history. Severalcrucial moments can he observed: 1. In European alchemy the orientation on

the transmutation of metals was dominant, 2. Twice a possibility appeared to

incorporate to a significant extent medical aspects into alchemy; it is connected

with names of Arnald from Villanova and Paracelsus. 3. Failure. or only limited

success of both of these attempts should be further examined in broad relations

to cultural. political, re:ig DUS and epidemiological situation in Europe.

Introduction

For at least six hundred years,between 12th and 18th centuriesalchemy had exerted significantinfluence on many fields of humanactivity, among others on medicine.This influence on human being hasnot always been direct one, some-thing like mediated effect can beoccasionally observed. It seems tobe the case of the medical side ofalchemy, which developed in Europeas a later branch of this science. Thewhole picture, however, is not asclear as it appears to be. The reasonsare multiple. On the most important,

if not the first pi ace, problems of theevaluation of the role and activitiesof alchemy arising from the deepsecretness of this science should bementioned. Especially in the laterepochs complicated language ofalchemy with her bizarre vocabularymakes it often difficult to distinguishbetween healing of metals and ofhumans in physical or spiritual sense.Secondly. when the question isfocused on medical side only, thenduring the whole existence of alchemyit is not easy to draw a distinct linebetween alchemists, physicians, bar-ber-surgeons and other occupations,all of whom had or could have

* Departrnent of Physical Chemistry, Charles University,

Albertov 2030. 128 40 Prague 2 Czechoslovakia.

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something in common with curing ofillnesses. Just alchemists did notoften take part in this activity directlyand their ideas concerned withmedicine remained then on solelytheoretical basis. Extremely importantwas the influence of surroundings,in the case of Europe it was Christianchurch, because any medical theoryor pact ice should not collide withruling religious dogmas. Not neg-ligible is the fact that the develop-ment of any idea stood under thepressure of economy and politics.Position of alchemy in Europe and themutual interaction of this sciencewith medicine appears thus as amultifaceted problem solution ofwhich is or can be sometimes con-troversial and it is in place to expresssome of conclusions rather hypothe-tically. In the following paragraphsan attempt is undertaken to draw thepicture of medical aspects of Europeanalchemy in rough counters only,because there are still more questionsthan answers.

II Medical alchemy in Europe

Roots and objects

As for sources the origin of Euro-pean alchemy is clear, they were theArab works translated into Latinlanguage (the history of Europeanalchemy is thoroughly described bymany authors, for example by Holrnv-ard (1957), Stillman (1960), Kopp(1971), Sherwood Taylor (1976),

Bull. Ind. Inst, HiS{ Med. Voi. X XI

etc.). Not as clear is the date inspite of seemingly precise timing(Stavenhagen (1974» so that themiddle or the second half of the 12thcentury is usually accepted. Theappearance of alchemy in Europe isconnected with two basic conditions-one concerning the state of practicalknowledge, the other cultural back-ground of the population. Evidentlyboth of them proved to be suitableotherwise this new science wouldhardly be as successfully accepted asshe was. Rather than acceptancethe term assimilation gives a truepictu re of this process.

Let stop at both points in theirturn. Cultural background was onthe official plane determined by thechristian religion, which attained thetop of influence on spiritual andpolitical life just in the lata medievalEurope. Surprisingly at the momentintroduction of alchamv these twoideologies did not collide, and didnot do it even later, in spite of thefact that the claims of alchemy to beable to achieve in the laboratory thesame what proceeds during muchlonger time in the nature, was inobvious contradiction to the teachingof the Church. Because, in otherwords, alchemists pretended onsomething what was an activityreserved exclusively to God himself.It is interesting to note that evenlater when medical effects of alche-mical preparations became morepopular, either in healing of diseases

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or in prolongation of human life therewere 110 serious protests from theChurch. Particularly this point, thecoexistence of alchemy and religion,belongs to the most important sidesof evolution of Europe.

Description of medieval Europeas being ruled solely by the christianreligion would be one-sided view.Deep in human thinking of that timeancient beliefs persisted, superstition,sorcery, different kinds of magicpractices. It is enough to rememberthe broad spectrum of supernaturalbeings of myths and tales. This sideof European cultural back qrourid isnot less important, because it exertedas strong effect on rudimentarymedicine as prayers and ceremoniesof the Church.

