ABSTRACT This article is written in four main segments. The first segment will look

into definitions – of change; of the ecology, culture and climate of

schools; of norms that affect school improvement; and of what is meant

by effective schools. In preparation for change, the second segment will

seek to identify the different types of resisters of change; to understand

the reasons for their fears and their resistance to change; and to

understand the two major process of dealing with change. The third

segment discusses issues to be addressed in implementing and managing

the change process. This segment will touch on the role of leaders in

helping to build a school culture, as well as to suggest tips on how to

manage change. Stages for the change process will also be discussed.

Lastly, the fourth and final segment of this article sums the outcome that

ASSIGNMENT 2

FROM CATERPILLARS TO BUTTERFLIES –

A REFLECTION ON CHANGING CULTURE & CLIMATE

FOR THE EMERGENCE OF EFFECTIVE SCHOOLS

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is to be expected when dimensions of school effectiveness from the

social-systems perspective have been taken into consideration for

systemic changes and reforms.

Introduction

A six-year-old once came across a fat, little green caterpillar with black marks on its

body. He wanted to keep it as his pet but his kindergarten teacher refused, not allowing

him to ‘destruct’ school property by breaking off branches and plucking leaves off the

bush. Undeterred, he diligently spent most of his free time at his pre-school watching

the caterpillar grow bigger and fatter. He would go home each day and report to his

mother his observations, as his teacher at school did not share his same passion. As

time passed, he told his mother how ‘lazy’ the caterpillar had become, hardly moving

any more and also how it seemed to be changing its colour. The fat green caterpillar

was turning a slight shade of brownish-orange. It was also turning hard and crusty, he

reported.

One day, the little boy came home crying. He said that his caterpillar had died! It was

no longer moving and “had dried up in his shell”. The mother did all she could to pacify

him. She went to see the school principal the next day, managed to get his ‘permission’

to take the ‘dead caterpillar’ home in a large bottle with a perforated lid. The little child

was asked by the mother to keep watch over the ‘dead caterpillar’. He was reluctant at

first, not knowing the reason why his mother asked him to do such a worthless task.

However, being a filial child, and being promised that he will soon see the miracle of his

‘caterpillar’ coming alive again, he did as he was told.

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His patience paid off when, to his utmost surprise, he saw movement and… out came a

butterfly!

Although he was upset initially that he no longer had his caterpillar, the child had learnt

something new… that change is inevitable! It is part and parcel of our everyday life.

Change occurs because everything reacts or responds to factors (or forces) that act

upon them, including the force of nature.

THE EGG-HATCHING STAGE : Defining The Beginning

Change

“Change is a learning – loaded with uncertainty. It is systemic and requires

the power to manage it. Change is a journey, not a blueprint”

– Fullan & Miles, 1992

Change is to be expected as part of our everyday lives and may take many forms. In

management, it can range from changes in the workplace, new products or services

provided, or changes in policies and their implementation.

Changes usually take place due to external or internal factors. In schools, Principals

have little control over external forces or stimuli. Changes in the environment, advance

in technologies, pressure from the various stakeholders, including the community and

his superiors in the Education Ministry, can affect the operations of the school and cause

pressure for change.

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Internal change forces come from within the school organisation. The changes are

caused by factors such as new managerial policies (which are usually initiated by new

principals of the school, or by existing principals with new ideas), and employee

attitudes.

Change is systemic. It affects the whole system or school organisation. Change must be

brought about by people within and also outside the school. It requires the power to

manage it.

The Ecology of the School

Elements of school ecology are known to have impact on school improvement efforts for

effectiveness. The elements of ecology include the physical, material, and

inorganic aspects of the school.

