from hoekers to hookers: a survey of the literature and annotated bibliography on the origins of the...

Galway Archaeological & Historical Society

From Hoekers to Hookers: A Survey of the Literature and Annotated Bibliography on theOrigins of the Galway HookerAuthor(s): Timothy CollinsSource: Journal of the Galway Archaeological and Historical Society, Vol. 53 (2001), pp. 66-83Published by: Galway Archaeological & Historical SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25535721 .

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FROM HOEKERS TO HOOKERS:

A SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE

AND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

ON THE ORIGINS OF THE GALWAY HOOKER

TIMOTHY COLLINS

The traditional sailing boats of Galway Bay have been recognised as a distinct, and some would say unique, type of craft for more than two centuries.

Colloquially known in English as Galway hookers, their origins are still a matter

for conjecture and heated debate, with many theories being postulated. While some schools of thought reckon that Galway hookers evolved from an early Dutch

type, others argue in favour of Scandinavian, Spanish and even north African

origins. Of course, there is also an extreme school of thought that feels that the

knowledge of how to build and sail Galway hookers was miraculously given to

the people of Galway Bay, to pursue their destiny of fishing its waters and

transporting goods, safely and efficiently. Divine intervention aside, it was felt

that a search of the published literature on the evolution of sailing boat types down through the centuries might yield some information on the origins of

Galway hookers. Curiously enough, although the popular perception is that there

is very little in print on the subject, in reality there is much of relevance to be

found, hidden in larger works, or in older, previously overlooked sources. This

literature survey is not exhaustive, and it is almost certain that more information

will yet come to light, especially when manuscript collections are fully studied by researchers, other published work checked and further archaeological surveys carried out.

While there is much debate on its origins, there is general agreement on what

today constitutes a Galway hooker. Collectively, Galway hookers fall into four

types, ranging in length from over 40ft to less that 22ft, namely, the bad mor, leath

bhdd, gleoiteog and pucdn. All possess admirable sailing qualities for either fishing or transporting goods and people along the coast of Galway Bay. Traditionally, the

type of fishing carried out was longlining, with many hundreds of baited hooks

attached to lines being paid out as the boat made minimal seaway. It is reckoned

that their generic name, hookers, reflects this, although here too, there are different

schools of thought. Scott (1996:19), in his admirable study of Galway hookers, postulates that the

term may go back to the medieval howkers or holkers, which he says were small

easily handled coastal vessels. Unfortunately this sailing ship type has never been



FROM HOEKERS TO HOOKERS 67

clearly defined, although the term was used from the ninth century onward for

vessels trading on the North Sea between England and continental Europe. What

little iconographic evidence there is, from coins, medallions and coats of arms,

suggests a boat with a banana-shaped hull of very rounded form. Usage of the term had declined by the fifteenth century and eventually from the seventeenth

century, the revised term hulk came to indicate a dismasted vessel, or one laid up and unfit for sea. If there is any connection between these two usages of the term, researchers have yet to find it. It has also been brought to the author's attention

that the term hooker has often been applied, regardless of ship type, to any vessel

coming from the Hook of Holland. From the literature, it would seem that the

term is almost certainly derived from hoeker, a very seaworthy Dutch fishing vessel type, characterised by a sailing rig designed to give maximum working

space on the foredeck, a long bowsprit, a tall square rigged main mast stepped

amidships, and a small mizzen mast aft. In the Baltic the term hooker was also

applied to a three-masted vessel, somewhat like a galliot, which was a small half

decked galley. Scott (1996:39-48) synopsises the main published sources from the nineteenth

century onward, such as Brabazon (1848), Dutton (1824), Hardiman (1820) and

O'Flaherty (1846), but was unable to go further back in time. Interestingly, in that

relatively short time he correctly identifies a number of evolutionary trends in

sailing rig, hull shape and, most notably, in an increase in hull size. It would seem

from contemporary accounts that prior to 1790, bad mhora were no longer than

30ft compared with the 40ft plus lengths of today's largest vessels. For instance,

the Mac Duach, built by Colm Mulkerrin on Mweenish Island in 1982, is all of 44ft.

These developments in sailing rig, hull shape and hull length apparently came

about because, as fishing practices changed and the fishing range extended to take

advantage of the new fishing grounds that were being discovered, boat sizes

increased accordingly. Crews were now required to spend days away from home

and something more than open boats were called for. The result was that such

larger craft were now decked in to some degree. According to Scott, these changes account for the superb sailing qualities of the Galway hooker. His description of

the hull lines is most evocative:

Even above the waterline its form embraced many features. From the chainplates the

sheer eased from a steady rise to a more urgent, upward curve to meet the stem head.

It was this accentuated sheer and rumblehome, or belly, that were the first

characteristics of a Galway hooker hull, particularly

when viewed from a height

ahead, and to one side. As you move a few yards, and look down and forward from

a position abreast of the mastbeam, the distinctive features of the sharp entry

disappearing under the apple-cheeked forward sections, which in turn mould into

the great rumblehome, show to advantage as in no other craft nowadays. The whole

concept seems to have a natural affinity to seagoing.

