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FRESHWATER MOLLUSKBIOLOGY ANDCONSERVATIONTHE JOURNAL OF THE FRESHWATERMOLLUSK CONSERVATION SOCIETY
VOLUME 19 NUMBER 1 MAY 2016
Pages 1-21A National Strategy for the Conservation of Native Freshwater MollusksFreshwater Mollusk Conservation Society
Pages 22-28Investigation of Freshwater Mussel Glochidia Presence on Asian Carp and Native Fishes of the Illinois RiverAndrea K. Fritts, Alison P. Stodola, Sarah A. Douglass and Rachel M. Vinsel
Pages 29-35Toxicity of Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate to Federally Threatened and Petitioned Freshwater Mollusk SpeciesKesley J. Gibson, Jonathan M. Miller, Paul D. Johnson and Paul M. Stewart
Freshwater Mollusk Biology and Conservation
©2016ISSN 2472-2944
Editorial Board
CO-EDITORSGregory Cope, North Carolina State University
Wendell Haag, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest ServiceTom Watters, The Ohio State University
EDITORIAL REVIEW BOARDConservation
Jess Jones, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service / Virginia Tech University
EcologyRyan Evans, Kentucky Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Water
Michael Gangloff, Appalachian State UniversityCaryn Vaughn, Oklahoma Biological Survey, University of Oklahoma
Freshwater GastropodsPaul Johnson, Alabama Aquatic Biodiversity Center
Jeff Powell, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Daphne, AlabamaJeremy Tiemann, Illinois Natural History Survey
Reproductive BiologyJeff Garner, Alabama Division of Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries
Mark Hove, Macalester College / University of Minnesota
Survey/MethodsHeidi Dunn, Ecological Specialists, Inc.
Patricia Morrison, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Ohio River Islands RefugeDavid Strayer, Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies
Greg Zimmerman, Enviroscience, Inc.
Systematics/PhylogeneticsArthur Bogan, North Carolina State Museum of Natural Sciences
Daniel Graf, University of Wisconsin-Stevens PointRandy Hoeh, Kent State University
ToxicologyThomas Augspurger, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Raleigh, North Carolina
Robert Bringolf, University of GeorgiaJohn Van Hassel, American Electric Power
Teresa Newton, USGS, Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center
Freshwater Mollusk Biology and Conservation 19:1–21, 2016
� Freshwater Mollusk Conservation Society 2016
ARTICLE
A NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR THE CONSERVATION OFNATIVE FRESHWATER MOLLUSKS*
Freshwater Mollusk Conservation Society**,1
1417 Hoff Industrial Dr., O’Fallon, MO 63366 USA
ABSTRACT
In 1998, a strategy document outlining the most pressing issues facing the conservation offreshwater mussels was published (NNMCC 1998). Beginning in 2011, the Freshwater MolluskConservation Society began updating that strategy, including broadening the scope to includefreshwater snails. Although both strategy documents contained 10 issues that were deemed prioritiesfor mollusk conservation, the identity of these issues has changed. For example, some issues (e.g.,controlling dreissenid mussels, technology to propagate and reintroduce mussels, techniques totranslocate adult mussels) were identified in the 1998 strategy, but are less prominent in the revisedstrategy, due to changing priorities and progress that has been made on these issues. In contrast, someissues (e.g., biology, ecology, habitat, funding) remain prominent concerns facing mollusk conservationin both strategies. In addition, the revised strategy contains a few issues (e.g., newly emerging stressors,education and training of the next generation of resource managers) that were not explicitly present inthe 1998 strategy. The revised strategy states that to effectively conserve freshwater mollusks, we needto (1) increase knowledge of their distribution and taxonomy at multiple scales; (2) address the impactsof past, ongoing, and newly emerging stressors; (3) understand and conserve the quantity and quality ofsuitable habitat; (4) understand their ecology at the individual, population, and community levels; (5)restore abundant and diverse populations until they are self-sustaining; (6) identify the ecosystemservices provided by mollusks and their habitats; (7) strengthen advocacy for mollusks and theirhabitats; (8) educate and train the conservation community and future generations of resourcemanagers and researchers; (9) seek long-term funding to support conservation efforts; and (10)coordinate development of an updated and revised strategy every 15 years. Collectively addressingthese issues should strengthen conservation efforts for North American freshwater mollusks.
KEY WORDS - freshwater mollusks, conservation, management, strategy, snails, mussels
INTRODUCTION
In 1995, federal, state, academic, and private sector
managers and researchers concerned with the decline of
freshwater mussels (order Unionoida, families Unionidae and
Margaritiferidae) in North America formed the National
Native Mollusk Conservation Committee (NNMCC) to
discuss the conservation status of this imperiled fauna.
Realizing the scope and immediacy of the issues associated
with mussel imperilment, the NNMCC decided that a
nationwide coordinated effort was needed to stem population
declines and extinctions. They produced a document to
address the conservation needs of mussels and drafts of that
document—the National Strategy for the Conservation of
Native Freshwater Mussels (hereafter referred to as the
National Strategy)—were presented at two North American
1
*Article Citation: FMCS (Freshwater Mollusk Conservation Society).
2016. A national strategy for the conservation of native freshwater
mollusks. Freshwater Mollusk Biology and Conservation 19: 1-21.**Corresponding Author: [email protected]
1Contributing authors listed alphabetically, as follows: Megan Bradley,
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Robert S. Butler, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service; Heidi L. Dunn, Ecological Specialists, Inc.; Catherine Gatenby,
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Patricia A. Morrison, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service; Teresa J. Newton, U.S. Geological Survey; Matthew
Patterson, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Kathryn E. Perez, University of
Texas Rio Grande Valley; Caryn C. Vaughn, Oklahoma Biological Survey
and Department of Biology, University of Oklahoma; Daelyn A.
Woolnough, Central Michigan University, Biology Department and
Institute for Great Lakes Research; Steve J. Zigler, U.S. Geological Survey
mussel symposia (in 1995 and 1997). In 1998, the National
Strategy was published in the Journal of Shellfish Research(NNMCC 1998). This document has been used to prioritize
research and management actions related to mussel conserva-
tion. In addition, the National Strategy has helped organize
activities conducted by the Freshwater Mollusk Conservation
Society (FMCS)—the organization that evolved from the
NNMCC—that is dedicated to the conservation and advocacy
of freshwater mollusks. For brevity, we refer to native
freshwater mussels (mussels) and gastropods (snails) simply
as mollusks.
The FMCS was initiated as a grass-roots effort by
dedicated individuals among agencies and organizations,
academia and private citizens, and across states and countries.
The work of this society has resulted in the recruitment and
training of many scientists and managers who work at local,
state, regional, national, and international levels on mollusk
conservation. As a consequence, many published papers,
agency reports, and government documents have been
generated by this growing community. Our understanding of
mollusks and the ecological role they play in aquatic
ecosystems has grown exponentially as reflected in the peer-
reviewed literature (Figure 1). Communication and outreach
on mollusks has also increased the scope and breadth of
awareness of the conservation challenges facing managers and
researchers to wider audiences, including decision and policy
makers. As a result of enhanced partnerships, funding to
protect mollusks and their habitats has increased.
Haag and Williams (2014) assessed the state of progress
made under each of the 10 ‘‘problems’’ outlined in the 1998
National Strategy and suggested ways to improve conservation
implementation. After nearly two decades of progress and
change, it was clear that an updated document was needed to
address evolving conservation challenges, research needs, and
emerging threats for mollusks. In 2011, the FMCS formed a
committee to revise the National Strategy, and, in 2013, a list
of overarching issues in mollusk conservation and strategies to
address them was approved by the FMCS membership. Here,
we present those issues as an updated National Strategy
intended to identify research, monitoring, management, and
conservation actions needed to sustain and recover mollusks.
The issues are presented without prioritization because the
strategies within the issues are independent and may vary due
to numerous factors. This manuscript intends to give guidance
to our conservation partners, but is not intended to prioritize
action—that is a decision that should be made by local, state,
or regional partners based on regional and taxonomic
priorities, funding, expertise, etc.
The 1998 National Strategy was restricted to the
conservation of mussels; however, many of the same factors
that led to the imperilment of mussels has also affected snails.
Recent compilations indicate that both groups have a similar
high level of continental imperilment (~74%, J.D. Williams,
Florida Museum of Natural History, personal communication;
Johnson et al. 2013). In addition, snails are less studied than
mussels, with most species defined only in terms of their
taxonomy (see Graf 2001; Perez and Minton 2008). However,
there is a growing body of knowledge regarding their
distribution, ecology, and conservation status (Brown et al.
2008; Lysne et al. 2008; Johnson et al. 2013). We know that
both mussels and snails require healthy aquatic ecosystems,
but their specific life histories and ecological requirements can
be quite different. For example, snails often occur in different
habitats than mussels, have fundamentally different life
histories, have higher rates of endemism, often have highly
restricted distributions, and have dispersal mechanisms not
dependent on hosts. The diversity of the snail fauna in the U.S.
and Canada (16 families) implies a wide range of life history
traits and needs (Johnson et al. 2013). These requirements will
need to be considered, in addition to those for mussels, for
effective conservation of the mollusk fauna.
This National Strategy focuses largely on conservation
issues in the U.S. and Canada, although similar threats to
mollusks and their habitats are occurring worldwide (Lydeard
et al. 2004). We acknowledge that the factors affecting
mollusk communities vary in scope and intensity across
regions. In the interest of brevity, we do not address region-
specific issues or provide an exhaustive literature review for
the broad issues we do cover.
The goal of this National Strategy is to identify and
clarify issues and actions that are essential to conserving our
nation’s mollusk fauna and ensure that their ecological,
social, and economic values to society are maintained at
sustainable levels. This revised strategy does not address
fingernail clams (Sphaeriidae), largely because not enough
data or expertise is available to include them. This document
presents the 10 issues that are considered priorities for the
conservation of mollusks. For each issue, we state the overall
goal, list strategies needed to address the issue, provide an
Figure 1. Number of peer-reviewed scientific articles during 1990–2014 that
referenced freshwater mollusks as their topic. Data from Web of Science
(February 2015) and are per year (i.e., not cumulative).