The physical structures of schools, the physical arrangements for organising persons

and scheduling patterns, the size of the school, the working conditions and the degree

of safety in the school can facilitate or impede interactions that are meaningful for

school improvement. The cellular organisation of seating arrangements in the staffroom

keeps teachers physically apart from the other professionals in the school. The isolation

then impacts teacher attitudes and limits the relationships between teachers, students

and administrators – relationships that are essential factors in the change process. In

situations where teachers are very restricted to the classroom or school, these teachers

tend to have a limited network of ongoing professionally-based interaction with their

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professional peers, and thus, have limited contact with new ideas for improvement and

change (Fullan, 1991).

The availability of resources for change – money and time – is one of these elements

that have a powerful impact. It will influence implementation strategies. Limited funds

may mean that certain types of improvements have to be ignored and not considered.

Thus, change activities may not be able to make much progress: problems may have to

be shelved until the next fiscal year! Because it takes time to weld people into a team,

this task requires great patience and persistence over a long period of time. Time has to

be allowed for new programmes to demonstrate results.

Policies and rules that govern the school are influential inorganic elements. Schools

have to adhere to local, state and federal rules and regulations that make it difficult for

schools to set their own educational goals. However, policies that foster building

autonomy, alliances with the community, and encourage the sharing of information,

skills and understanding can improve and maintain effective classroom instruction

(Shield, 1990). Inorganic aspects of the school are important due to their impact on the

development of attitudes and beliefs, the facilitation of relationships, and the

establishment of a widely shared culture.

School Culture & School Climate

School climate and school culture are two distinct but highly interrelated and interactive

dimensions of school life. Changes in one produce changes in the other. School climate

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is created by the attitudes, beliefs, values, and norms that underlie the instructional

practices, the level of academic achievement and the operation of a school. It is driven

by how well, and how fairly the teachers and principal in a school create, implement,

model and enforce these attitudes, beliefs, values and norms. The product of a good

school climate is a strong school culture.

School culture is “the way we do that here”. The “that” can reflect any attitude, belief,

value, norm, procedure or routine. In a school with a strong school culture, any staff or

student will be able to explain and demonstrate “how we do that here” (Saufler, 2005).

J.L McBrien and R.S. Brandt (1997) have simplified the difference between school

culture and school climate by stating that :

“ .. school climate refers mostly to the school’s effects on students, while

school culture refers more to the way teachers and other staff members

work together.”

Effective schools exert positive influences on student behaviour despite conditions in the

home, community, social status, gender, race, or ethnicity. This is the influence of

positive school climate on school culture and is the responsibilities of adults (the

teachers and the principal).

To encourage a school culture and climate that promotes individuals who are bonded

together to a set of shared ideas and ideals, principals must strengthen their efforts

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towards improving connections, coherence, capacity, commitment and collaboration

among their teachers and staff (Sergiovanni, 2001).

In successful schools, the culture of the school focuses on establishing a climate where

the alignment of values and beliefs are embedded. Their vision incorporates the

collective and continual sharing of ideas of everyone and the central goal of their

mission statement of the school’s purpose is to improve student learning and

achievement. Mission statements are a statement of the school’s purpose. They are

collective general statements and not a directive that is forced upon its teachers and

staff (McEwan, 2003). Teachers collaborate and become involved in team teaching and

other practical and collaborative efforts in programme development, writing and

research. School leaders must also create a climate that encourages shared authority

and responsibility if they are to build a positive school culture.

School Effectiveness

More often than not, the view that is held common is that school effectiveness is

determined in terms of academic achievement. Many parents, citizens and policy makers

equate school effectiveness with the level of academic achievement as measured by

standardized tests (Hoy & Miskel, 2005 : 277). While this view is extremely important, it

is, however, insufficient. Outcomes are only one part of the system. The inputs, as well

as the transformational process, are partners in determining both the quality and

effectiveness of schools.