As for technologies Europeanalchemy could build her laboratorypractice on a solid fundament whichdeveloped by th e mid of the 'l Zthcentury as can be documented insuch sources like Mapiae clavicula(1974) or De diversis artibus(Theoph.lus (1979) ) written approxi-mately at the sarne time. Particularlymetallurgy h3S reached the levelalmost ideal for the introduction ofnew idea (Tvleccte (1976)). Thework with metals became a commonpractice, but simultaneously trust-worthy theoretical explanation waslacking so that any speculationsupporting the possibility of thetransmutation of common metals into

Bull. Ind. tnst. Hist, Med. Vol. XXI

precious ones has found nourishingsoil.

The birth of medical alchemy

Before going into details of thisquestion it should be stressed herethat the term "medical alchemy" isnot quite correct and will be usedthroughout this paper solely forpractical reasons. In this wayanattempt is made to distinguishbetween two directions in alchemy-transmutation of metals and healingof human beings. The seconddirection has been medical whatconcerned its aims, while the methodsand especially the picture of humanphysiology and pathology was usuallyvery far from what can be todaycalled medicine.

The development of Europeanalchemy during the first one and halfcenturies of her existence was directedtow arcs the search for mysterioustransmuting agent, what was realizedpreferably in a chemical way. Thisagent was sought for the purpose ofthe change of one metal into another.Typical example can be found in aclassical work of that time, Libellusde alchimia, ascribed to AlbertusMagnus (1983). It is a collection ofrecipes for various compounds someof which should be used in the laterstages of the Great Work. The sameor very similar system can be observedin numerous later works, of which themost important is Pseudoqeber's

From Metals to Human 8eings-Karpenko

collection (Darmstaedter (1922) ).But none of important sources of thattime contains to a significant extentany allusions on a possibility to reacha possitive effect on human health.The story of Nicholas Flamel (Feder-mann (1964) ) is a later fabricationand cannot be taken seriously. Thesame goes for similar fables, whichappeared through the whole existenceof alchemy. Thus in the first periodof European alchemy attitude towardstransmutation of metals is markedlyprevailing.

Just on this basis the only con-flict with ruling ideology has arisenas is documented by the decreeSpondent quas non exhibent issued1317 by the Pope Johannes XXII(Partington (1937i8) ) which sup-ports once more the fact that alchemyworked at that time almost exclusivelywith metals. This prohibition issuedby the Pope, but never strictlyfollowed, concerned only the produc-tion of artificial gold and false money.Obviously the economic danger ofpossible overproduction of gold,which could have decreased its value,led the Church to such a step. Onthe other side the idea that in tilelaboratory the same could be achievedas in the nature, expressed even inthe works of clergy (Albertus Magnus(1983) ), was passed over by theChurch in silence. Strange as it maybe, even certain very old fusion ofalchemical and religious teachingsoccured as is shown by "The Book

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of The Holy Trinity", which incontrary to the title is an alchemicalwork (Ganzenrnuller (1967) ). Whendid then medical alchemy appear?

Arnald from Villanova, the waytowards human health

Contrary to Europe in Chinesealchemy the idea of longevity ofhuman life achieved by means of theuse of artificial gold or anotherpreparations has been expressed verypregnantly from the very beginningof this science (Ware (1966) ). Thiscultural region of the world followedown independent path of develop-ment, while in EUrope alchemyappeared as the product of the ancientHellenistic culture mediated throughthe stage of Islamic alchemy. In allthese cultures alchemy passed throughmore or less the same evolutionarysteps - initiation, culmination andeventually termination usually accom-panied by growing mysticism. Andin all three cases the transformationof metals was the main goal ofalchemists in the initial period oftheir science, while later, and parti-cularly in the terminal period goalsof alchemy became more nebulous.Sometimes between more or lessserious attempts have been under-taken to exert an influence on humanhealth through preparations or prac-tices from the arsenal of alchemy.

The question of the beginning ofmedical alchemy in Europe cannot be

110 BUll. Ind. Inst, Hist. Med. Vol. XXI

Arnald from Villanova introduced as Frenchman chemist, astrologistand physician is watching the conjunction of the King Sol and theQueen Luna, representing in the cryptic language of alchemy goldand silver respectively.

(collected from the book Viridarium Chymicum 1624, Frankfurt byDaniel Stolcius, Czech poet and Scientists).