2 FMCS 2016
overview of the topic, offer examples of successes since the
1998 National Strategy, identify research needs, and
recognize opportunities that will aid the conservation and
management of mollusks.
Issue 1 – Increase knowledge of the distribution andtaxonomy of mollusks at multiple scales over time and makethat information available.
Goal: Understand the status and trends of mollusk
populations to better manage and conserve species.
Strategies:
1. Continue to refine knowledge of systematics, taxonomy,
and genetic structure of species.
2. Update and maintain a database of the accepted scientific
nomenclature.
3. Use survey methods that provide data needed for trend
analyses.
4. Identify uniform data collection and reporting standards
that will support periodic status assessments.
5. Encourage reporting of distribution data.
6. Assess and publish the conservation status of mollusks
every 10 years.
Overview
Knowledge of the distribution of mollusks is lacking,
which hinders our ability to manage their populations. A key
difficulty in understanding the distribution of mollusks has
been poor taxonomy. Although considerable progress has been
made in taxonomy since 1998 (Bogan and Roe 2008; Johnson
et al. 2013), most species have not been studied using modern
techniques. Many waterbodies are virtually unsampled, and
even in well-studied regions, many drainages have not been
adequately surveyed in half a century or more. An update of
our approaches to taxonomy and generating and managing
distribution data is needed to make this information more
accurate and widely available.
Success stories in mollusk distributions
Numerous stream and lake surveys have been published
since 1998. Many of these studies have resulted in range
extensions, new drainage records, population trends, and
demographic data (e.g., Evans and Ray 2010; Haag and
Warren 2010; Zanatta et al. 2015). Compilation of distribu-
tional information for species status assessments, recovery
plans listed under the Endangered Species Act (ESA), and
other studies have contributed to a greater understanding of
mollusk distributions, which are critical for conservation
efforts (e.g., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service [USFWS] 2004;
Butler 2007; Crabtree and Smith 2009). One example of a
broad-scale survey was conducted in Texas rivers in 2010
(Burlakova and Karatayev 2010; Burlakova et al. 2011). New
populations of endangered species and fewer populations of
other species were documented, leading to a more accurate
assessment of the global status of these species, including a
recommendation that they be listed as endangered by Texas.
Some advances have been made in applying molecular and
other data to the phylogenies of mollusks, thus facilitating a
better understanding of their distribution. A review of the
systematics of mussels was published in 2007 (Graf and
Cummings 2007) and a number of papers describing new
species or evolutionarily significant units have contributed to
their conservation (Serb et al. 2003; Bogan and Roe 2008;
Chong et al. 2008). Despite these efforts, the population
genetics of most mussel species remain completely unexplored.
Molecular phylogenies of some Physidae and Pleuroceridae
snails have been published (Lydeard et al. 1997; Holznagel and
Lydeard 2000; Minton and Lydeard 2003; Wethington and
Lydeard 2007), but recent data suggest mitochondrial molec-
ular data are unreliable for Pleuroceridae (Whelan and Strong
2016). Dozens of species of Hydrobiidae and Lithoglyphidae
snails have been described from the Southwestern and
Southeastern U.S. through the use of molecular data, electron
microscopy, and detailed anatomical review (Hershler et al.
2008; Hershler and Liu 2009, 2010). However, most snail
families remain unexamined using modern techniques. Data
from molecular studies have been used to strengthen
conservation efforts for some mussel (Jones et al. 2006; Jones
and Neves 2010; Jones et al. 2015) and snail (Wethington and
Guralnick 2004; Morningstar et al. 2014) species.
Several efforts to make mollusk information publicly
available have gained momentum. For example, papers
updating the continental status and summarizing the known
distributions of mussels and snails have been published
(Williams et al. 1993; Johnson et al. 2013). The Freshwater
Gastropods of North America (Dillon et al. 2013) contains
distribution and ecological information organized by geo-
graphic region. Keys to the snails of some U.S. states have
become available online (e.g., Thompson 2004; Perez and
Sandland 2015). NatureServe and the American Fisheries
Society databases remain the primary sources for distribution
information, though both have significant limitations (Wil-
liams et al. 1993; Johnson et al. 2013; NatureServe 2015).
Research to aid conservation and management
In addition to the basic need for alpha taxonomy, detailed
phylogenetic and population genetic studies are also needed.
Analyzing datasets across multiple sources (e.g., multiple
genes, microsatellites, morphology, ecological relationships)
will ensure that these data are accurate and representative of
natural populations. Collectively, these data may be important
in recognizing patterns of imperilment of species, species
groups, and genera. Determining the genetic structure of
healthy populations will serve as a benchmark for the levels of
genetic diversity and composition necessary for sustainability.
The last assessment on the names of mollusks was
conducted by Turgeon et al. (1998); this list needs immediate
revision. Taxonomic changes that have occurred among
mollusks need to be updated and these findings need to be
3NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR FRESHWATER MOLLUSKS
published every 10 years. Maintaining an ongoing, publicly-
available record of accepted names would be ideal (e.g.,
fishbase.org). Similarly, comprehensive conservation status
assessments for mussels and snails should be conducted every
10 years. The first snail assessment was published in 2013
(Johnson et al. 2013), and the second mussel assessment is in
progress (J.D. Williams, Florida Museum of Natural History,
personal communication). Ideally, future assessments will
have more spatially-explicit distribution data, such as major
river drainages, rather than simply states and provinces of
occurrence. Further, efforts should transition to up-to-date,
accessible online databases, rather than solely periodic
publications. Online museum databases are useful for
distribution records in some groups, (e.g., taxa with unique
shell morphologies), but are questionable for other mollusks
(especially snails), as no museum has comprehensively
revisited the current identifications of mollusk holdings.
Therefore, online distribution records are often incorrect,
compromising their usefulness (Graf 2013; Johnson et al.
2013). Obtaining funding for maintaining taxonomic and
distributional databases is a critical conservation need.
Standardized sampling methods should be used to assess
mollusks over space and time. Although guidelines for
standardized sampling methods exist for mussels (e.g., Strayer
and Smith 2003), a companion work for snails has not been
developed. Sampling methods will vary by objective and
system type (e.g., wadeable streams, large rivers, lakes), and
ideally contain a quantitative component so that results can be
statistically evaluated across species, localities, watersheds,
and time. In addition to the number of mollusks sampled alive,
data such as shell-only individuals, shell condition (i.e., fresh
dead or relic), sex ratio, length, and age may be useful for
assessing status and trends. Also, data on habitat conditions,
potential stressors, and characteristics of aquatic communities
(e.g., host presence) may improve understanding of status and
trend information on mollusks and inform conservation.
Opportunities for conservation and management
Inadequate taxonomy and poor understanding of species
distributions make species extinctions more likely and
challenge effective conservation and management (May
1990; Perez and Minton 2008). For example, a rare species
that is superficially similar to a more common relative may be
overlooked and conservation measures not taken because it is
unobserved when the rare species declines in abundance. If
species distributions are not well-documented, then we cannot
tell when populations are lost to human actions. The
decreasing costs and increasing availability of genomic tools
such as microsatellites and next-generation sequencing offer
managers and researchers an opportunity to capture needed
data on systematic relationships, taxonomy, and ultimately
species distributions by identifying all ecologically significant
units within a species. These new techniques offer great
promise for the conservation of mollusks.
Our understanding of the conservation status of mollusks
at the state level has increased substantially due to databases
maintained under their Heritage programs and Comprehen-
sive Wildlife Action Plans (CWAP), in addition to the
publication of faunal books (e.g., Williams et al. 2008;
Watters et al. 2009). These efforts have facilitated more
accurate continental scale faunal assessments. Unlike the first
mussel assessment, where nearly 5% of the fauna were of
undetermined status (Williams et al. 1993), the forthcoming
mussel update assesses status for all species (J.D. Williams,
Florida Museum of Natural History, personal communica-
tion). In contrast, a recent assessment of the conservation
status for snails indicated that the status of 4% of species was
undetermined (Johnson et al. 2013). We need to update the
status of the 4% of the snail taxa that are still undetermined
and develop conservation plans that cover entire faunal
regions (e.g., Mobile, Ohio, Mississippi). Improving our
knowledge of taxonomy, life history traits, distribution,
dispersal routes, and population connectivity will help
managers prioritize imperiled species for conservation and
increase the likelihood that more faunas can be conserved.
This could lay the foundation for the partial restoration of
ecosystem services that mollusks provide to aquatic and
terrestrial organisms, ultimately including mankind (see Issue
6).
Issue 2 – Address the impacts of past, ongoing, and newlyemerging stressors on mollusks and their habitats.
Goal: Minimize threats to mollusks and their habitats.
Strategies:
1. Prepare white papers on known stressors (e.g., impound-
ments, dredging, contaminants, runoff, invasive species,
disease) describing the risk and magnitude of effects on
mollusks.
2. Describe the impacts of emerging stressors (e.g., climate
change, increased energy development, water use conflicts,
unregulated contaminants, hormone disruptors) and possi-
ble synergistic effects on mollusk populations.
3. Compile comprehensive threats assessments on communi-
ty, river, watershed, and faunal province spatial scales.
4. Predict how species and communities will change in
response to threats.
5. Work with the states and the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (USEPA) to modify water quality criteria, develop
new standards, and modify total maximum daily loads to
protect mollusk populations.
6. Advocate for consistent and effective enforcement of
environmental protection laws and regulations and evaluate
whether existing regulations adequately protect mollusks
and their habitats.
7. Develop an early detection and rapid response system for
new aquatic invaders.
8. Develop and publish protocols to avoid the spread of
disease and invasive species.
9. Describe the ecological and economic impact of mollusks
4 FMCS 2016
as vectors of parasites on fish, wildlife, livestock, and
human health.