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Sergiovanni (1984) describes five leadership forces where actions make a difference in

building good schools – technical, human, educational, symbolic, and cultural. Effective

leaders have skills with which to apply each force. Technical skills pertain to managerial

matters such as scheduling and delegating; human skills include listening, group

dynamics, and conflict resolution. Educational skills include knowledge about teaching

and learning; symbolic skills include knowledge of and commitment to core institutional

values and ways of articulating and representing them. And the cultural arena involves

building norms.

Cultures are built through everyday business of school life. Leaders with culture-building

on their minds bring these norms to their daily interactions, decisions and plans, thus

shaping the way events take place.

Saphier & King (1985) lists 12 norms of school culture that affect school improvement.

The degree to which these norms are strong in a school makes a huge difference in the

ability of school improvement activities to have a lasting effect. Building these norms

depends on the teachers’ will and commitment as well as the leadership of the principals

concerned. The 12 norms are :

1. Collegiality – Professional staff that have similar challenges and needs help each

other with their different talents and knowledge. Teachers are not afraid to bring

up problems they face in their classrooms as they know they will be able to

exchange ideas with each other.

2. Experimentation – Teachers are encouraged by administrators and colleagues to

experiment with new ideas and techniques because this is how teachers and

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schools improve. Such teachers will always be looking for more effective ways of

teaching. They are not intimidated because experiments that do not work can

always be dropped, and yet they are rewarded for having tried it out for

themselves.

3. High Expectations – Teachers and Principals are held accountable for high

performance through regular evaluations. While they feel under pressure to excel,

they thrive on being part of a dynamic organisation.

4. Trust and Confidence – The principal and the students’ parents trust the

teachers’ professional judgement and commitment to improvement.

5. Tangible Support – Teachers, principals and staff are always ready and

committed to extending themselves to help each other in the school organisation.

6. Reaching Out to the Knowledge Base – Teachers and administrators are

continually reaching out to knowledge bases as they are always looking for more

to learn: new teaching methods and latest materials.

7. Appreciation and Recognition – When there is value placed on what teachers

do with students, teachers feel appreciated for their efforts and achievements in

the classroom. In response, teachers are motivated to work even harder and bring

about general school improvement! (Such recognition can be in the form of short

notes, service awards, etc.)

8. Caring, Celebrating and Humour – Principals, teachers, and staff show care for

each other regularly by being aware and celebrating significant events in each

other’s lives : birthdays; bench-marking events in the school; etc.

9. Involvement in Decision Making – Teachers that are included in meaningful

decision-making processes that affect her or her students feel appreciated that her

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input is also taken seriously . There is also mechanism that is open to the teacher

to raise issues. This raises the self-esteem of teachers and will, in turn, perpetuate

school improvement success.

10. Protection of What is Important – Meetings and paper work are kept to a

minimum so that professional instruction and planning time are maintained for

curriculum purposes.

11. Traditions – Traditions such as ceremonies or annual field trips are often seen as

refreshing and a change of pace.

12. Honest, Open Communications – The teachers, principal and staff are able to

disagree and discuss, confront and resolve matters in a constructive manner and

still be responsible and supportive of each other. They are also able to listen to

criticism as an opportunity for self-improvement without feeling threatened.

Effective-school researches that look into student academic achievement as the outcome

have identified a few critical school factors that enhance scores on standardized tests.

S.C. Purkey & Marshall S. Smith (1983) suggests that effective schools are those that

exhibit the following characteristics:

High quality curriculum

Experienced, motivated, knowledgeable and collegial teachers

Clear goals and high achievement expectations

A healthy school climate that encourages teaching and learning

A staff development programme

Rewards for success

Involved parents

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Strong, instructional leadership by the principal and teachers

School effectiveness is indeed a dynamic concept that has multiple dimensions, multiple

stakeholders, and multiple environmental constraints (Hoy & Miskel, 2005 : 298)

THE CATERPILLAR STAGE : Understanding & Preparing For Change

Understanding Resistance to Change

Why do we really need to change? It would seem that whatever we have been doing all

this while has not been worth the effort! Newton’s Law of Motion states that an object

at rest remains at rest, unless acted upon by an external force. This further goes to

show the inert nature of people – that people resist change and do not change unless

acted upon by either an external or internal force!