From Metals to Human Beings-Karpenko

answered with definitive validity.There are at least two possibilities,which will be discussed in more detail.

The first explanation can becalled a classical one, according towhich medical aspects of alchemydeveloped on the basis of the obser-vation that gold is extremely stablemetal, seemingly immortal. Then itwas expected quite conceivably thatit could have produced similar effectson human health and life. Healthcould be restored and life prolongedthrough the proper action of gold orits compounds. It is what appeared inChinese alchemy (Dubs (1947,1961))and in European medicine can besimilar way of thinking traced out.As late as 1685 King Charles II(1630-85) was given portable goldin an unsuccessful attempt to savehis life. The idea of medical useoriginated with gold but graduallybecame dispersed on more compoundsand along with the Philosopher'sStone for the transmutation of metalsEuropean alchemists were seeking forthe Elixir of Life, not less mysterioussubstance which was said to producedramatic effects on human beings.So far in brief this theory, which wasa product of observations and chemi-cal properties of gold have beenfalsely generalized on living beings.

In Europe this point of view couldbe supported to a not negligibleextent by another influence. Theevolution of European alchemy is

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marked by several prominent keyfigures one of them being Arnaldfrom Villanova (for his life see Kopp(1971). Federmann (1964). Withthis personality medicine enteredEuropean alchemy and Arnald isusually presented either as a success-full healer or as an alchemist, but veryoften as a representative of bothoccupations. But was he? Some au-thors (Stillman (1960)) suppose himto be a physician only so that alche-mical works attributed to him shouldbe latter forgeries. This possibilitycannot be ruled out, because in thehistory of alchemy there are manysuch examples, suffice it to mentionPseudogeber, or the whole Lulliancorpse of alchemical treatises. Butwhether was Arnald only physicianor not, it appears not to be decisivefor the final effect - his name andmedical fame was eventually joinedwith alchemy. On this basis thenmedical alchemy could hava evolved-not solely from the idea of immortalmetal, but inspired by true successesof the personality widely accepted asan alchemist.

It shou Id be stressed here th atArnald from Villanova was, comparedto the level of the medicine at histime, surely an excellent physician(see for example Diepgen (1922).but was influenced by his surroun-dings so that besides quite reasonablethoughts he used and recommendedmagical amulets as well (Holmyard(1957)). It was a reflection of the

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way of thinking of the rate medievalEurope and just this mystical aspectof Arnald's work could have made itattractive to alchemists. Mysticismappears in this light as the best wayhow to join alchemy with earlymedicine.

The crisis of European medicinein the 14th century

If the hypothesis is accepted thatArnalds successes as a physiciancontributed significantly to the deve-lopment of medical alchemy it would!:Jeinteresting to trace out the sprea-ding of these thoughts in alchemicalliterature. Unfortunately it is a com-plicated task because of the nebulouslanguage of these works which wasintended to keep secret alleged know-ledge of Masters of the Art (for discu-ssion of alchemical terminology seeCrosland (1962). Schneider (1962).It was Arnald from Villanova whowrote that "Our medicine •••has powerto heal all infirmity and diseases, bothof inflc.mmation and c'ebilitv, it turnsan ol J man into a vout.i. If the illnessbe of one month's standing, it maybe healed in a week. Hence thismedicine is not without reason prizedabove all other treasures that thisworld affords" (Read (1961)). Thissentence became a classics, wasrepeated with various changes in lateralchemical literature, but usuallyremained as general as this originalstatement and, anyway, passagesconcerning the transmutation of

sun. Ind. Inst. Hist. Med, Vol. XXI

metals were uncomparable morefactual. This orientation, on the trans-mutation of metals, appears to besignificantly prevailing.

It looks at least strange, becauseone's interest in his own health issurely as strong as in his materialproperty so that we are arriving atconclusion that something happenedwhat has cast serious doubts as tothe real possibilities of engenderingmedical alchemy. Arnald from Villa-nova lived approx. 1235-1311/14and thirty years after his death epi-demy of plague broke out in Italy.Within a couple of years this diseaseoverrun the whole Europe and retur-ned then repeatedly during followingcenturies (Mc Evedy (1988». Extre-mely high mortality rate and unabilityof medicine and alchemy to treatsuccessfully this illness must haveshattered the faith in medicines aswell as in elixirs. The faith in Elixirof Life pesisted until tile end ofalchemy, but the question remainshow strong this faith was, when forcenturies its parallel substance, thePhilosopher's Stone, did not demons-trate mark.edly its alleqec qualities.