Overview
Due to their varied life histories, sedentary nature, and
relatively poor dispersal mechanisms, mollusk populations are
susceptible to numerous biotic and abiotic stressors. For
example, understanding how contaminants affect mollusk
populations is complicated by residual contamination from
pollution and the lack of data on synergistic effects of multiple
contaminants on mollusks. Thus, even though an initial
stressor may be gone, other stressors may continue to
adversely affect mollusks and their habitats.
The tissues and shells of mollusks provide a long-term
record of past environmental conditions. For example, tissues
bioaccumulate contaminants (Naimo 1995; Coogan and La
Point 2008) and shells have been used to identify a suite of
past environmental events, such as climate and water quality
(Dunca et al. 2005; Rypel et al. 2008). Stressors on mollusks
are continually changing and research will be required to
identify and address the effects of new and existing stressors.
Examples of new stressors fall into categories of biotic
introductions (e.g., invasive snails, fishes) and abiotic
modifications (e.g., climate change, emerging contaminants)
of aquatic ecosystems. Since mollusks play an important role
in nutrient cycling and structuring food webs in aquatic
ecosystems (Atkinson et al. 2013, 2014a), clarification and
quantification of how mollusks respond to these stressors may
help develop criteria for healthy aquatic systems.
Success stories in emerging stressors
Because stressors are ubiquitous in aquatic systems, there
have been many opportunities to study their effects on mollusk
populations. In the 1990s and 2000s, considerable research
was completed on the effects of dreissenid mussels on native
mussels (e.g., Nalepa and Schloesser 2014). This has resulted
in several positive outcomes; for example, scientists now have
new tools to predict and perhaps prevent the spread of
dreissenids into new areas (Nalepa and Schloesser 2014;
Karatayev et al. 2015). These studies have also identified
refugia for mollusks in several systems where populations are
surviving despite the presence of dreissenids (Nichols and
Wilcox 1997; Crail et al. 2011; Zanatta et al. 2015). To our
knowledge, little research has been done on the effects of
dreissenids on snails. However, research has documented the
effects of invasive snails on native snails (e.g., Brown et al.
2008). We are unaware of research on the effects of invasive
snails on mussels.
Considerable progress has been made in understanding the
effects of abiotic stressors on mollusk populations. First,
mussels are now recognized as the most sensitive organisms
ever tested to the effects of ammonia (Augspurger et al. 2007;
Newton and Bartsch 2007; Wang et al. 2007a, 2007b). This
research prompted a revision of water quality criteria for
ammonia to be protective of mollusks (USEPA 2013). Second,
the impoundment of rivers with dams has often been cited as a
primary reason why many mollusk populations are fragmented
(Downing et al. 2010). Dams and channelization are under-
stood to be a leading cause for the extinction of at least 12
species of mussels and 45 species of snails (Haag 2009;
Johnson et al. 2013). Consequently, there is substantial interest
in removing dams to increase connectivity and improve
mollusk populations (Sethi et al. 2004; Nijhuis 2009; Haag
and Williams 2014). However, reproducing populations of
mussels have been documented downstream of barriers,
suggesting that river modifications should be considered on
case-by-case basis because dams may have a protective role for
some populations (Gangloff et al. 2011). Third, due to certain
life history traits (e.g., patchy distribution, limited mobility,
larval dependence on hosts, range fragmentation), mussels may
be especially susceptible to the effects of climate change. Many
of these life history traits may also adversely affect snail
populations (Johnson et al. 2013). In fact, research has shown
that many species of mussels are already living close to their
upper thermal limits and that there are physiological and
behavioral effects of climate change on mussels (Pandolfo et al.
2010; Archambault et al. 2013; Ganser et al. 2013). Advances
in modeling suggest dire consequences for mussel populations
as a result of climate change due to co-extirpation of mussels
and their hosts (Spooner et al. 2011).
Research to aid conservation and management
To assess and monitor the threats of stressors on mollusk
populations, data on tolerance limits (e.g., temperature, dissolved
oxygen, conductivity), sublethal effects, and habitat delineation
are urgently needed (e.g., International Union for Conservation
of Nature threats classification scheme). In addition, there are
limited data on the synergistic effects of stressors on mollusks
and on sensitivity of different taxa. Because the responses of
mollusks to stressors may vary by watershed, climate, habitat
type, taxa, and physiological state of mollusks, future studies
should evaluate the synergistic effects of multiple stressors across
species, life stages, spatial scales, and over varied environmental
conditions. Mollusks require an abundant supply of clean water
for physiological processes. Unfortunately, the quality and
quantity of water in many mollusk habitats is in jeopardy (Poff
et al. 1997; Arthington et al. 2006). Research is needed to
understand how demands on water supply will affect mollusk
communities and to develop instream flow criteria. We have
evidence that low flow periods—due to drought conditions in
Southern rivers—reduced species richness and relative abun-
dance of mussels (Haag and Warren 2008; Galbraith et al. 2010).
Scientists need to educate local water management districts on
how their practices (e.g., water extraction, diversions) may
adversely affect mollusk assemblages. Without this collabora-
tion, conflict between stakeholders can occur (Buck et al. 2012).
Endemic species (e.g., those limited to certain river reaches or
springs) are at risk of extirpation with even one major climate
5NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR FRESHWATER MOLLUSKS
event. Understanding the thermal limits of mollusks (and its
interactions with flow) across species and life stages will allow us
to forecast potential changes in mollusk assemblages due to
climate change. There also is a need to understand the direct
physical effects that biologists may have on mollusk assemblages
and the potential for introducing pathogens into established
populations.
Opportunities for conservation and management
Advances in new technologies can help researchers and
managers understand the effects of stressors on mollusk
populations. For example, environmental DNA (eDNA) is
currently being used to track the spread of invasive species
and could be used to detect mollusk populations in the future
(Olson et al. 2012; Pilliod et al. 2013). In a 5th order river,
New Zealand mudsnails (Potamopyrgus antipodarum) were
successfully detected using eDNA at densities as low as 11
individuals m�2 (Goldberg et al. 2013). This technology
could also be used to identify locations of at-risk populations,
allowing mangers to focus their conservation efforts. In
addition, the introduction of passive integrated transponder
(PIT) tags has allowed researchers to non-invasively monitor
the growth, survival, and movement of individual mussels
(Kurth et al. 2007; Newton et al. 2015). These techniques
allow scientists to identify and develop sensitive response
metrics from exposure to environmental stressors. Finally,
advances in testing methods and analytical techniques should
result in improvements across a range of state and national
water quality standards that could protect mollusk popula-
tions, similar to improvements made for ammonia.
Given that mollusks influence the ecology and economy of
fish, wildlife, and ultimately human health, scientists need to
provide managers with the tools (e.g., protocols for mollusk
management) to make decisions about how future and current
stressors and their interactions might affect the conservation of
mollusks. Efforts should also be made to support research on
the long-term effects of stressors because many are likely
surrogates for other emerging stressors.
Issue 3 – Understand and conserve the quantity and qualityof suitable habitat for mollusks over time.
Goal: Increase understanding of physical, chemical, and
biological characteristics of habitat to support sustainable
assemblages of mollusks.
Strategies:
1. Define habitat requirements at multiple spatial scales (e.g.,
organismal, population, community, river, watershed,
faunal province).
2. Define habitat requirements at multiple temporal scales
(e.g., seasonal, annual, long-term), including the quality,
quantity, and timing of ecological flows.
3. Quantify the amount of occupied and unoccupied habitat.
4. Identify and conserve habitats that will be resilient to
changing climates.
5. Reduce habitat fragmentation and increase connectivity of
historical habitats.
6. Conserve and restore habitat through land protection
actions such as easements, acquisitions, and landowner
agreements along riparian and upland areas within
watersheds.
7. Identify best habitat management and restoration practices
through evaluation, monitoring, and modeling.
8. Develop and test effective mitigation alternatives for
activities that affect habitat.
Overview
Habitat degradation and loss is a common threat to
mollusks, and often a major concern for sustainability of at-
risk mollusk populations (Lydeard et al. 2004; Strayer et al.
2004). Widespread construction of dams has resulted in vast
changes to habitats, flow and temperature regimes, and
ecological functions (Poff et al. 2007). Development of
restoration and mitigation tools for mollusk habitat, therefore,
is critical. For example, habitat loss is often listed as the most
significant threat in recovery plans for endangered mollusks,
but few plans provide guidance on habitat restoration and
instead focus on the nonetheless important protection of
diminishing and rare inhabited areas (e.g., USFWS 2004).
Compared to other charismatic or commercially-important
species (e.g., mammals, gamefish), the state of knowledge
needed to address conservation and management of habitats
for mollusks is poorly developed; yet this knowledge could
help explain other aspects of the ecosystem. Management of
mollusk habitat is further challenged by the complexity of
variables involved, regulatory constraints, and by multiple and
increasingly severe stressors on freshwater ecosystems (see
Issue 2) that vary across and within ecoregions.
Success stories in mollusk habitat
Although progress has been made toward understanding
habitat requirements of some mollusks—particularly mus-
sels—habitat needs of most species and life stages are not well
understood and remain a critical bottleneck for conservation
efforts (Johnson et al. 2013; Haag and Williams 2014).
Assessment and quantification of snail habitat has been
limited, but advances have been made toward understanding
habitat requirements in several aquatic systems (e.g., Evans
and Ray 2010; Calabro et al. 2013; Johnson et al. 2013). Such
understanding has enabled conservation gains for some
species. For example, the range of the endangered Tulotomamagnifica, a snail in the Coosa River, Alabama, had been
reduced by 99% (Hershler et al. 1990). Removal of dams to
restore riffle habitat, coupled with improved water releases at
hydroelectric dams and habitat protection, resulted in recovery
to 10% of its historical range and subsequent reclassification
from endangered to threatened (USFWS 2011).
6 FMCS 2016
For mussels, past research using traditional habitat
descriptors (e.g., velocity, particle size) was largely unsuc-
cessful at predicting occurrence or density (Strayer and Ralley
1993; Brim Box et al. 2002). More recent studies across a
variety of systems have suggested that certain complex
hydraulic variables (e.g., shear stress, Reynolds number) are
more predictive (Gangloff and Feminella 2007; Steuer et al.