People have varying levels of difficulty with change. Some just need a briefing and pick

up easily. Others need more advice and emotional support. Undeniably, in every

organisation, there will exist some tough cases to crack! Initiating change in such people

is extremely difficult, and may be seemingly impossible at times!

There are usually 7 types of resisters in any given school organisation:

The Positive Resister – These people tend to agree with new ideas and

programmes outwardly, but never seem to make any moves to implement any of

the changes!

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The Unique Resister – These people believe and agree that change is

appropriate for other areas for implementation but not for his own ‘unique’

situation which he deems as different from the rest.

The Let-Me-Be-The-Last Resister – Having very little faith in the changes

advocated, these people usually hold back any implementation, hoping that new

ideas and programmes will die a natural death before his department must act

on them.

The We-Need-More-Time-To-Study Resister – A foolproof excuse that is

often used (to at least ‘buy time’) as others usually find hard to object to this

form of resistance.

The State-Rights Resister – Also known as the Not-Invented-Here Syndrome,

such resisters reject programmes that have been initiated outside his department

or even the school system.

The Cost-Justifier Resister – These people need convincing that the

programme for change is worth its while. He wants to ascertain that everything

is cost-justified before he considers any change.

The Incremental Change Resister – A milder form of resistance whereby

these resisters will accept and implement change as long as the new programme

or system just adds on to everything the old one had and is not something new

in isolation.

There are several reasons for resistance to change, according to Fullan & Stiegelbauer

(1991). Participants resist change when they do not see the need for the change. To

them the present situation seems satisfactory. Whatever appeal there is to the change is

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purely based on the personal reasons of the initiator of the change. Resistance is further

fuelled when there has been little or poor communication regarding the change.

When the purpose of the change is not made clear and the participants were not at all

involved in planning the change, resistance is to be expected. It would be quite difficult

to expect anyone who has not been involved at all from the very beginning to be

expected to implement a change which they themselves may not understand nor

support.

As change also usually requires effort, and perhaps sacrificing the known and taking

risks to venture into the unknown, there will always be the fear of failure. And in

addition to this fear, when evaluating the excessive work pressure, costs and effort put

into making this change, many may find that the reward or concession for making this

change as inadequate.

Fullan (1992) also mentions the issue of daily press that stands in the way of

innovation. He defines daily press as the need to take care of moment to moment

classroom pressures that act as obstacles for innovations to take root. Teachers are

often constrained from thinking of new ways of organizing learning in their classrooms

by the need to handle the day to day issues, problems, crises, and challenges. As a

result of having to handle and cope with this daily press, teachers are isolated from

carrying out professional dialogue with colleagues. This limits opportunities for reflection

for the purpose of improvement. These teachers enforce short term perspective and

emphasize only upon coping with problems which can really leave them exhausted and

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having little time for special efforts. Under this stress and pressure, the teachers can

only be dependent upon what they know and thus are prone to only following mundane

routines.

When schools try to launch major reforms, such as standard-based curriculum

development drives and technology advancements, teachers will always lament that

there is never enough time. And in addition, due to directives from the policy makers,

this entire issue of daily press is just ignored. Thus, reforms that require many

demanding changes from teachers are unlikely to be welcomed, let alone embraced, by

the teachers concerned.

Time is needed for people to be able to come to terms with change. However,

prolonged resistance will lead to inability to cope with a new environment and pave way

for stagnation, decline and failure.

School principals should not also consider all resistance from teachers and staff as

something in the negative. Very often when being extremely eager to implement new,

innovative ideas and programmes for change in the school organisation, principals tend

to overlook and undermine certain aspects. Resisters may sometimes see problems in

the changed policies which principals may have not anticipated. Thus, when there is

resistance, principals should re-examine the proposed change to see whether they can

find a solution acceptable to all for a lasting and effective impact.