Of course, Scott is not alone. Anyone who has had the privilege, and pleasure, of sailing a Galway hooker will know how the hull rides the waves, rather than

crashing through them, as modern motorised vessels do. According to those who

sail them, this is because there is hardly a flat plank used in the construction of the



68 TIMOTHY COLLINS

hull. Barry (1986) convincingly demonstrated the oceangoing qualities of the

Galway hooker in his narrative of the crossing the Atlantic with the St Patrick,

Subsequent deepwater cruises by the St Patrick up the west coast of Greenland and into the waters of Scandinavia's North Cape have further proven the durability of the Galway hooker in Arctic waters. The diary kept by O Mealoid (1993) of the

voyage of the St Patrick across the Atlantic, entitled Ar bhdd Chonrai go Meiriced,

provides another view of the epic crossing, while the songs of Sean Jennings of Feenish Island Carna, brought together in book form in Seoltoireacht ghear, detailing the folklore attached to these workboats, have a resonance of their own

(0 Ceoinin, 1988). From the latter half of the nineteenth century to the latter half of the twentieth,

Galway hookers appear to have been the ubiquitous workhorses of Galway Bay, and show up in many contemporary accounts fulfilling diverse functions. Collins

(1996,1997, In press) gives details of Galway hookers being used as pilot boats and as lifeboats from the mid-nineteenth century onward, citing newspaper accounts of rescues and salvage work successfully carried put in the most extreme weather. The existence of such boats and the expertise to man them was something that was

commented on by Capt Washington of the Royal Navy, when assessing Galway's maritime potential (Parliamentary Papers, 1859). By the 1890s, Galway hookers were even capitalising on a budding tourist trade. Collins (1993:128) cites one

particular trip to St Mac Dara's Island south of Bertraghboy Bay by a party which

included naturalist Robert Lloyd Praeger, nature photographer Robert John Welch and antiquarian Francis Joseph Bigger, on a Galway hooker named The Lily.

Owned by Martin Toole of Roundstone, The Lily was ' ... both roomy and

odoriferous', but that did not detract from her obvious seaworthiness. In his

published account of the return trip from St Mac Dara's Island back to

Roundstone, Praeger describes what it was like:

It fell dead calm, and the hooker's heavy brown sail flapped noisily to and fro as the boat lurched and rolled in the Atlantic swell. All the west was aflame with sunset, scarlet and gold in a jade-green setting, while the peaks of the Twelve Bens to the northward, under a dark cloud-cap, were as black as ink and as sharp as knives.

Most recently, Seamas Mac an Iomaire's great work Cladaigh Chonamara,

originally published in 1938, has been translated into English by Padraic de

Bhaldraithe (Mac an Iomaire, 2000) and shows how Galway hookers were an

essential part of life along the northern coast of Galway Bay. So, what of the origins of this versatile boat type?. The earliest use of the term

hoeker to define a type of sailing vessel appears to be from the Netherlands, or

Holland where, from the sixteenth century, hoekers were known to fish the North

Sea for cod. Unfortunately, nothing tangible has survived from this period. No wrecks have been excavated and there are no trustworthy models or illustrations

in existence (Fig. 1). From various contradictory accounts, it seems probable that

the hoekers of the eighteenth century evolved from \hefluit orfluyt, itself a major

breakthrough in design and construction which dominated Dutch trade in the




Fig. 1 A seventeenth century church model of a hoeker from Maasluis. Although rather

roughly finished, it is obviously the work of a shipwright and portrays contemporary sailing rig and hull lines. (Author's collection)

seventeenth century. It is thought that fluits owed their origins to the earlier holkers mentioned above, but there were also Mediterranean influences in the shape of the hull. The most remarkable feature of a fluit was its elongated form and a very narrow upper deck, resulting in a pronounced rumblehome with a

bulging hold. The pear-shaped, rounded stern conformed to the traditional Dutch build, avoiding the leakage problems which plagued British and other designs with their square sterns. Fluits were cheap to build, easy to sail and possessed a large cargo carrying capacity. By the eighteenth century, fluits had been superseded in popularity by hoekers, among others, as hoeker hulls were proving to be much more resistant to warping than fluits, whose sharply bent planks on the aftermost part of the hull warped and sprang, resulting in severe and even

catastrophic leaking when exposed to strong sun while trading with the East Indies.

As mentioned, the hoeker of the eighteenth century was primarily a fishing vessel, angling for cod with baited hooks on long lines. To survive in the North Sea in all kinds of weather, it goes without saying that hoekers had to possess excellent sailing qualities. The older type of hoeker had two masts, the mainmast fitted out

with a square sail and jibs, and a small, or mizzen mast with a lateen sail aft, being



70 TIMOTHY COLLINS

Fig. 2 A fishing hoeker with longlines deployed and mainsail lowered. (Groenewegen)

used to steady the ship when fishing with the mainmast lowered (Fig. 2). This

fishing type, with its large carrying capacity and well rounded hull which allowed it to sail well to windward, also evolved into an efficient coastal trading vessel,

whose special qualities led the Dutch East India Company to adopt the hoeker

design for its overseas trading fleet. The hoekers of the Dutch East India Company were commonly 80-90ft long and frequently carried three masts (Fig. 3). There are models of this type in various museums, while many contemporary illustrations exist, notably those of Groenewegen (1789), who depicts hoekers as fishing boats, coastal traders and as Dutch East India Company merchantmen in his collection of 84 detailed plates of eighteenth century seagoing sailing ships and inshore craft.

By the eighteenth century Dutch merchantmen traded all over the known world, bringing timber from Scandinavia and dried and salted fish from the Netherlands and England (Bruin, 1985; Hoving, 1995). Of interest is the

importance of the North Sea cod fishing industry to southern Europe, with Scandinavian and Dutch vessels bringing dried salted cod, known as stockfish, to




Dr&cmasi JfctAtr- Zcy&nUe

wcr<^ ***#?/ 0

Fig. 3 A three masted hoeker sailing before the wind. (Groenewegen)

Spain and into the Mediterranean (Bjdrklund, 1985). Such was the influence of this

trade that, even today, dried salted cod is known as stocco-fisso in Italy. In Portugal and its offshore islands of Madeira and the Azores, dried salted cod, known as

bacalhau, is still a staple dish. It is also known that, up to 1750, before shoaling

patterns in the North Sea changed, salted herring was also a major export from

this region (Cederlund, 1995). One major market was Cork, where barrels of North

Sea salted herring were delivered, for re-export from there to the islands of the

West Indies such as Monserrat, as staple food for the slaves working in the many

plantations owned by British and Irish landlords. The coastal trade in the

Netherlands through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries became more or less

the preserve of the northern provinces of Friesland and Groningen. Most of the

merchantmen involved in this kind of trade were wholly or partly owned by their

skippers, and they were usually smaller than their deepwater oceanic

counterparts, ranging in size from 80ft down to 40ft. These vessels would have

been frequent visitors to Irish waters, trading with seaports along the east and



72 TIMOTHY COLLINS

south coasts, and making their way along the west coast with cargoes under charter.