2008; Zigler et al. 2008). While this has been a significant
accomplishment in quantifying physical habitat, mollusks
require more than physical habitat. Suitable patches of quality
habitat also require availability of mussel hosts, limited
predation, suitable water quality, and adequate food resources
(Newton et al. 2008).
Research to aid conservation and management
Future strategies to conserve or enhance habitat for
mollusks should focus on two areas. First, understanding
temporal and spatial patterns in mollusk habitat across
multiple scales and life stages will be critical in developing
effective conservation strategies. Predictive models that
quantify mollusk habitat and clarify functional habitat
attributes limiting mollusks are urgently needed. However,
development of habitat models is often challenged by a lack of
biological and environmental data, but recent advances in
technology (e.g., remote sensing, low cost hydraulic models)
and techniques for statistical and geospatial modeling of
habitat will facilitate future efforts. Depending on the factors
limiting mollusk habitat, these models may need to be scale-
specific (e.g., site, river, watershed, faunal province). Models
are also needed to understand the effects of dams, flow
alteration, and other anthropogenic stressors on habitat and to
forecast likely outcomes under differing management scenar-
ios and emerging issues such as competition for water
resources and climate change (Spooner et al. 2011). Additional
research is needed to describe the importance of spatial
arrangement and connectivity of quality inhabited and
uninhabited habitat patches to persistence of mollusk assem-
blages.
Second, research is needed to develop tools for imple-
menting and assessing conservation and restoration projects
which increase the amount of quality habitat for mollusks.
Partners may lack expertise, and often face difficult decisions
regarding efficient allocation of limited resources. Manage-
ment efforts such as artificial propagation may be futile if the
habitat is unsuitable due to other factors such as degraded
watersheds, and altered hydrology or hydraulic conditions.
Evaluation and monitoring to determine the effectiveness of
management actions to protect or mitigate lost or impaired
habitats is essential for improving methods in an adaptive
management framework. Improvements in methods for
restoration or mitigation are likely to be incremental and
require long-term commitments to fully understand ecological
outcomes.
Opportunities for conservation and management
Conservation of mollusks depends greatly on continued
advances in conservation of their habitats. Opportunities for
improving mollusk habitat will range from local to watershed-
level efforts. In some systems such as the Upper Mississippi
River, scientists, managers, and engineers are in the planning
stages of constructing habitat restoration projects to benefit
mussels by altering local physical and hydraulic conditions.
Such projects present substantial opportunities for understand-
ing the important features of mussel habitat and developing
restoration and mitigation tools. Larger scale projects that
might target mollusk habitat include improving land-use in the
watershed (e.g., controlling sediment and contaminant inputs)
and restoring a more natural hydrograph and ecological flows
in rivers. Targeted dam removal, practices that improve water
and sediment quality, and repairing altered or channelized
streams are other actions that may improve mollusk habitat.
Habitat restoration projects for many drainages are underway
through partnerships such as the National Fish Habitat Action
Plan and National Fish Passage programs of the USFWS and
state and non-governmental initiatives. Biologists and manag-
ers should engage and partner with these organizations to
include objectives for restoring mollusk habitat. Because
mollusks can provide beneficial ecological services (see Issue
6), and can function as keystone species (Geist 2010), there
can be substantial synergy between efforts to restore habitat
and conservation goals for other ecosystem components.
Issue 4 – Understand the ecology of mollusks at theindividual, population, and community levels.
Goal: Increase fundamental knowledge of the biology of
mollusks so managers can more effectively conserve them.
Strategies:
1. Describe life history and host-species relationships at the
appropriate scale.
2. Define environmental and nutritional requirements neces-
sary for physiological maintenance, reproduction, and
persistence of all life stages.
3. Describe the ecological functions of mollusks in the
environment.
4. Increase knowledge of negative and positive interactions
among mollusk species.
5. Increase understanding of demographic, genetic, and
physiological characteristics that influence long-term
population viability.
6. Encourage development of population viability analyses to
better predict species’ persistence.
7. Develop population goals for managing rare and common
species.
Overview
Although we have learned a great deal about the ecology of
mollusks since the 1998 National Strategy, we still have much
7NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR FRESHWATER MOLLUSKS
to learn. Most work has concentrated on mussels, but we need
more information on their demography, host-use and move-
ment, nutritional needs, habitat requirements for juveniles,
specific water quality limits, and sensitivity of all life stages to
multiple stressors. Snails have received considerably less
attention and there are significant data gaps in many areas
including life history, population demography, habitat require-
ments, species interactions, and ecological function. Under-
standing the ecology of mollusks at the individual, population,
and community levels is needed to design effective conserva-
tion and restoration strategies.
Success stories in mollusk ecology
Summaries of the ecology of mussels are contained in two
books (Strayer 2008; Haag 2012) and several review articles
(Vaughn and Hakenkamp 2001; Vaughn et al. 2008; Haag and
Williams 2014). Studies have begun to reveal the unique traits
that mollusks possess that enable them to cope with variable
environments. For example, research suggests that mussels can
change their feeding strategy in response to varied food
sources by feeding across trophic levels (e.g., bacteria vs.
phytoplankton) or mechanistically (e.g., pedal vs. filter
feeding) (Vaughn et al. 2008; Newton et al. 2013). Mussels
also have a variety of responses to cope with environmental
contaminants, such as varied detoxification capabilities
(Newton and Cope 2007). Improved understanding of the
strengths and weaknesses of survey methods has expanded our
understanding of populations and population processes
(Strayer and Smith 2003). For example, increased use of
excavation techniques that enhance detection of smaller
mussels can improve demographic information. Demographic
models have been developed for some rare species (Crabtree
and Smith 2009; Jones et al. 2012) leading to better
understanding of their ecology. Use of conservation genetics
can help determine long-term viability of populations (Jones et
al. 2006). We have also developed temperature criteria for
many species and life stages of mussels (Spooner and Vaughn
2008; Pandolfo et al. 2010, 2012).
Research to aid conservation and management
We have made substantial progress in understanding mussel
life histories and host-species relationships over the past two
decades (e.g., Barnhart et al. 2008). However, there are still
substantial data gaps. We have host-use data for only about a
third of the North American mussel fauna, and much of that
information is incomplete (Haag and Williams 2014). Repli-
cated, robust studies that document the breadth of host-use
across co-occurring fishes are needed (Haag and Williams
2014). Once potential hosts are known, there is also the
challenge of determining which hosts are most important in
natural systems. We also need to understand patterns in juvenile
mussel dispersal that host movements provide. Studies using
PIT tags and other novel techniques will increase knowledge in
this area. We also need data on sperm dispersal in the field and
reproductive success at low mussel densities, which may be a
bottleneck for the conservation of small and isolated popula-
tions. In snails, representative pleurocerid and pulmonate
species have been the subject of life history studies (e.g.,
Huryn et al. 1994; reviewed in Brown et al. 2008), but we need
more information on reproductive biology of most species.
While vast progress has been made understanding habitat
requirements of mussels in the last decade (see Issue 3), more
work is required. In particular, we have limited knowledge of
the habitat needs of juveniles. We also need to examine
sensitivities to habitat perturbation in terms of multiple
stressors, rather than single stressors (Shea et al. 2013). There
is evidence that the early life stages of mussels are particularly
sensitive to contaminants, such as un-ionized ammonia and road
salt (Augspurger et al. 2003; Newton et al. 2003; Gillis 2011),
but there are thousands of contaminants that have not been
evaluated (see Issue 2). Sensitivities of mussels to the effects of
climate change are just becoming apparent, but there is much
more to learn (Ganser et al. 2013; Archambault et al. 2014). We
also have inadequate knowledge of nutritional requirements of
mollusks across life stages (Haag 2012).
Because we cannot determine the ecological requirements
and sensitivities for all mollusk species, one approach is to
look at requirements and tolerances of guilds or suites of
species with similar traits (Statzner and Beche 2010; Lange et
al. 2014). For example, groups of mussel species with similar
thermal traits respond differently to drought-driven thermal
stress (Atkinson et al. 2014b). Thermal and life history traits of
species guilds have been combined to make flow recommen-
dations for mussels, based on the traits and criteria for the most
sensitive species (Gates et al. 2015). Comparative life history
studies across populations should be performed on represen-
tatives from the major snail families to see if ecological
requirements and sensitivities are similar across species or
genera (e.g., Huryn et al. 1994).
Mussels are largely filter-feeding omnivores that feed
across trophic levels on bacteria, algae, and other suspended
material (Vaughn et al. 2008). Many mussels live in multi-
species aggregations (i.e., mussel beds); thus, species
interactions should be important in their communities. Most
studies have concentrated on negative species interactions
(competition) with varied results (Haag 2012), and more work
on interactions between and within mussel species is needed.
In particular, studies are needed on when and where food and
space may be limiting. In addition, positive (facilitative)
interactions may also be important in mussel communities,
similar to marine bivalves and other groups of freshwater filter
feeders (Cardinale et al. 2002; Spooner and Vaughn 2009;
Angelini et al. 2011). As with the ecological requirements, the
largest data gap is for early life stages. For example, juvenile
survival rates and the effect of critical factors such as
parasitism and predation rates are mostly unknown. Research
is also needed to answer questions about the ecological
interactions of adult and juvenile mussels (e.g., Do adults
facilitate juvenile survival by providing a protective environ-
8 FMCS 2016
ment? Does the community of adults and different species
create micro- or macro-environments of suitable habitat for
juveniles? Do adults compete with juveniles for limited food
resources, or do adults provide organic substrates that help
build food resources for juveniles?).
Similar to mussels, research on snails is needed to better
understand species and ecosystem interactions. Snails can be
the most abundant invertebrate grazers in streams in the
Southeastern U.S. with large ecosystem effects (Richardson et
al. 1988; Hill 1992). Snails can reduce periphyton biomass and
alter algal community composition, which can lead to changes
in primary production (Brown et al. 2008). For example, the
invasive New Zealand mud snail consumes up to 93% of
primary production in streams (Hall et al. 2003), and the
invasive Chinese mystery snail, Cipangopaludina chinensismalleata, can influence algal community structure (Johnson et
al. 2009). Aside from a few representative pleurocerids, much
of the work on species interactions in snails has been on
interactions with invasive snail species. For example, the
Chinese mystery snail affects native snails by reducing their
populations, modifying their habitats, and increasing parasite
pressure (Harried et al. 2015).