Understanding fears

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Underlying the resistance to change is actually the feeling of fear. According to

psychologist Dennis O’Grady, a combination of five fears can choke the ability to

change:

Fear of the unknown – It is the unspoken message from society that when

change occurs, one will lose control of the situation. Some may be able to take

control back after a while. For others, this may upset their balance and leave

them in a lurch of confusion for a long time before they are able to ‘recover’.

Fear of Failure – Because of high self-esteem, many resist goals for change

because committing themselves to change exposes them to a chance for failure

and risk having their egos bruised.

Fear of Commitment – Commitment is not an option that most people want as

it usually eliminates other possible options and can also change existing

relationships

Fear of Disapproval – Humans are social creatures: they build and thrive on

relationships with others. There is always a need to feel accepted among his

family, his peers, his superiors, his subordinates. If he changes, he risks having

people turn against him and saying they like him better the way he was. His own

individual change forces others to change in relationship to him. This may not be

something that he can accept nor cope easily.

Fear of Success – Some fear that when they succeed in the change, there will

be further challenges and further demands on him. What he is afraid of is

whether he will be able to sustain and perpetuate this success.

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Understanding The Change Process

“Accept the change process as a positive experience to be understood

and embraced, rather than a negative experience to be feared and

avoided.” - Fullan & Miles (1992)

According to Mosley, Pietri & Megginso (1996 : 427 – 428), there are two major ways of

dealing with change – the reactive process or the proactive process.

The reactive process of change involves change in reaction to something that has

already happened. The Management keeps the organisation ‘steady’ by solving problems

as they come up. Such changes focus on immediate remedies to problems that crop up.

These changes involves very little planning and its long term effects are usually not

taken into consideration since they aim at solving a current problem. However, over

time, these ‘small’ incremental solutions to problems add up to a significant change in

organisation! But such ‘quick fixes’ are often inconsistent – and the end result in long

run may not be desirable.

The proactive (planned) process of change seeks to anticipate change and find

integral ways to cope with the predicted new conditions. The Management tries to set a

new course of action rather than just merely correcting the current one. Due to the

rapidity and complexity of change demanded in today’s world, principals in schools must

understand and plan organisational changes. These demands will inevitably affect and

bring about changes in the curriculum, education trends, teaching practices and the

school system as a whole.

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Proactive or planned changes may include changing the organisational structure –

modifying & rearranging internal relationships, communication systems and work flows.

Various posts or work groups may be introduced in the school administration and

organisation. Others may be deemed no longer necessary and be subjected to

retrenchment and downsizing.

Planned changes may also include changing the organisation’s technology – altering or

modifying tools, equipment, machinery, and production system. In schools, changing

technology may result from or contribute to changing tasks to be performed by the

principal, the teachers, or the administrative staff.

Changing the organisation’s people is also likely when implementing proactive changes.

This change involves recruiting policies, training and developmental activities for the

staff, and implementing appropriate reward systems.

Louis & Miles (1990) notes that schools need knowledge, will and skill to bring about

successful change efforts. Knowledge must be understood clearly, it must be

meaningful, and connected. Knowledge must be exemplified in specific actions and

clearly visualised to give an image of “what to do to get there”. There must be

motivation, interest & the skill / behavioural ability to do the action envisioned.

According to Purkey and Smith (1982 : 68) :

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“ … an academically effective school is distinguished by its culture : a

structure, process and climate of values and norms that channel staff and

students in the direction of successful teaching and learning… ”

Thus, if the norms of school culture are strong, improvements in instruction will be

significant, continuous and widespread. If norms are weak, improvements will then be

challenged.

By understanding why past attempts at changing schools have failed, one can avoid the

stress and pitfalls that may be encountered when trying to implement change.