From the twelfth century onward, shipbuilding was a craft learned through

apprenticeship, with the knowledge passed on from one generation to the next

orally and by example in the workplace. The master shipwright may have been, but was more likely not, literate, so consequently manuscript details are non

existent from this period. Only in the fifteenth century did the principles of ship design and construction begin to be committed to paper.

For millennia shipwrights had built up their hulls by joining each plank to the next with strong mortise and tenon joints. Only as the hull grew were frames

added to reinforce it. The lines of such boats were created only as the vessel took

shape. By the eleventh century, through evolution, the practice of first erecting frames on the keel, before nailing planks on them had developed. The newer

building techniques required the shipwright to visualise and predict accurately the lines of a hull before construction. In consequence, the art of shipbuilding

began to be recorded in notebooks, handbooks and treatises and jealously guarded

by the shipwrights themselves. The earliest known manuscript treatises are

Venetian in origin and date from the mid-fifteenth century. These earliest treatises

all appear to have some relation to, or even be extensive copies of, a still unknown

original. For the modern researcher these treatises pose problems of interpretation, as they were intended to be read only by experienced shipwrights possessing

what was common knowledge for the time. Extracts of these treatises have been

translated and published from time to time (e.g. Anderson, 1924, 1925),

highlighting the importance of the fifteenth century shipbuilding industry in

Venice, its evolution from earlier Greek and Roman techniques and its influence on the spread of such knowledge throughout the Mediterranean and northward

along the Atlantic coast of Europe. For the true bibliophile, the earliest book known to deal with shipbuilding is

the Instruccion nauthica, published in 1587 in Mexico City by Diego Garcia de

Palacio. As the title suggests, the real emphasis of this work is on navigation,

although the chapters on hull construction and rigging are informative. By the

seventeenth century, a growing number of writers across Europe had committed

theories of shipbuilding to print, notably Bartolomeo Crescentio Romano with Nautica Mediterranea in 1607, Pantero Pantera with L'Armata navale in 1614 and

Joseph Furttenbach with Architectura navalis in 1629. Crescentio Romano's book is

recognised as a classic of maritime lore, though inaccurate in parts. Pantera's work

lacks the illustrations that make Crescentio Romano's so useful, but contains a

wealth of information on galleys and naval artillery. Furttenbach, on the other

hand went to extreme lengths to illustrate his work with artistically beautiful

engraved plates. Although written in German, it is a synopsis of Italian

shipbuilding techniques. It has to be said, though, that although these books are

extremely useful to historical researchers in supplying early information on

shipbuilding and ship types, there is no mention of hookers as a distinct boat type. In Holland, the earliest publication detailing the construction and rigging of

ship types is Nicolaas Witsen's Architectura navalis et reginem nauticum, which he




published at the age of thirty in 1671, when he was Lord Mayor of Amsterdam. An able and successful writer, Witsen had already travelled widely around Europe as a young man, and even travelled through Russia, previously publishing his narratives to critical acclaim. The importance of his 1671 book is such that it has never been out of print, being reprinted and translated many times down through the years. In it, full costings are given of the construction and rigging of various

sailing ships, including a two masted hoeker. To the marine archaeologist, this book is a major source of reference, giving an account of shipbuilding methods and tools, coupled with a commentary on social background, markets and contracts from 1630 to 1670. What is of interest here is the method of hull construction advocated. Undoubtedly derived from the way the Scandinavians built their early seagoing vessels, Witsen's technique of hull construction was

known as 'shell-first'. This modern term has been used by historians for a method of hull construction in which the hull strakes, the continuous lines of planking nonning from stem to stern, are fastened together to form the hull shape without the benefit of a pre-erected framework. The most common result was an

overlapping clinker type of hull. Cornells van Yk, frequently referred to as Cornelius van Eyk, is also of interest

as, after Witsen, he published Die Nederlandsche scheeps-bouw-konst open gestelt, the second earliest book on Dutch shipbuilding in 1697. Van Yk was a

shipwright in Delfshaven near Rotterdam and his method of hull construction

differed from that of Witsen's. Van Yk's method appears to be an adaptation of the type of shipbuilding technique introduced by the Spanish in the sixteenth

century, itself having evolved from earlier techniques picked up from various

parts of the Mediterranean and reflecting influences from the Arab world. It

seems surprising that Van Yk's method, which became popular in Zealand and

Flanders, should differ so markedly from Witsen's, considering that the port cities of Rotterdam and Amsterdam are no more than 50 miles apart. A contract

for a 172ft ship, dated 1629, shows how well developed this method of

shipbuilding was by that date, but of more relevance is a contract for a hoeker, named Ysvogel, which was built in Delft in 1667, with a length of 89ft and a beam of 20ft (Yk, 1697: 157). Full details of the construction are given, as well as a

complete inventory of materials and parts, specialist tools needed, plus costings

(Fig. 4).