We know little about how to measure the relative health of
mollusk populations, or what constitutes a self-sustaining
population. Traditional measures of mussel populations (e.g.,
density, species richness) may not be sensitive enough due to
long response times and life spans (Newton et al. 2008). Lack of
demographic data at the species and community levels
complicates resource management. Few studies describe
demographics (e.g., recruitment, age structure), species richness,
and species evenness—metrics that might be used to evaluate
mussel community health (but see Villella et al. 2004; Haag and
Warren 2010; Newton et al. 2011). Long-term monitoring
studies that describe how demographics vary over space and
time are also lacking. Multi-metric indices have been developed
for sensitive fish and invertebrate communities to assess the
health of these communities in rivers and lakes. However,
investigations into the sensitivity of mollusks to contaminants
and habitat perturbations are relatively recent. Experimental
multi-metric indices have been developed for mussel commu-
nities in several states and regions, but have not been rigorously
tested. Unfortunately, we know little about the physiological or
genetic characteristics that promote long-term population
viability (but see Gough et al. 2012; Archambault et al. 2013;
Gray and Kreeger 2014). The lack of these data limits our
ability to assess how human activities might adversely affect
mollusk populations.
Opportunities for conservation and management
Robust data on mussel abundance, distribution, and status
are starting to be obtained in many drainages, providing
critical data for conservation efforts. Meta-analyses of these
data within and across drainages should uncover interesting
demographics and inform management strategies. However,
life history data for many imperiled species (e.g., Hydrobiidae)
are lacking and should be addressed. Techniques for
documenting host-use by mussels are expanding, including
the use of advanced microscopy and genetics. Advances in
analytical chemistry now make it possible to measure
environmental contaminants that are biologically active at
low concentrations (e.g., pharmaceutical products, nanoparti-
cles, hormones). Coupled with an increased awareness of
environmental contaminants in waterbodies, there are many
opportunities to understand the effects of contaminants on
mollusks and their hosts. The success of propagation efforts
has made multiple species and life stages available, greatly
expanding the potential for toxicological testing with mol-
lusks. Advances in population and environmental modeling
tools provides an opportunity to understand and predict the
effects of multiple, interacting stressors on mollusk popula-
tions as well as developing effective and cost-efficient
management strategies.
Issue 5 – Restore abundant and diverse mollusk populationsuntil they are self-sustaining.
Goal: Conserve and restore viable populations and
communities of mollusks.
Strategies:
1. Develop population and community indices to monitor and
evaluate sustainability over time.
2. Develop conservation and restoration plans (e.g., reintro-
duction or augmentation) at the river, watershed, and faunal
province levels.
3. Implement restoration that results in self-sustaining popu-
lations and does not adversely affect resident fish and
mollusk populations and their habitats.
4. Maintain a database of translocation, propagation, and
stocking events.
5. Identify uniform methods and metrics for monitoring
outcomes of augmentations and reintroductions.
Overview
Mollusks have a 74% imperilment rate, with many species
that rank among the most imperiled animals on the continent
(Johnson et al. 2013; J.D. Williams, Florida Museum of
Natural History, personal communication). In addition to
species considered imperiled and federally endangered, many
wide-ranging and common species also are no longer
prevalent. This loss diminishes biodiversity and affects the
ecosystem services mollusks provide in functional aquatic
systems (Spooner and Vaughn 2008). Moreover, diverse and
abundant mollusk communities are more robust and resistant
to invasion by non-native species (Strayer and Malcolm 2007).
High mussel species diversity is found in communities with
rare species and good water quality, so community data would
be required for understanding the sustainability of all
populations. Population trend analyses would also give
9NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR FRESHWATER MOLLUSKS
biologists essential data to understand the ecological causes of
these declines.
To increase the abundance and distribution of mussel
populations, more needs to be known about demographics,
viability, and genetics of fragmented populations (Haag and
Williams 2014). Indeed, the role of population fragmentation
on species and community declines must be addressed.
Mollusk restoration efforts have largely focused at the site
scale for individual species; rarely have these efforts been
addressed at the population, much less community, level. It is
imperative that defined population goals are established and
that methods are developed to monitor populations and
communities over time, given the pervasiveness of disjunct
and isolated populations with limited recruitment. Conserva-
tion strategies should maximize the benefits of disjunct
populations to the overall species conservation (i.e., tracking
genetic diversity of animals used for propagation, mixing of
animals from adjacent shoals). This includes establishing
accessible databases to hold unpublished community data.
Success stories in mollusk restoration
With the passage of the ESA in 1973 and the current listing of
91 mussel and 31 snail species in North America, research
facilities began to investigate the life histories of individual
species. The goal of these investigations was the development of
propagation techniques for restoring imperiled species through
stocking of cultured progeny. Since the late 1990’s, several
propagation programs throughout the U.S. have been successful
in propagating and stocking mollusks. Research efforts for
mussels have identified suitable diets, feeding regimes for adult
broodstock and juveniles, host-species, and numerous culture
and grow-out systems (e.g., Barnhart 2006; Gatenby et al. 2013;
Mair 2013). These efforts were often associated with stocking
programs aimed at restoring mussel beds adversely affected by
damages from chemical spills or other instream activities such as
bridge replacements (Morrison 2012; Morrison et al. 2013; Lane
et al. 2014). Propagation technology has improved greatly over
the past 20 years and some mussel species have been propagated
at a production scale (Neves 2004; Haag and Williams 2014).
Over a dozen federal and state culture facilities now exist in the
Midwest, mid-Atlantic, and Southeast regions of the U.S.
Examples of culture and population restoration efforts include
several imperiled mussel species in the Tennessee River
drainage, the Upper Mississippi River drainage, and several
drainages in Missouri (Barnhart 2002; Davis 2005; Carey et al.
2015). Culture facilities and population restoration programs are,
however, absent from other parts of North America, and some
highly imperiled taxa are virtually unstudied (e.g., the endemic
springsnails, Order Rissooidea). Evidence of self-sustaining
populations of mussels from propagation efforts is generally
lacking due to their longevity and slow population response
times. Propagation of snails is fairly recent, with only a few
programs available. For instance, Alabama has been culturing
several species of pleurocerid snails and is conducting population
restoration activities in several streams (P.D. Johnson, Alabama
Aquatic Biodiversity Center, personal communication).
Research to aid conservation and management
The focus of most mollusk restoration programs has been
on recovery of endangered species, primarily due to limited
funding. Managers must strive to obtain the resources
necessary for community restoration. Community restora-
tion—including rare and common species alike—will restore
the broad range of ecosystem services mussels contribute to
aquatic systems (Spooner and Vaughn 2008; Vaughn et al.
2008). Further, restoration of healthy populations increases the
resiliency of populations and enhances the probability for
successful restoration efforts (Sethi et al. 2004; Zanatta et al.
2015). Learning how to propagate mollusks across taxonomic
groups will allow managers to increase abundance and
distribution of populations, contributing directly to recovery
of imperiled species which are usually found with common
species. Coupled with efforts towards defragmenting habitats
and populations, the status of some imperiled species may
improve to the point of precluding their listing under the ESA
while enhancing the probability of recovering federally listed
species.
Stressors that affect entire assemblages of mollusks are
often habitat alteration-based, and include population frag-
mentation, non-point and point source runoff, environmental
(e.g., chemical spills, extreme droughts) and demographic
(e.g., altered fertilization and recruitment rates) stochasticity,
and altered flow regimes (Lande et al. 2003; Haag and
Williams 2014). Contaminants may affect mollusks differently
depending on species, life stage, and habitat conditions. Since
mollusks appear to be some of the most sensitive of all aquatic
organisms to some stressors, entire communities are vulner-
able (see Issue 2). The effects of physical habitat changes on
mollusk communities are needed at a scale suitable for
management (see Issue 3). Maintenance of adequate flow
regimes is important for managing mollusk populations. There
are also numerous unexplained community-level ‘‘enigmatic
declines’’ in mollusk populations that need to be addressed
(Haag 2012).
Many aquatic ecosystems rely on the index of biotic
integrity (IBI) for understanding biotic and abiotic interac-
tions. Mollusk data are often lacking in IBIs or at best, are
included only at the taxonomic class level (e.g., Calabro et al.
2013). Incorporating mollusk biodiversity into IBIs and/or
developing new IBIs would create stronger predictions of
aquatic communities and foster tracking the status of
mollusks over time. Mollusk-specific IBIs might be devel-
oped to provide a quantitative means of evaluating the
relative health or value of mollusk assemblages, as a tool for
conserving mollusk resources including measuring impacts,
assessing the efficacy of restoration techniques, and inform-
ing regulatory tasks. For example, scientists in the Upper
Mississippi River have created a mussel community assess-
10 FMCS 2016
ment tool to explore metrics to assess mussel community
health (Dunn et al. 2012).
Basic propagation technology (e.g., culturing, feeding,
growing out) and protocols for determining genetics, handling,
and quarantining mussels are generally available, but may
need to be revised to meet species-specific needs (Gatenby et
al. 2000; Cope et al. 2003; Jones et al. 2006). However, there
is a need to improve grow-out technology, in addition to
identifying the best host species and understanding the
physiological requirements to improve growth and survival.
Most mussel propagation research has been conducted on
Lampsilines, but efforts need to be expanded to include
Anodontines and Amblemines, which include many imperiled
species. Snail propagation research is still in the early stages of
development, partly due to a paucity of ecological and basic
life history data (Johnson et al. 2013). The diversity and
environmental sensitivity of some snails (e.g., Rissooidea,
Pleuroceridae) also pose challenges for developing propaga-
tion methods. In addition, obtaining broodstock is often a
limiting factor in culture efforts. Research to facilitate natural
reproduction in the laboratory would allow culturists to
circumvent the need for wild broodstock. In vitro culture of
mollusks could reduce labor and space costs by eliminating the
need for mussel host species and may reduce the risk of
disease in hatchery or culture settings.