THE PUPA STAGE : Implementing & Managing The Change Process

Overcoming The Resistance

To overcome resistance, it is important that the following issues be addressed before

and even continually during the process of change – the relevance of the change (that

is, the practicality and need for the change); the readiness of the participants for

change (the capacity and capability with respect to their needs); and the availability of

resources needed to ensure the successful and lasting change.

To overcome resistance, it is also important that leaders communicate. They need to

involve people and by explaining the rationale and providing a clear vision. Forums and

meetings can be held at various levels to get resistance out in open.

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Building A School Culture – The Role of Leaders

As leaders in a school setting, school principals and teachers shape the school culture

through their actions, words and deeds. They encourage and support the development a

collaborative school culture, with clear educational vision and a shared, collective

institutional mission. Together they identify areas for improvement and plan activities

and devote their energy to overcome obstacles and challenges that develop during the

change process. Schools that allow education change to flourish are committed to

providing high-quality learning for all students by initiating, implementing and

integrating programs and resources that engage in meaningful teaching and learning.

Leaders should learn to use all possible resources to foster the academic, emotional and

social well-being of students. One such most powerful resource is the expertise of

parents, businesses, social services, neighbouring universities and institutions of higher

learning. The successful partnerships hold endless possibilities for change and

improvements in the school organisation.

Managing Change

Dennis Sparks, Executive Director of the National Staff Development Council (Sparks,

1993) suggests 13 tips for managing change –

1. Educate the leaders of change – both principals and teachers. Teachers and

principals need to know their roles in changing, shaping and building school

culture. Principals set the tone or attitude of the school, and are crucial in

determining what is to be incorporated into the culture of the school. Leaders

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should know their roles in the school – as an educator and a manager. Teachers

and principals need to be good communicators and model the way for others.

2. Use a systems approach to ensure all aspects of school organisation are

considered when planning and implementing the change.

3. Use a team approach that involves many stakeholders. Creating successful

partnerships with parents, health services, businesses, universities, and other

community organisations will prove useful in championing changes in the school

since school culture actually begins outside the school!

4. Share power with teachers and others to encourage the implementation of

change efforts. When responsibilities are shared, a feeling of belonging becomes

apparent! Everyone should be made to feel empowered to share decision making.

Smith and Stolp (1995 : 3) contend that to create a vision, the organisation’s

members must listen to one another, feel empowered to change the organization,

have confidence in their ability to improve their performance, think critically and

gather data, and hold strong convictions about the ideals that should guide their

work in the future.

5. Make plans – make them simple, from small, easy changes than big demanding

ones. Allow room for adaptation as plans inevitably have to change as needs

change.

6. Establish readiness for change. Identify key elements that can be realistically

altered and get people to implement new approaches quickly. Although getting

ready for changes require time and consideration, implementation should not be

delayed as interest, motivation and impact may be lost in the delay.

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7. Provide training and staff development. Sustained professional development

is needed to help staff modify their teaching strategies, learning strategies and

belief systems to improve learning.

8. Choose innovative practices that are researched-based and classroom friendly.

Implementation of practices and approaches that have been used or researched by

others builds confidence. There is further reinforcement and acceptance if the

course of action they take has been tested and proven that they actually work.

9. Recognize and understand emotional effects on educators. Change

happens through people. By understanding the reasons for the resistance, leaders

can plan and work around it. When the people are reassured, chances for

successful change are increased.

10. Prepare for ‘implementation dips’. The idiom “the night is darkest just before

dawn” rings true when we talk about successful change. Fullan (1993) and others

note that things often get worse temporarily before improvements begin to

appear. Advocators of change should persevere in order to be able to savour the

fruits of their labour.

11. Help teachers develop an “intellectual understanding” of new practices.

While the outcomes of changing practices are important, people need to

understand the underlying meanings and functions of the practices for them to

appreciate and be committed in making the change practices work. There should

also be a clear understanding of the environment in which solutions will be

implemented.