Through the nineteenth century and on into the twentieth, an increasing number of works appeared in print among the countries bordering the North Sea, which were both accurate and superior in quality to earlier works. In consequence, these publications can be more readily relied on by modern researchers. For

instance, Le Comte's 1831 publication on contemporary Dutch seagoing ships and

inshore craft is an important source of information, because of its excellent and

highly detailed engravings. If they are contemporary and untouched, illustrations

and models are always important to a researcher. Consequently, collections of

engravings, such as Groenewegen's published in 1789, or plates such as Crone's

published in 1926, can yield useful information. Crone's work, which is based on

the model collections of the Nederlands Scheepsvaart Museum in Amsterdam,



2

Fig. 4 Seventeenth century

hoeker hull lines (Yk)




shows the workmanship which went into the construction of these models,

completed by shipwrights, who later copied their lines for full scale ship construction.

In Sweden, the work of Fredrik Henrik af Chapman, the best known ship designer of the eighteenth century, laid the foundations of shipbuilding design which are still followed today. His now-famous classic collection of ship draughts of typical north European ships of the period, Architectura navalis mercatoria,

published in 1768, brought his work to a wider audience and, more importantly, is

unsurpassed as an historical source of reference today. His draughts are so clearly laid out that present day shipwrights would have little difficulty constructing

modern replicas of period sailing ships. Chapman divided the ships he dealt with

into five principal groups. One group, which he termed merchant vessels, has

eleven different types illustrated, including a trading hooker. Such is the importance of this work, that it has been reprinted many times, and translated into many

languages. A recent biography of Chapman by Harris (1989) and overviews of the

subject by Lowengren (1953) and Halldin (1964) show the importance of Chapman to the development the Swedish shipbuilding industry over the centuries.

In Norway, the work of Arne Emil Christensen, commencing with his 1966 book

Frd vikingskip til motorsnekke, published in English as Boats of the north in 1968, also

shows the trends in boatbuilding, with innovative techniques from elsewhere

being incorporated. In Denmark, Klem (1941) produced a similar overview, with

information from elsewhere being readily acquired by boatbuilders. The impetus of trade and the exploitation of the fishing grounds of the North Sea have been

studied at length by Bjorklund (1985), Cederlund (1995) and Lintsen (1998) among others. All point towards the evolution of ship types as a result of environmental

factors, but incorporating innovative techniques and designs as appropriate. In Britain, much has been published on maritime history, with many specialist

journals, such as Mariner's Mirror providing a major resource for researchers. On

the subject of ship types and their evolution, McKee (1983) is outstanding. His

book, Working boats of Britain, is a unique contribution on the subject of the boat as

a basic tool of mankind. In one volume, illustrated with many fine line drawings

by the author, the evolution and current status of Britain's working boats is

detailed, with personal comments on their handling and use. McKee's description of the shipwrights who build them and the men who work them, also provides an

invaluable insight into the contemporary world. Elsewhere, the Breton publishers of Le Chasse-Maree have embarked on the publication of a series of books on the

working boats of Europe, bringing out volumes country by country. Unlike Ireland, the countries which border the North Sea appear to have

developed an early recognition of the importance of their maritime heritage. This is

especially so of the Netherlands, where research in marine archaeology has been

ongoing since the mid-nineteenth century. Denmark, Scandinavia and later England,

developed the study of maritime ethnology and its related disciplines through the

twentieth century, interrupted only for the duration of two world wars. Certainly, in

the last quarter of the twentieth century, one of the dividends of European union has

been an increase in the numbers of opportunities for researchers to come together,



76 TIMOTHY COLUNS

Fig. 5 A hoeker with a barquentine sailing rig. (Groenewegen)

sharing information and developing joint programmes of research. The results of

international conferences and symposia edited for publication by, for instance,

Hasslof (1970,1972), McGrail (1984), Villain-Gandossi (1991) and Royen (1998) show

how much work has been accomplished, and serve as useful baselines for further

research. Recent histories, such as those by de Couicy Ireland (1981,1992), Gardiner

(1995), Cunliffe (2001) and McGrail (2001) also serve to give researchers a valid

overview by presenting a contemporary synthesis of thinking on the subject.




What becomes obvious is that the transmission of marine lore has been going on since the dawn of time, and that such transmission has also been two-way. Archaeological excavations across Europe have convincingly demonstrated Celtic influences in the development of hull design and construction. Coupled with this

was the ongoing need for experienced men to crew oceanic sailing ships, which resulted in the increasing use of foreigners hired at ports of call. It is known that, from Elizabethan times onward, ships trading with Galway regularly recruited crews from the locality with fishermen from the Claddagh being highly valued for their expertise. Clearly, these men would return later, sharing the knowledge

picked up on their travels. The excavation of many early ship types by marine archaeologists has helped

many researchers track the evolution of shipbuilding techniques over the centuries. Such knowledge has also been applied to the building and sailing of

replica vessels. These replica ships have proven invaluable in understanding their

respective sailing abilities and general seaworthiness. The author was lucky enough recently to go sailing on a replica of the Santa Maria, a fifteenth century Portuguese nao used by Christopher Columbus on his first voyage to the New

World in 1492. Although quite primitive in appearance, with a high rounded bow and equally high stern, the Madeira-based Santa Maria proved to be quite seaworthy, shipping very little water in heavy swells owing to the rounded hull

shape, likened by some to half a walnut shell, and excellent sail handling capabilities. Elsewhere, replicas of many old ship types, from Viking longboats to

Mediterranean galleys and caravels, have all been successfully built, sometimes

using forgotten techniques and archaic tools, before being sailed and tested. In this context, one can see how the revival in interest in the Galway hooker

reflects the global trend in maritime studies. The numbers of Galway hookers in

working condition is increasing year by year as newly built boats join older,

lovingly restored ones. However, having searched the literature, the idea of any link between the medieval hoeker and the Galway hooker is at present untenable.

The origin of the Galway hooker must remain a matter for conjecture, as there is almost certainly no written evidence currently known to exist. If the knowledge came from elsewhere, it was almost certainly brought to Galway orally. Also, the various types of Galway hooker reflect Scandinavian, Dutch and Mediterranean influences in their hull design, construction and sailing rig (Fig. 5). If the

knowledge sprang directly from the region of Galway Bay itself, being developed to suit the unique sailing conditions of the region, it is possible that the remains of such an early vessel, a 'missing link', may yet be excavated from the estuarine

muds or beach sands of coastal Galway Bay.