Minimizing risks to aquatic systems from population
reintroduction efforts must become a priority (Olden et al.
2010). We should aim to reduce risks to resident populations
of mollusks and host-species and carefully consider genetic
diversity of both resident and stocked mollusks. Choosing
taxonomically well-studied populations for activities (Jones et
al. 2006; Hoftyzer et al. 2008) should lessen the threat from
inbreeding and outbreeding depression. Restored populations
should be closely monitored to detect any potential negative
interactions that may occur. Because restoration of natural
populations is a primary management goal, it is important to
identify and publish metrics for monitoring outcomes of
management actions to promote development of uniform,
repeatable, and successful methods.
Opportunities for managing and restoring populations andcommunities of mollusks
Coupled with further advances in the biology and ecology
of mollusks, malacologists are calling for comprehensive and
universal protocols by resource agencies engaged in restoring
mollusks through stocking programs (Jones et al. 2006;
Hoftyzer et al. 2008; McMurray 2015). For example, the
development of a comprehensive course on propagation of
mussels—held at the National Conservation Training Center
(NCTC) of the USFWS—has trained biologists to develop
propagation programs for mussels. We have a few examples of
restoration aimed at the community-level; however, more
restoration efforts should target mollusk communities. Indeed,
several recovery plans, strategies, and restoration plans
approach restoration through methodical and coordinated
planning across geographic scales (e.g., Hartfield 2003;
USFWS 2004, 2010, 2014; Cumberlandian Region Mollusk
Restoration Committee [CRMRC] 2010). These plans prior-
itize species, streams, and activities for conservation and
management efforts, which will aid managers in restoring
populations and communities at the watershed level. Restora-
tion plans typically stress reintroducing extirpated populations
over augmenting extant ones for two reasons: 1) recovery can
only be achieved by creating additional populations and 2)
augmentations have unique inherent risks to existing popula-
tions (CRMRC 2010; Haag and Williams 2014). Stream
reaches and lakes affected by legacy environmental or human
development issues can be restored to promote connectivity of
mollusk populations (Newton et al. 2008).
In certain cases, federal listing under the ESA (and possibly
even state listing) has been construed as a hindrance to
recovery. This is despite the substantial benefits that Section 6
of the ESA and the State Wildlife Grants Program (SWG) have
had on state funding for recovery actions for federally listed
mollusks and the high profile that federal and state listing has
provided. Regulatory burdens may be increased due to
construction projects with a federal connection (under Section
7 of the ESA) or recovery activity implementation may have
time constraints imposed due to permitting issues (Section 10).
These issues can be ameliorated with better communication and
relationships among USFWS, state, and other partners. The
Section 7 process can and should be implemented to further
recovery of species potentially affected by construction projects.
Discussions with state biologists on how to implement recovery
activities while reducing regulatory requirements will serve to
expedite recovery of listed species.
Issue 6 – Identify the ecosystem services provided bymollusks and their habitats.
Goal: Improve science-based consideration of the social
and economic values of mollusk communities and functioning
aquatic systems.
Strategies:
1. Describe ecosystem services provided by mollusks to
humans and river ecosystems.
2. Develop and publish the social and economic values of
healthy mollusk communities to society.
3. Update the values and replacement costs of mollusk
communities.
4. Publish a comparison of mollusk replacement costs with
other biologically engineered mitigation alternatives.
Overview
Ecosystem services are the benefits that humans derive from
healthy ecosystems. These include provisioning services obtained
directly from the ecosystem such as water, food, and timber;
regulating services such as water purification, climate control,
carbon storage, and pollination; and cultural services which are
11NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR FRESHWATER MOLLUSKS
the benefits that people obtain through tourism and recreation,
aesthetic experiences, or spiritual enrichment. Biologically
complex freshwater systems provide many important ecosystem
services that benefit society such as provisioning of clean water
(water filtration and nutrient processing), recreation, and
ecotourism (Brauman et al. 2007; Dodds et al. 2013). Mollusks
provide all of these services for humans ranging from food, water
filtration and nutrient processing, to use in a multi-billion dollar
pearl jewelry industry. Mussels were also culturally important to
Native Americans as a food source and for use in jewelry, pottery,
and tools (Klippel and Morey 1986; Haag 2012). Harvest of
mussels is a reserved treaty right in the U.S. for some Native
American tribes (Brim Box et al. 2006). Thus, ecosystem services
provided by mollusks are important for human wellbeing.
Success stories in ecosystem services provided by mollusks
Researchers have learned a great deal about the services that
mollusks provide to lakes and rivers over the past 20 years.
Snails are important grazers and detritivores that support
decomposition, influence algal and bacterial communities, and
are an important food source for many fish, reptiles, and birds
(Hall et al. 2006; Brown et al. 2008). Mussel shells provide
habitat and refugia for other organisms, including benthic algae,
macroinvertebrates, nesting fish, and other mussel species
(Vaughn 2010). Mussels can aerate sediments and alter sediment
stabilty and erosional processes, further improving habitat for
mussels and other organisms (Zimmerman and de Szalay 2007;
Allen and Vaughn 2011). Assemblages of common mussel
species also improve conditions for rare mussel species that are
typically found within larger assemblages (Spooner and Vaughn
2009). Filtering mussels remove seston from the water column,
which can decrease water treatment costs and improve water
quality (Newton et al. 2011). Mussel beds create biogeochemical
hotspots via nutrient excretion and storage (Strayer 2014;
Atkinson and Vaughn 2015). Where nutrients are limiting,
fertilization by mussel excreta supports the rest of the food web,
leading to increases in benthic algae, macroinvertebrates, fish,
and even riparian spiders (Allen et al. 2012; Atkinson et al.
2014c). Mussel-provided nutrients can also alter algal compo-
sition, leading to decreasing blue-green algae populations and
increasing water quality (Atkinson et al. 2013). There are few
comparable data on ecosystem services provided by snails.
Research to aid conservation and management
Although we have a better understanding of the ecological
services that mollusks provide to aquatic systems, we now
need to quantify how losing these services may affect aquatic
systems, and the resulting economic and social consequences
to humans. A good place to start would be to partner with
scientists and managers who have conducted natural resource
damage and restoration assessments for oyster beds (Beck et
al. 2011). Discussions with those who have performed rare
species valuations would be especially valuable (Richardson
and Loomis 2009). These assessments should explicitly
include the preferences and perceptions of major stakeholder
groups (Menzel and Teng 2010). Considering data on
economic values without also considering social values will
underestimate mollusk ecosystem services (Seppelt et al.
2011). Gathering and analyzing these data will require that
biologists collaborate with social scientists and economists
skilled at these analyses.
Opportunities for conservation and management
Nutrients stored in mussels (particularly in shells) are
retained in the system long-term because most mussels are
relatively long-lived. Thus, nutrients recycled by mussels are
incorporated into the stream food web rather than being
transported downstream (Atkinson et al. 2014c). This is also
likely the case for snails, but research is needed to quantify
their nutrient cycling and storage capabilities. Although
nutrients retained in this manner in one river may seem
insignificant, summed across multiple watersheds, this bio-
logical nutrient retention could help mitigate the effects of
nutrient pollution. Large-scale production of mussels could be
used to restore their biomass to enhance nutrient abatement. In
addition, outreach and communication about the value of
mollusks for providing important ecosysytem services should
be developed to increase public support for protecting their
populations (see Issue 7). Ongoing research in mollusk
physiology (see Issue 4) will help quantify their contribution
to improving water quality and reducing treatment costs.
Both marine bivalves and freshwater dreissenids can increase
nitrification and denitrification in sediments by biodepositing
organically rich feces and pseudofeces (undigested particles) on
which bacteria feed (Bruesewitz et al. 2009; Kellogg et al. 2013;
Smyth et al. 2013). Mollusks should also have strong effects on
coupled nitrification-denitrification by biodepositing organic
material, thus increasing rates of both processes, and by
bioturbating sediments as they move (Vaughn and Hakenkamp
2001). However, the effects of mollusks on nitrification-
denitrification need to be quantified.
Issue 7 –Strengthen advocacy and build support for theconservation of mollusks and their habitats.
Goal: Increase information sharing and communication
among citizens and decision-makers at multiple levels (e.g.,
local, state, regional, national, international) regarding con-
serving mollusk resources.
Strategies:
1. Develop a formal communication plan to guide conserva-
tion of mollusks into the future.
2. Develop science-based communication tools for local
decision makers to build organizational and public support
for land-use practices that support healthy aquatic systems
including mollusks.
12 FMCS 2016
3. Develop communication and outreach materials targeting
the general public, and to build awareness, appreciation,
and support for conservation of mollusk resources.
4. Empower citizens with necessary outreach materials to
advocate for consistent and effective enforcement of laws
and regulations or to develop new regulations.
5. Recruit communication specialists to the mollusk conser-
vation community.
6. Work with international partners to develop a global
strategy for the conservation of mollusks.
7. Increase collaboration with other aquatic societies.
8. Increase collaboration with other resource agencies and
resource groups.
Overview
Knowledge of the current conservation status of mollusks
is limited to experts and others that have been educated as a
result of acute and chronic impacts to the environment. To
conserve mollusks and their habitats, the risks and benefits
outlined in this manuscript need to be effectively communi-
cated to decision-makers, conservation groups, and the public.
There is a growing need for information that will aid public
advocacy for environmental legislation. Most of the commu-
nication by scientists is done formally through scientific
presentations of research, technical reports, and peer-reviewed
publications, or informally through face-to-face meetings,
email, and social media. While sharing scientific knowledge
and new discoveries is important, science writing is often
directed at a small and specialized audience. To reverse
declines in habitat quality, biodiversity, and budgets for
mollusk conservation, we need to work with others who can
affect change. Our communication skills and tools need to be
broadened to convey information that will reach other
conservation groups, the public, and policy makers.