12. Seek out paradigm shifters and idea champions. There will always be

innovative thinking and proactive teachers who are interested in making

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substantial changes in current practices for the sake of progress. These teachers

will be a good start to form a working team to influence the others and produce

change.

13. Realize that change takes time and should not be forced to occur too quickly.

Stages For The Change Process

Fullan (1992) lays out four simplified stages for the change process :

Initiation Implementation Continuation Outcome

In the initiation stage, key elements that are relevant and can be realistically altered are

identified. Problems that need attention for change have to be recognised and

diagnosed. Participant readiness will also need to be ensured through a clear

educational vision and a shared, collective institutional mission in addition to staff

development programmes. Systematic strategies and an action plan for implementation

will have to be drawn up.

In the implementation stage, the practical or physical process of delivering an innovation

is carried out. School leaders will also have to carry out experimentation of the

strategies put forward in the action plan, and using the resources that are made

available. They will also need to create criteria for evaluating the outcome or solution

effectiveness. The leaders may need to track behaviour and measure results.

After evaluation and assessment, intervention and reorientation may need to be

implemented during the continuation stage. Practices may need to be altered to

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enhance the desired change at this stage. Or perhaps, the proposed change may have

manifested itself in such a way that itself needs to be amended through restructuring.

Through flexibility and response in a dynamic process of change and anchored in what

we know of effective strategies, the final outcome determines the success or failure of

school reform efforts.

School improvements emerges from the confluence of four elements : the strengthening

of teachers’ skills, the systematic renovation of curriculum, the improvement of the

organisation, and the involvement of parents and citizens in responsible school

community partnerships (Saphier & King, 1985). Underlying all these four elements is

the school culture. If the norms of school culture are weak, we will find that

improvements will be slow, infrequent and random. Improvement will have to then

depend on the unsupported energies of the Principals or individual teachers or

classrooms. New ideas brought in from the best workshops or training centres will have

little effect on improvement.

THE BUTTERFLY STAGE : The Emergence Of An Effective School

When the caterpillar has had its fill of the choicest leaves and shoots, and given the

correct conditions – warmth, moisture and sufficient time to mature and grow – a

beauty of nature emerges… a butterfly!

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Likewise, when the school culture has been strengthened, the shared vision is clear,

well-articulated of what the school stands for, and embodies core values and purpose

that takes the school and the community into consideration. A strong culture is crucial to

making schools attractive and effective workplaces. If the norms of school culture we

have outlined are strong, the school will not only be attractive, it will be energized and

constantly improving. School improvements will be significant, continuous and

widespread.

When systemic changes and reforms in the school have looked into the three

dimensions of school effectiveness from the social-systems perspective – acquiring

resources from the environment (input); harmonious operation of the school’s internal

components (transformation) by aligning standards, coherence and directions; and goal

achievement (output performance) by changing attitudes and behaviours of students,

teachers and staff and focussing on improving the quality and quantity of output

achievement – then, and only then, can we say that change has brought about the

emergence of an effective school!

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Centre for Leadership and Learning at

http://www.ucalgary.ca/~cll/resources/read7.html. 26 August 2006.

“Building a Learning Community : The Culture and Climate of Schools” at

http://cnx.org/content/m12922/latest/. 26 August 2006.

“Establishing Vision and Focus : Leadership For Vision” at

http://www.education.pitt.edu/tri-state-pitt/strategic_planning.htm. 29 September

2006.

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“Overcoming Obstacles to Change” at http://www.nsba.org/sbot/toolkit/ovobssc.html.

21 September 2006.

“SEDL School Context: Bridge or Barrier to Change – The Ecology of the School” at

http://www.sedl.org/change/school/ecology.htm. 11 August 2006.

“School Climate Assessment Instruments for Middle School and High School Students”

at http://www.emc.cmich.edu/CharacterEd/cfk.htm. 30 September 2006.