78 TIMOTHY COLLINS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to Michael Brogan, owner of the Mac Duach, on which I have made many excursions around Galway Bay and the islands, as well as a number of ciniimnavigations of

Ireland and some longer hauls to the islands off the west coast of Scotland. Such cruises have

confirmed the ease with which knowledge can travel along a coast. I am also indebted to

Paddy Barry, owner of the St Patrick, for conversations in the most exotic of locations over the

years. Deirdre O'Hara and Darina Tully, marine archaeologists, provided information and

commented critically on this work, as did John de Courcy Ireland, Ireland's first and only maritime historian. John Coll, scientist and sculptor, successfully sought out much critical

information while living in Holland, without which this paper could never have been written.

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anderson, R.C. (1924). 'Early books on shipbuilding and rigging'. Mariner's Mirror, 10: 53-64.

Survey of printed works to the mid-eighteenth century.

Anderson, R.C. (1925). Italian naval architecture about 1445'. Mariner's Mirror, 11:135-163.

Describes the extant manuscript treatises on shipbuilding in Venice.

Bang-Andersen, Arne, Greenhill, Basil, Grude, Egil Harald, eds. (1985) The North Sea: a highway of economic and cultural exchange, character-history. Stavanger: Norwegian University Press.

Comprehensive overview of the story of the North Sea and its culture.

Barry, Paddy (1986). Voyage: the first Galway Hooker to America 1986. Dublin: Gill and Macmillan. Narrative of voyage of St Patrick to New York.

Biddle, Tyrrel E. (1881). The Corinthian yachtsman: or hints on yachting. London: C. Wilson.

Theorises without evidence that Galway hookers must have evolved from a type of seventeenth

century smuggling lugger.

Bill, Jan (1994). 'Ship construction: tools and techniques' In: Gardiner, Robert, ed. Cogs, caravels and

galleons: the sailing ship 1000-1650: (volume three of) Conway's history of the ship. London: Conway Maritime Press, 151-159. Overview of medieval techniques.

Bjorklund, Jarle (1985). 'Trade and cultural exchange in the 17th and 18th centuries' In: Bang-Andersen, Arne, et al., eds. The North Sea: a highway of economic and cultural exchange, character-history. Stavanger:

Norwegian University Press, 151-166. Structure and development of North Sea trade described.

Bosscher, P.M. (1985).'" ... except through the agency and intermediary of the aforementioned sea ...":

some observations on the development of Dutch sea power and the diffusion of Dutch influence in

north-western Europe' In: Bang-Andersen, Arne, et al., eds. The North Sea: a highway of economic and

cultural exchange, character-history. Stavanger: Norwegian University Press, 97-122.

Social and economic structure of the Rhine estuary area in the post-medieval period described, against the background of naval development.

Brabazon, Wallop (1848). The deep sea and coast fisheries of Ireland, with suggestions for the working of a

fishing company. Dublin: James McGlashan.

Descriptions of contemporary fishing vessels given.

Bruin, Jaap R.(1985). 'The timber trade: the case of Dutch-Norwegian relations in the 17th Century' In:

Bang-Andersen, Arne, et al., eds. The North Sea: a highway of economic and cultural exchange, character

history. Stavanger: Norwegian University Press, 123-136.

Overview of Norway-Netherlands-England timber trade and its importance.

Cederlund, Carl Olof (1985). 'Shipbuilding in the 17th and 18th centuries: the Wasa as a product of

Dutch shipbuilding' In: Bang-Andersen, Arne, et al., eds. The North Sea: a highway of economic and

cultural exchange, character-history. Stavanger: Norwegian University Press, 167-180.

Description of medieval shipbuilding methods as seen after the raising of the Wasa.




Cederlund, Carl Olof (1995). "The ships of Scandinavia and the Baltic' In: Gardiner, Robert, ed. The

heyday of sail: the merchant sailing ship 1650-1830: (volume five of) Conway's history of the ship. London:

Conway Maritime Press, 55-76.

Overview of ship types from the 17th through to the 19th centuries.

Chapelle, Howard Irving (1951). American small sailing craft: their design, development and construction.

New York: W.W. Norton.

Theorises that the Galway hooker is descended from an eighteenth century English cutter type, with a

detailed description given of a model of a Galway hooker in the Smithsonian Institution, originally introduced by emigrants into Boston.

Chapman, Fredrik Henrik af (1768). Architectura navalis mercatoria, navium varii generis mercatoriarum,

capulicarum, cursoriarum, aliarumque cujuscunque conditionis vel motis,fbrmas et rationes exhibens. Holmiae

[Le. Stockholm]: John George Lange. Classic collection of draughts of typical ships of the period, unsurpassed as an historical source.

Christensen, Arne Emil (1966). Frd vikingskip til motorsnekke. Oslo: Norske Samlaget. Detailed overview of Norwegian boatbuilding from the earliest times.

Christensen, Arne Emil (1968). Boats of the north: a history of boatbuilding in Norway; translated by Elizabeth Seeberg. Oslo: Norske Samlaget.

English translation of previous citation.

Christensen, Arne Emil (1972). 'Boatbuilding tools and the process of learning' In: Hasslof, Olof, ed.

Ships and shipyards, sailors and fishermen: introduction to maritime ethnology. Copenhagen: Copenhagen

University Press, 235-259.

Argues that much can be learned from examining medieval tools and in using them to construct

replicas.

Christensen, Arne Emil, ed. (1979). Inshore craft of Norway, from a manuscript by Bernhard and Oystein

Faeroyvik. London: National Maritime Museum.