Success stories in advocacy and communication
Partnerships and communication have greatly increased
support for mollusk conservation. Hundreds of papers, agency
reports, and government documents on mollusks have been
published (Figure 1). Publication and access to these data has
resulted in many of the success stories highlighted throughout
this manuscript. Advances in computer information transfer
and online access to publications, unpublished reports, and
other data have played a role in facilitating conservation and
management efforts. For example, numerous websites for
mollusks now exist that aid managers, researchers, and the
public in accessing information and providing timely updates
on imperiled species (Barnhart 2010; Dillon et al. 2013; Graf
and Cummings 2015; Watters and Byrne 2015). Global
partnerships can benefit this National Strategy through many
mechanisms including external pressures on policy, increased
knowledge, and new technologies.
In 2009, the FMCS organized a symposium with an
international focus that brought together researchers and
managers engaged in mollusk conservation. Several on-going
international collaborations resulted from this effort. Other
international meetings aimed at mollusk conservation have
occurred since 2009, strengthening communication and
collaboration among the international mollusk community.
Likewise, scientists working with mollusks have had a marked
presence at a variety of non-mollusk conferences (e.g.,
American Fisheries Society, Society for Freshwater Science,
American Society of Limnology and Oceanography), raising
awareness and advocacy for the conservation of mollusks and
their habitats. These examples show that partnering with other
natural resource or taxonomic groups can leverage resources
and expertise in protecting aquatic resources.
The mollusk conservation community has also developed
many outreach and communication tools to increase awareness
and advocacy of the global plight of mollusks. For example,
children’s books and informational posters have been created
on the biodiversity of mollusks, ecosystems, watersheds, and
the history of pearl culture. A large floor-model display of the
biology of mollusks has facilitated outreach at conferences and
videos on the biology of mussels are available (Barnhart
2010). The quarterly online FMCS newsletter, Ellipsaria(http://molluskconservation.org/Ellipsaria-archive.html), con-
tains outreach materials and is an important communication
tool for researchers, managers, and the public.
Communication to aid conservation and management
To have a greater effect on environmental and societal
issues that threaten the health and resiliency of aquatic
ecosystems, our passion for mollusks needs to reach those
outside the mollusk conservation community. The public
needs to understand how important mollusks are in creating
healthy environments for a variety of other animals, including
humans (see Issue 6). Recognizing that landowners often have
direct influence on the management of riparian zones, outreach
to farmers and urban planners should be prioritized. We should
also increase collaboration with human health and industry
groups to build partnerships to reduce environmental threats to
humans and aquatic resources.
In today’s ever-changing communication landscape, there
is considerable competition for news and information.
Compelling stories appropriate for varied media outlets are
needed to ignite passion for conserving our limited freshwater
resources. To ensure that information reaches the most
influential audiences, we must develop strategic and creative
ways to deliver our message. Specifically, a communication
plan should be developed to address topics such as (1) training
scientists and managers to effectively communicate with the
public; (2) recruiting communication specialists as partners in
creating effective communication that achieves conservation;
(3) developing presentations and outreach materials aimed at
public forums (e.g., video and film; outreach with zoos,
aquaria, and museums), policy makers (e.g., graphics showing
ecosystem services provided by mollusks, graphics highlight-
13NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR FRESHWATER MOLLUSKS
ing cost-benefit analyses of restoring mollusk assemblages),
and/or news media (e.g., blogs, news articles, press releases);
(4) developing a more visible presence on social media; and
(5) working with non-traditional groups outside the field of
conservation.
Opportunities for communication to conserve molluskassemblages
Partnerships offer opportunities to share resources and
increase awareness across groups and individuals that other-
wise would not be reached through the mollusk community
alone. There are many opportunities to partner with others in
the international community who are also working to reverse
declines in mollusks and restore habitats. Joint research
projects with international colleagues should result in enhanced
opportunities to restore mollusks through sharing of knowledge
and expertise. Collaboration on targeted communication
campaigns can strengthen public advocacy and political
support for conservation over the global landscape.
There are many ways to deliver a message, depending on
the content of the message and the audience. Since the impact
of major storms such as hurricanes Sandy and Katrina, there is
growing awareness and support by the public, the media, and
policymakers to restore landscapes that are resilient to rising
water levels and flooding. The mollusk community should
consider this enhanced awareness when promoting the
ecosystem services provided by mollusks (see Issue 6) and
to promote the benefits of intact, connected aquatic habitats
(Issue 3) for protecting human lives and property, as well as
the environment—facts that may be more compelling to
audiences than protecting rare mollusks.
Developing a communication plan which addresses the
issues outlined in this manuscript will make it easier to
communicate the value of protecting and restoring mollusks
and their habitats. There are many online examples of
communication plans; however, it may be cost effective to
enlist the help of professionals. In addition, science writing
and environmental journalism programs often seek opportu-
nities for students to work with scientists to communicate their
message. Sharing our conservation message with the public,
government representatives, the media, conservation groups,
landowners, and landscape planners must be a priority to
ensure conservation of mollusks is relevant to society.
Issue 8 – Educate and train the conservation community andfuture generations about the importance of mollusks toensure conservation efforts continue into the future.
Goal: Provide a suite of training opportunities to the
greater conservation community, and inspire future genera-
tions to work on the conservation of mollusks.
Strategies:
1. Develop and recommend a list of key skills and
competencies for mollusk conservation biologists and the
supporting disciplines such as communication.
2. Develop and recommend new coursework for the study and
conservation of mollusks based on the skills and compe-
tencies identified in Strategy 1.
3. Manage a database of training courses, internships, details,
and other professional opportunities for students and
practicing professionals to gain hands-on experience with
mollusk conservation.
4. Provide travel funds for FMCS members to attend training
courses, outreach events, educational institutions, college
fairs, and job fairs to encourage students interested in
biology and natural history to consider careers in mollusk
conservation.
5. Develop a FMCS grant program for students and other
conservation groups to advance the conservation of
mollusks through research and management activities.
Overview
Growing concern about the future of mollusk conservation
has elevated education and training to important issues. Many
long-time specialists in mollusk conservation are nearing
retirement and retention of their expertise in the scientific
community is needed for successful mollusk conservation.
Efforts to conserve mollusks could be undermined by this loss
of institutional knowledge and are further confounded by the
fact that documenting the long-term success or failure of
conservation actions may not be realized for decades or longer.
Many species are long-lived, slow growing, and have low
recruitment rates; knowledge gained from conservation efforts
will require long-term monitoring beyond the time-frame of
funded projects or careers.
Additionally, the science and technology underlying
conservation actions are changing rapidly. Thus, it is
imperative that we provide professional and academic training
opportunities for the conservation community to inspire the
next generation of scientists to pursue careers in mollusk
conservation. Even given their high degree of imperilment,
mollusks have been highly under-represented in publications
compared to vertebrates (Lydeard et al. 2004). We also
recognize that other areas of expertise and skills beyond the
sciences are needed to ensure mollusks persist and to help
conservationists deliver their message (see Issue 7).
Success stories in mollusk education
Currently, there is no group of individuals charged with
achieving these strategies. Rather, this issue largely overlaps
with the activities of FMCS committees (e.g., outreach,
symposium, information exchange, awards). The FMCS
actively sponsors annual educational events including sympo-
sia and workshops that provide opportunities to share the
current state of the science with the conservation community
and provide a venue for students to share their research.
Symposia and workshops have covered a range of themes,
14 FMCS 2016
including outreach, propagation, snail ecology, regional
mussel identification, environmental flows, climate change,
and dam removals. The FMCS offers travel awards to support
student attendance at symposia and provides monetary support
to regional mollusk conservation groups.
Formal courses are now being offered by federal agencies
on mussel conservation biology and propagation (e.g., NCTC).
Many states and private conservation organizations also offer
short courses, workshops, and training in mussel identification,
sampling techniques and protocols, and methods for handling
mollusks. A few states have developed guidelines, minimum
standards, and tests that certify scientists before they receive a
scientific collecting permit and conduct mollusk work within
their boundaries (e.g., Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia).
Several universities offer graduate level classes and research
opportunities in mollusk conservation. However, training
opportunities for snail identification or biology remain
infrequent and informal.
Opportunities for education to enhance molluskconservation
The FMCS should coordinate and act as a clearinghouse
for relevant educational and training opportunities in mollusk
conservation. The FMCS could set up a grant program to
support conservation and communication projects by stu-
dents and conservation groups, and develop new workshops
that reflect the emerging science needed for effective
conservation.
Few universities offer undergraduate classes on mollusks
beyond a basic exposure in invertebrate zoology. There has
been a gradual shift from courses on organismal biology,
biodiversity, and taxonomy to courses on microbiology and
theory at academic institutions (e.g., Greene 2005). This
focus is needed to invigorate the study of mollusks and
capture students’ interest early in their educational career. In
addition, the tools that will be required for effective
conservation in the future extend well beyond traditional
studies in identification, species biology, and ecology.
Rather, they include areas such as conservation genetics,
eDNA, landscape ecology, hydrology, and restoration
engineering. Several conservation projects have already
benefitted from the combined expertise of scientists from
diverse backgrounds working together on mollusk conser-
vation. Examples include key contributions of hydrologists
and engineers in dam removal, water management, and
riparian restoration projects; the critical work of chemists
and toxicologists in deriving water quality standards that are
protective of mollusks; and the foundational products of
social scientists and climatologists in determining how
climate-driven land-use changes may affect the distribution
of mollusks on the landscape. We should continue to
promote this multi-disciplinary approach to mollusk conser-
vation.
Issue 9 – Seek consistent, long-term funding to supportmollusk conservation efforts.
Goal: Increase funding for mollusk conservation.
Strategies:
1. Identify and create a database of existing sources of
funding for mollusk research and management activities.
2. Take advantage of existing local, state, national, and
international grant programs wherever possible.
3. Advocate for prioritization of existing funding to mollusk
research and management.
4. Develop guidelines for monetary mitigation banking.
Overview
Most of the funding for mollusk conservation has come
from federal resource agencies, state wildlife agencies,
universities, regulatory agencies, private conservation organi-
zations, mitigation funds, and damage assessments under the
Clean Water Act and the Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA).