Dramatic outside interventioninto the development of medicalalchemy could have been the reasonwhy this science has never becomeas important as it was in ancientcivilisations of India and China. Inthis region, of course, the evolutionrun on quite different cultural andphilosophical basis.

From Mete:s to Human Beinqs-s-Kerpenko

In Europe facing repeated failuresa question must have arisen necessarywhat was incorrect - alchemical theoryor practice? This question was notexpressed 2S pregnantly as it is inpreceding sentence, but it was in anunspoken form.

In the light of the above saidreasons it is easier to understand thesuccess of Paracelsus (1493-1541).He introduced the theory of tria prima,of three basic principles (Coudert(1980», which lent new support toalchemical experimentation, and, atthe same time, he stepped out with anew medical practice. It happenedwhen after two centuries the epide-mics of plague had weakened andthrough this lucky coincidence medi-cal successes of Paracelsus becamemore obvious and turned the attentionof public. Further evolution led thento iatrochemistry and eventuallymodern pharmacology.

In spite of the positive acceptanceof Paracelsian ideas aIchemy adoptedalmost exclusively his theory ofmatter, where the third constituent,salt, influenced later the last flourishof European alchemy. Michal Sendi-vogius (156? -1636) focused hisattention just on the salt and fromthis substance in a generalized viewas it has been originally formulatedby Paracelsus he arrived at the con-clusion that 'sal centrale' as he calledit is nothing else as what is todayPotassium nitrate. In this connec-

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tion it is worth noting that he evenobserved the importance of a gasgiven off by this compound at highertemperatures for living creatures. Butthis allusion on Oxygen (Sendziwoj(1978» remained unnoticed and exer-ted no influence on medical theories.

Medical teaching of Paracelsushas been adopted to some extent byEuropean medicine while his alchemi-cal thoughts became the property ofalchemists. It is not too far from thetruth to say that his work was splitinto two parts which remained sepa-rated. The adoption of Paracelsianthree basic principles did not changealchemy considerably, only instead ofprevious four Aristotelian elementsand the pair mercury-sulphur therewas the third escape way how toexplain repeated failures. Alchemicalliterature did not in principle differfrom earlier works. Besides occa-sional allusions on miraculous powersof the Stone or Elixir on humanschemical experimentation continuedtowards fulfilling of the centuries olddream of transmutation.

It was an epoch when alchemyflourished in Bohemia reaching herpeak by the end of the 16th centuryduring the reign of the AustrianEmperor Rudolf II (1552-1612, reign1576-1611). The most importantcontemporaneous works of Czechauthors, MS III H /1 and, G 22 (bothof them in the Library of the NationalMuseum, Prague, Czechoslovakia;

114 Bull, Ind. Inst. Hist. Me d. Vol. XXI

ParaceJsus (1493-1541)

From Metals to Human Beings =Kerpenke

see Wrany (1902). MS 1/1 11 H brieflydiscussed in a footnote Karpenko(1987) are concerned with chemicalexperimentation only. Some of lessimportant sources contain passagesabout the properties of the Stone onhuman health, but they are expressedin the style of fairy tales. Thesefacts support the view that Paracelsianworks had substantially deeper in-fluence on what can be called"chemical alchemy" concerned withthe transmutation that on medicalalchemy. One of the reasons couldbe that these theories appeared toolate when medicine became graduallyindependent.

Mysticism of the 17th century

Theories of Paracelsus were givenseventy years to spread in Europeand then strong concurrence surfacedin the shape of Rosicrucians (fordeta iIs see Frick (1973) ). The firstwork, "Chymische Hochzeit ChristianiRosenkreutz" from year 1616, attri-buted to Johann Valentin Andreae(1586-1654), although taken bysome historians as a joke, exertedimmeasurable influence on certaingroups of the society, particularly onalchemists.