Portfolio of plans of 19th century, mostly clinker-built vessels, with historical and technical

annotations.

Collins, Timothy (1993). 'Praeger in the west: naturalists and antiquarians in Connemara and the

islands 1894-1914'. /. Galway Archaeol. Hist Soc., 45:124-154.

Use of hookers in budding tourist trade cited.

Collins, Timothy (1996). 'The Town Hall in 1857 - when Galway hospitality met Crimean cannon'. /.

Galway Archaeol. Hist. Soc., 48:137-142. Use of hookers as rescue ships cited.

Collins, Timothy (1997). 'HMS Valorous-, her contribution to Galway maritime history'. /. Galway Archaeol Hist. Soc., 49:122-142. Use of hookers for coastal trade mentioned.

Collins, Timothy (1999). 'The Clare Island Survey of 1909-11: participants, papers and progress' In: New

Survey of Clare Island. Volume 1: History and cultural landscape; edited by Criost6ir Mac Cirthaigh and

Kevin Whelan. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy, 1-40.

Use of hookers as research and transport vessels mentioned.

Collins, Timothy (In press). The Galway Line 1858-1864: from transatlantic triumph to heroic failure. Cork:

Collins Press.

Contemporary descriptions of hookers as workhorses of Galway Bay cited.

Crescentio Romano, Bartolomeo (1607). Nautica Mediterranea, nella quale si mostra lafabrica delle galee,

galeazze, e galeoni... si manifesto Verror delle charte mediterranee ... s'insegna Varte del nauigar nelV uno, e

Valtro mare, at un Portolano di tutti i porti da stantiar vascelli co i loghi pericolosi di tutto il mare Mediterraneo.

Roma: Appresso Bartolomeo Bonfadino.

Classic, but frequently inaccurate, book of Italian maritime lore.

Crone, G.C.E. (1926a). Nederlandsche jachten, binnenschepen, visschersvaartuigen en daarmee verwante kleine

zeeschepen 1650-1900. Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger.

Descriptions of ship types of the period, with numerous plates of museum models.



80 TIMOTHY COLLINS

Crone, G.C.E. (1926b). Dutch yachts, inland ships, fishing-craft, and small sea-going ships 1650-1900.

Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger. Supplement in English, tipped into previous citation.

Crumlin-Pedersen, Ole (1972). 'Skin or wood?: a study of the Scandinavian plank-boat' In: Hasslof,

Olof, ed. Ships and shipyards, sailors and fishermen: introduction to maritime ethnology. Copenhagen:

Copenhagen University Press, 208-234.

Argues northern planked craft evolved from expanded Celtic dugout type.

Cnimlin-Pedersen, Ole (1987). 'Aspects of Viking age shipbuilding in the light of the construction and

trials of the Skuldelev ship replicas Saga Siglar and Roar Edge'. J. Dan. Archaeol, 5: 209-228.

The contribution of Viking technology to ship design and construction confirmed by experimental

sailings of replicas.

Crumlin-Pedersen, Ole (1996). 'Problems of reconstruction and the estimation of performance' In:

Gardiner. Robert, ed. The earliest ships: the evolution of boats into ships: (volume one of) Conway's history

of the ship. London: Conway Maritime Press, 110-119.

Details difficulties in interpreting ancient manuscripts and inscriptions.

Cunliffe, Barry (2001). Facing the ocean: the Atlantic and its peoples 8000BC-1500AD. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Lavishly illustrated overview of the development of maritime societies of coastal Europe.

de Courcy Ireland, John (1981). Ireland's sea fisheries: a history. Dublin: Glendale Press.

Comprehensive history, with details of fishing boat types, including hookers.

de Courcy Ireland, John (1992). Ireland's maritime heritage. Dublin: An Post.

Lavishly illustrated overview of subject.

Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland (1902). Ireland industrial and

agricultural [edited by William P. Coyne]. Dublin: Browne and Nolan.

Details of contemporary fishing boat types and fishing methods given.

Dutton, Hely (1824). A statistical and agricultural survey of the county of Galway, with observations on the

means of improvement, drawn up for consideration, and by the direction of, the Royal Dublin Society. Dublin:

R. Graisberry [for the] University Press. Some details of fishing boats given.

Ellmers, Detlev G. (1976). Kogge, Kahn und Kunststoffboot: 10,000 jahre boot in Deutschland. Bremerhaven:

Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum. Celtic boatbuilding techniques are shown as part of the development of the boat in central Europe.

Ellmers, Detlev G. (1984). 'Punt, barge or pram: is there one tradition or several?' In: McGrail, Sean, ed.

Aspects of maritime archaeology and ethnology. London: National Maritime Museum, 153-172.

Argues in favour of many influences in the origins of boatbuilding in central Europe.

Ellmers. Detlev G. (1996). 'Celtic plank boats and ships 500BC-AD1000' In: Gardiner, Robert, ed. The

earliest ships: the evolution of boats into ships: (volume one of) Conway's history of the ship. London:

Conway Maritime Press, 52-71,

Overview of archaeological finds of Celtic origin.

Furttenbach, Joseph (1629). Architectura navalis, das ist: Von dem Schiff-gebaw, auffdem Meer und Seekusten

zu gebrauchen, und nemblich, in was form und gestallt, furs erste, ein Galea, Galeazza, Barchetta, Piatta: zum

andern, ein Nave, Polaca Tartana, und ein gemeine Barca ... Ulm: J. Saur.

Text in German on contemporary Italian shipbuilding, with detailed engravings.

Garcia de Palacio, Diego (1587). Instruccion nauthica, para el bum uso, y regimiento da los naos, su traca, y

y govierno confbrme a la altura de Mexico. Mexico City: P. Ocharte.

The first printed book on shipbuilding, with emphasis on navigation techniques.