Rosicrucians among them becameleading figures in the evolution ofmysticism in alchemy, which hadroots in the past in personalities likeCornelius Aqrippa (1485-1535).Prominent Rosicrucians of Central

;15

Europe Michael Maier (? 1568-1622,life see Read (1961) ) and DanielStolcius (died between 1940 and1660, Karpenko (1973»), stood atthe threshold between deep mysticismand that what remained of the originalalchemy. In this atmosphere medicalalchemy had no place left. Theattention was focused on the healingof human soul what is quite under-standable taking in consideration thesituation in Europe torn by the ThirtyYears War (1618-48). It is interes-ting that just at that time an ccounton healing properties of the Stone hasbeen written by J. B. van Helmont(1577-1644). This story describesthe effect (in this case allegedly onerysipelas) but, as was usual insimilar circumstances, not the prepar-ation of the substance (SherwoodTaylor (1976), p. 134).

Mysticism in alchemy led in the17th century again to magic practicesin healing so that even impressioncould arise that evolution of medicalalchemy followed a circular pathreturning back to amulets of Arnaldfrom Villanova. It would be notcorrect picture, because magic neverdied out, but in the 17th centuryunder the influence of Rosicruciansbecame again prominent. Excellentexample of this specific field is thecollection of medals kept bythe Germanisches National museum(Nurnberq, Germnay). These medalsare registered as alchemical, but oncloser examination they should be

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rather considered to be talismans oramulets (Karpenko (1985:86». Theirpurpose is not clear, may be they havebeen used for improving of the stateof somebody in a general sense, notonly for treatment of any particularHines. Typica I featu res of thesemedals are numerical magic squares.Similar undated medal made of leadwhich is in possession of StaatlicheMunzsarnmlunq (Munchen, Germany)bears on the obverse badly damagedGerman inscription: "These metallicand mercurial materials [? are worn asa protection] against rheumatism anderysipelas." The origin of all of themedals is not known. They areattributed to alchemists rather tradi-tionally, but equally well they couldhave been products of any miraculoushealer, who were quite common inEurope for centuries.

Hl Conclusions

During her whole existenceEuropean alchemy kept preferableorientation on the transmutation ofmetals. Attempts ef the medicalapplication of this science have neverreached the level comparable withthat observed in the civilisations ofthe Far East. While Chinese alche-mists claimed irnrnortal.tv to be thefinal goal of their efforts, theirEuropean counterpart remained ratherunpretending in this respect andmedical alchemy did not develop hereto such extent.

Bull. /nd tnst. Hist. Me d. Vol. XX,

Some points are easily under-standable. In Christian Europe itwould be extremely dangerous toclaim openly that any science ortechnique could lead to immortality,because such claim would be inopposition to the philosophy of theruling church. Especially latter theInquisition persecuted crue lly evenfer small signs of activity which wasconsidered to be heretic.

This situation supported thenmaterialistic side of alchemy, theproduction of artificial gold. Twopersonalities who could have intro-duced medical aspect into alchemydid not exert the expected influenceArnald from Villanova brought freshideas, but the following epidemics ofplague in Europe appear to be themost serious reason, why any idea ofhealing effects of even alchemicallyproduced substances could hardlysucceed. The second prominent figure,Paracelsus, came too late for alchemy.While this science was in a 510'1" butcontinuous decline, medicine dovclo-ped as a science. As the result thework of Paracelsus was absorbedseparately by medicine and alchemy.

Mysticism of the 17th centurywas then hardly able to contributesignificantly to medical alchemy, itseffect was rather opposite.

it is not quite dear yet to whichextent medicine was performed byEuropean alchemists. Not what

From M ctel s to Human 8eings-Karpenko

concerns various magic potions, butrather practical doing is of interest.Elixir of Life existed more or less onthe boundary between reality andfiction, and although there are some-times records of its use, like vanHelmont's testimony, it is not quitesure how seriously they have beenaccepted by public. It seems thatbelief in its power gradually died outas can be documented by the appea-rence of talismanic medals. Duringthe whole existence of Europeanalchemy the allusions on medicalproperties of different mysterioussubstances are rather nebulous andthe recipes are often pure sorcery.

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Nevertheless, the Philosopher's Stoneas well as Elixir of Life have kepttheir attractive force for six centuries.During six hundred years no demon-strable success has been observed,but in spite of it the story that life ofalchemist Seton could have beensaved provided that some Elixir wasleft was taken as the full truth.(Read(1947) ). The faith in miraculouseffects of different substances onhuman health and life existed in allcultures nourished by deep humanfears of illness and eventual death.But in European alchemy it stoodrather in a shadow of the transmuta-tion of common metals into gold.

118 Bull. Ind. lnst, Hist Mad. Vol. XXI

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From Metals to Human Beings-Karpenko 119

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