Garcia de Palacio, Diego (1986). Nautical instruction 1587; translated by J.M. Bankson. Bisbee (Ariz.): Terrenate Associates.





Groenewegen, Gerrit (1789). Verzameling van vier en tachtig stuks Hollandsche schepen. Rotterdam: J. van

der Brink.

Original, and accurate, engravings of 84 contemporary Dutch seagoing sailing ships and inshore craft,

including hoekers, at work.

Halldin, Gustav, ed. (1964). Svenskt skeppsbyggeri en oversikt av utvecklingen genom tiderna. Malmo: Allhems.

Comprehensive history of Swedish shipbuilding from the earliest times to the 20th century, with many illustrations.

Harris, Daniel G. (1989). F. H. Chapman: the first naval architect and his work. London: Conway Maritime

Press.

Biography of best known ship designer of 18th century, and standard work of reference on his designs.

Hasslof, Olof, ed. (1970). Somand,fiskar, skib og vaert. Ketbenhavn: Rosenkilde og Bagger.

Comprehensive overview of subject, with contributions from key researchers from Denmark, Sweden,

Norway and England.

Hasslof, Olof, ed. (1972). Ships and shipyards, sailors and fishermen: introduction to maritime ethnology; edited for the Scandinavian Maritime History Working Group by Olof Hasslof, Henning Henningsen and Arne Emil Christensen. Copenhagen: Copenhagen University Press.


Hardiman, James (1820). The history of the town and county of the town of Galway: from the earliest period to

the present time. Dublin: W. Folds.

Passing references to contemporary fishing methods and boat types

Hoving, A.J. (1995). 'Seagoing ships of the Netherlands' In: Gardiner, Robert, ed. The heyday of sail: the

merchant sailing ship 1650-1830: (volume five of) Conway's history of the ship. London: Conway Maritime

Press, 34-54. Overview of maritime development of Netherlands during this period.

Kemp, Dixon (1884). A manual of yacht and boat sailing. 4th rev. ed. London: H. Cox.

Cites Norwegian influences in origins of hooker in Ireland.

Kemp, Peter, ed. (1976). The Oxford companion to ships and the sea. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Comprehensive listing of maritime terminology accurately defined.

Klem, Knud (1941). Die danskes vej; rids afdansk sbhistorie. Kebenhavn: A.F. Host.

History of Danish sea trade and shipbuilding, and its development into the 20th century.

Le Comte, Pieter (1831). Afbeeldingen van schepen en vaartuigen in verschillende bewegingen. Amsterdam:

F. Kaal. Excellent and detailed engravings of contemporary Dutch seagoing ships and inshore craft of the

period.

Lintsen, Harry W. (1998). 'Concepts for the study of innovation: evaluation of the Dutch shipbuilding

industry in historical perspective' In: Frutta di mare: evolution and revolution in the maritime world in the

19th and 20th centuries; proceedings of the second International Congress in Maritime History [heldl 5-8 June

1996 [in] Amsterdam and Rotterdam, the Netherlands; edited by Paul C. van Royen, Lewis R. Fischer,

David M. Williams. Amsterdam: Batavian Lion, 115-121.

Analysis of early innovative shipbuilding techniques and later stagnation.

Lowengren, Gunnar (1953). Sveriges sjqfart och skeppsbyggeri genom tiderna. Stockholm: K.F. bokforlag. Overview of Swedish sea trade and shipbuilding.

Mac an Iomaire, Seamas (1938). Cladaigh Chonamara. Baile Atha Cliath: Oifig an tSotethair.

Importance of hookers to maritime Galway described.

Mac an Iomaire, Seamas (2000). The shores of Connemara; translated and annotated by Padraic de

Bhaldraithe. Kinvara: Tir Eolas.




82 TIMOTHY COLLINS

Mac Carthaigh, Criostoir (1999). 'Clare Island folklife' In: New Survey of Clare Island. Volume 1: History and cultural landscape; edited by Criostoir Mac Carthaigh and Kevin Whelan. Dublin: Royal Irish

Academy, 41-72.

Locally built fishing boat types detailed.

McCaughan, Michael (1978). 'Irish vernacular boats and their European connections', Ulster Folklife, 24: 1-22.

Argues in favour of 'north about' spread of Irish boatbuilding techniques.

McGrail, Sean, ed, (1984). Aspects of maritime archaeology and ethnography: papers based on those presented to an international seminar held at the University of Bristol March in 1982. London: National Maritime Museum. Overview of subject.

McGrail, Sean (1995). 'Celtic seafaring and transport' In: Green, Miranda J., ed. The Celtic world. London:

Routledge, 254-281.

Celtic techniques of propulsion, steering, navigation, boatbuilding, harbour construction, overseas routes from the earliest times described.

McGrail, Sean (2001). Boats of the world: from the Stone Age to medieval times. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Comprehensive overview, based on years of research.

McKee, Eric (1983). Working boats of Britain: their shape and purpose. London: Conway Maritime Press. An outstanding study of working boats, their evolution, handling, use and the men who build and work them.

Marmion, Anthony (1858). The ancient and modern history of the maritime ports of Ireland. 3rd ed. London: The Author. Some details of boat types, sizes and fleet numbers given.

Maxwell, Violet (1940). Wooden hookers: epics of the sea history of Australia. SydneyLAngus and Robertson.

Description of hookers built by Irish emigrants in Australia and Tasmania.

6 Ceoinin, Sean (1988). Seoltoireacht ghear: amhrdin Shedin Chedinin; Eoin Rua d Neill a chnuasaigh. Beal an Daingin: C16 Iar-Chonnachta. Evocative songs written about hookers, by a boatman.

O'Flaherty, Roderic (1846). A chorographical description of west or h-lar Connaught, written A.D. 1684: edited

from a manuscript in the library of Trinity College, Dublin, with notes and illustrations by James Hardiman. Dublin: Irish Archaeological Society. Details of contemporary fishing methods mentioned

6 Mealoid, Colm Dubh (1993). Ar bhdd Chonraigo Meiriced. Indreabhan: CI6 Iar-Chonnachta.

Diary of St Patrick transatlantic voyage kept by crewman.

O'Scanlan, Timoteo (1831). Diccionario maritimo espaHol: que ademas de la definiciones de las voces con sus

equivalents en fiances, ingles e italiano, contiene tres vocabularios de estos idiomas con las correspondences castellanas. Madrid: Museo Naval. Classic Spanish nautical dictionary, with extended descriptions of ship types, rigging and fittings.

Pantera, Pantero. (1614). L'Armata navale, ne i quali si regiona del modo, che si ha h tenere per fbrmare, ordinare, e conservare un'armata maritima ... con un vocabolario nel quale si dichiarano i nomi, e le voci

marineresche. Roma: E. Spada. Details of galley construction and comprehensive study of contemporary naval artillery.

Parliamentary Papers, Ireland (1859a). 'Report lately made to the Admiralty by Capt. Washington, Capt. Vetch and Mr Gibbons on the capabilities and requirements of the port and harbour of Galway'. House of Commons paper 107, XXV: 325-328. Comments made on seaworthiness of hookers.

Parliamentary Papers, Ireland (1859b). 'Report and Minutes of Evidence of the Committee appointed to inquire into the suitableness and capabilities of the ports of Galway and the Shannon for a

transatlantic packet station and in connexion with a Harbour of Refuge'. House of Commons paper 257, XVII: 245-279. Use of hookers in rescue and salvage cited.




Royen, P. C. van (1987). Zeevarenden op de koopvaardijvloot omstreeks 1700. Amsterdam: Bataafsche Leeuw.

Details the difficulties in finding crews for Dutch merchant marine and the increasing reliance on

foreigners, from the 18th century to Napoleonic times.

Royen, P. C. van (1989). 'Manning the merchant marine: the Dutch maritime labour market about 1700'.

Int. J. Marit. Hist., 1:1-28.

Summary in English of previous citation.

Royen, P. C. van (1998). Frutta di mare: evolution and revolution in the maritime world in the 19th and 20th

centuries: proceedings of the second International Congress cf Maritime History [held] 5-8 June 1996 [in] Amsterdam and Rotterdam, the Netherlands; edited by PC. van Royen, Lewis R. Fischer, David M.

Williams. Amsterdam: Batavian Lion International.

Important publication, with major contributions giving current synthesis of thinking on subject.

Sauer, Albrecht (1991). 'Practical navigation in the late Middle Ages: some remarks on the transfer of

knowledge from the Mediterranean to the northern seas'.,In: Villain-Gandossi, Christiane, ed. The

Mediterranean area and European integration: (vol. two of) Medieval ships and the birth of technological societies. Valletta: European Coordination Centre for Research and Documentation in Social Sciences:

Foundation for International Studies, Malta, 271-279.

Argues that virtually all the knowledge came up the coast of Atlantic Europe from the Mediterranean.

Scott, Richard J. (1996). The Galway hookers: working sailboats of Galway Bay. 3rd ed. Limerick: The Author.

Lavishly illustrated overview of the current status of hookers.

Tully, Darina 11996). The history of small boats in Ireland. Dublin: Saor-Ollscoil Eireann.

Unpublished thesis, detailing the origins of the various boat types found.

Tully, Darina [1998]. Report on vernacular water-craft and traditional boat types in Ireland (compiled) for the

Maritime Sites and Monuments Record, Dept of Arts, Culture and the Gaeltacht. Dublin: Dept of Arts,

Culture and the Gaeltacht.

Unpublished report detailing the various boat types and their locations.

Villain-Gandossi, Christiane, ed. (1989-91). Medieval ships and the birth of technological societies; edited by Christiane Villain-Gandossi, Salvino Busuttil, Paul Adam; in 2 vols. Valletta: European Coordination

Centre for Research and Documentation in Social Sciences: Foundation for International Studies,

Malta. Seminal work detailing the importance of the Mediterranean in the spread of fishing methods, boat

design and navigation to northern Europe.

Villain-Gandossi, Christiane (1994). 'Illustrations of ships: iconography and interpretation' In:

Gardiner. Robert, ed. Cogs, caravels and galleons: the sailing ship 1000-1650: (volume three of) Conway's

history of the ship. London: Conway Maritime Press, 169-174.

Comments on accuracy of illustrations of earliest ships.

Wimmers, Henk J. (1998). 'Evolution and revolution in the development of shipbuilding materials' In:

Frutta di mare: evolution and revolution in the maritime world in the 19th and 20th centuries: proceedings of the

second International Congress in Maritime History [held] 5-8 June 1996 [in] Amsterdam and Rotterdam, the

Netherlands; edited by Paul C. van Royen, Lewis R. Fischer, David M. Williams. Amsterdam: Batavian

Lion, 123-132. Shows that, although new materials are available today, original materials such as wood are still the

best for boatbuilding.

Witsen, Nicolaas (1671). Architectura navalis et reginem nauticum: aaloude ne hedendaagsche scheevs-bouw

en bestier. Amsterdam: M. Schalekamp. Earliest known publication on boatbuilding in the Netherlands, with full details of construction given.

Yk [i.e. Eyk], Cornells van (1697). Die Nederlandsche scheeps-bouw-konst open gestelt, vertoonende naar wat

regel of evenredenheyd, in Nederland meest alle scheepen werden gebouwd, mitsgaders masten, zeylen, ankers,

en touwen, enz daar aan gepast. Amsterdam: Ian ten Hoom.

Comprehensive details on how to build various ship types, including the tools needed and costings,

by an experienced shipwright.



from hoekers to hookers: a survey of the literature and annotated bibliography on the origins of the...

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