Funding comes in many forms, including funding to support
staff in organizations that are charged with restoration or
protection of mollusk species and communities. However,
federal and state budgets have been cut in recent years, and
private funding for mollusk conservation and restoration by
way of settlements is ironically driven by catastrophic events
(e.g., chemical spills) rather than by strategic allocations of
funds.
Success stories in funding mollusk conservation
Some mitigation funds have targeted activities that benefit
mussels, such as the Mussel Mitigation Trust Fund (estab-
lished to mitigate for impacts from an Ohio River power plant)
and the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation’s Freshwater
Mussel Conservation Fund (settlement with Tennessee Shell
Company). Most of these funds are short-lived; when their
intended purposes end and expenditures are depleted, there is
little funding for long-term monitoring. Also, there have been
millions of dollars in settlements or court awards from natural
resource damage claims under CERCLA. Both the mitigation
funds and settlement awards have supported key research and
management activities in mollusk conservation far beyond the
geographic scope of the aquatic systems damaged.
There are some examples of consistent and recurring
sources of funding. Since 2000, the SWG program has
provided federal funds to develop and implement programs
that benefit wildlife and their habitats, especially non-game
species. Priority is placed on projects that benefit species of
greatest conservation need, and many states have identified
mollusks as a focal group. These funds must be used to
address conservation needs identified within a state’s CWAP
such as research, surveys, species and habitat management, or
monitoring. In turn, the states administer funds to undertake
work on their own or support cooperator projects. Since 2008,
15NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR FRESHWATER MOLLUSKS
Congress has authorized funding for a competitive SWG
program to encourage multi-partner projects that implement
actions contained in the state CWAP. There is substantial
funding for these programs; in 2014, there was $45.7 million
for all states and territories and another $8.6 million through
the competitive grants program. Mollusk conservation also
gets a creative funding ‘boost’ from enlightened fish
ecologists, whose fishery studies yield valuable information
on mollusks.
Since so many mollusks are on the federal list of
endangered or threatened species, the USFWS provides grants
to states and territories for species and habitat conservation on
private lands. This program is known as Section 6 of the ESA
and four categories of grants are funded: Conservation Grants,
Habitat Conservation Plan Land Acquisition, Habitat Conser-
vation Planning Assistance, and Recovery Land Acquisition
Grants. Across the country, this grant program provides a
substantial amount of money (e.g., $35 million in 2014) to
support species conservation efforts. Although cost-sharing is
required, the percentages are small, ranging from 10–25%.
Opportunities for funding mollusk conservation
The need for long term, consistent funding overlays all
other issues in mollusk conservation. Without stable, adequate
funding, long-term research and management actions cannot
be implemented and evaluated. Mitigation funding on larger
geographic scales is emerging (e.g., NiSource Habitat
Conservation Plan) and some of these projects have the
potential to benefit mollusk conservation. We should evaluate
the costs and benefits of managing a landscape-level
mitigation bank and a mollusk conservation trust fund. States
can increase their chances of securing competitive SWGs by
collaborating and developing multi-state, multi-species, and
cross-regional proposals as well as working across disciplines.
States that do not currently consider mollusks should add them
to their imperilment lists, where warranted.
There is also the option of advocating for re-programming
of existing conservation funding to support mollusk activities;
but with shrinking allocations in federal and state budgets, and
strong competition for available funding, it may be a losing
proposition. For example, there are not enough resources (e.g.,
funding, staff) currently allocated to recover all endangered
mollusks, let alone keep common species common. There are
numerous watershed groups operating on local and regional
scales that can secure grants to work on stream restoration and
concurrent mollusk recovery (e.g., Friends of the Clinch,
Black Diamond, Upper Tennessee River Roundtable). If the
conservation community can continue to convey the message
that healthy mollusk populations are good for rivers and lakes,
and therefore good for fishing, there is a large constituency of
anglers and other outdoor enthusiasts who may advocate for
funding. Additionally, states and non-profit conservation
organizations are eligible for National Fish Passage and
National Fish Habitat Partnership program grants. By
strategically targeting habitat restoration (e.g., dam removal,
culvert replacement) that benefits both fish and mollusks, these
programs offer great opportunities to fund projects that benefit
aquatic fauna over the long-term. Potential new sources of
funding can be hard to predict, given the fast changing
complexion of private and public funding mechanisms. The
FMCS can play a key role in advocating for new and unique
opportunities and centralizing information on potential sources
of funding by creating and maintaining a database of those
sources.
Issue 10 – Coordinate a national strategy for theconservation of mollusk resources.
Goal: Increase coordination and information sharing
among local, state, regional, national, and international
partners in conserving mollusk resources.
Strategies:
1. Establish an ad hoc committee every 12 years to review and
update the National Strategy.
2. Revise the National Strategy document every 15 years and
implement it at multiple scales.
3. Help integrate the national strategies into regional,
ecosystem, and state action plans.
4. Increase collaboration with international partners.
5. Encourage publication of research and management
actions.
As the human population continues to increase and threats
affecting mollusks and their habitats continue to evolve,
researchers and managers will be challenged to meet all of the
conservation needs of mollusks. Therefore, effective conser-
vation of mollusks in the future will require coordinated efforts
from a larger community of partners and stakeholders. Our
recommendations for the future include suggested areas of
urgently needed research, improved taxonomic inclusiveness,
global representation, and regular updates of the National
Strategy. The current topics that need research to conserve and
restore mollusks have been described in Issues 1 to 9.
Coordination of research information and activities will be
imperative for the conservation of mollusks. The information
in this National Strategy should be integrated into ecosystem
and state, regional, and international action plans.
This National Strategy, while greater in breadth taxonom-
ically than the 1998 Strategy, excludes a group of bivalve
mollusks of concern, the Sphaeriidae. This group remains too
poorly known for inclusion at this time. We hope this
document spurs research on this group of mollusks to allow
their inclusion in the next National Strategy.
The 1998 National Strategy greatly improved coordination
across the mollusk community, agencies and organizations,
academia, and private citizens. We anticipate that this
document will be similarly used at local, regional, national,
and international levels to help researchers and managers
prioritize the needed activities to conserve and restore mollusk
16 FMCS 2016
assemblages. A regularly revised National Strategy will serve
as guide for decision-makers that prioritize research funding
and activities, especially as new information becomes
available and new stressors emerge.
Because declines in mollusk faunas are worldwide,
research collaboration across aquatic systems, both nationally
and internationally, will provide insights into mollusk biology
and ecology that might not be obvious when addressed at only
a local or regional level. Outreach and coordination activities
among continental-based groups and the global community is,
however, in its infancy and we encourage the mollusk
community to look globally in their conservation efforts.
Future revisions to the National Strategy should broaden its
geographic scope, encourage international collaboration, and
broaden the taxonomic range of mollusks considered.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank the membership of the FMCS who
suggested and approved the issues described in this manu-
script. We thank Emy Monroe, Rita Villella, and Dave Zanatta
for contributions to this manuscript. We thank Jeremy
Tiemann, Russell Minton, John Jenkinson, Rachael Hoch,
Lyubov Burlakova, and 3 anonymous reviewers for critical
reviews of this manuscript. Any use of trade, product, or firm
names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply
endorsement by the U.S. Government. The views expressed in
this article are the authors and do not necessarily represent
those of the U.S. Department of Interior.
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21NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR FRESHWATER MOLLUSKS
Freshwater Mollusk Biology and Conservation 19:22–28, 2016
� Freshwater Mollusk Conservation Society 2016
ARTICLE
INVESTIGATION OF FRESHWATER MUSSEL GLOCHIDIAPRESENCE ON ASIAN CARP AND NATIVE FISHES OF THEILLINOIS RIVER
Andrea K. Fritts1*, Alison P. Stodola2, Sarah A. Douglass2 & Rachel M. Vinsel2
1 Illinois Natural History Survey, Illinois River Biological Station, 704 N. Schrader Avenue, Havana,
IL 62644 USA2 Illinois Natural History Survey, 1816 S. Oak Street, Champaign, IL 61820 USA
ABSTRACT
Densities of introduced Asian carp (Silver Carp and Bighead Carp) in the Illinois River Basin areamong the highest in the world. Asian carp have been reported to serve as hosts for Sinanodontawoodiana in their native territories, but no research has been conducted on the potential for Silver orBighead Carp to host North American freshwater mussels. Our objectives were 1) to examine thepresence of glochidia on native and non-native fishes from the Illinois River Basin, 2) to determine anoptimal concentration and duration of potassium hydroxide (KOH) exposure for increasingtransparency of preserved fish gills to more effectively detect the presence of glochidia and parasites,and 3) identify parasite burdens. Fifteen fish species (12 native and 3 non-native) were collected fromthe Illinois River Basin during summer of 2014. Preserved fins and gills of native and non-native fisheswere examined for glochidia and parasite infections. We determined that a 20 min 5% KOH bath wasoptimal for increasing gill transparency. We recovered 242 glochidia from 5 native fish species: Bluegill,Largemouth Bass, Smallmouth Bass, Freshwater Drum, and Sauger. Based upon morphometric data,we were able to identify the glochidial larval stage of 5 groups of freshwater mussels: Group A-Lilliput,Group B- Threeridge, Group C- Deertoe or Fawnsfoot, Group D- Threehorn Wartyback, and Group E-Fragile Papershell. We did not locate glochidia on any of the non-native fish species. Future researchshould include the use of laboratory host trials to elucidate if Asian carp could serve as successful hostfishes for native mussels or if they are recruitment sinks, a possibility that could have a major impact onthe future stocks of currently imperiled freshwater mussels.
KEY WORDS - Unionoida, parasites, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Hypophthalmichthys nobilis, Cyprinuscarpio
INTRODUCTION
Freshwater mussels have experienced substantial declines in
their populations worldwide over the past century (Starrett
1971; Lydeard et al. 2004). However, there have been positive
developments in some locations where mussel populations have
been able to recolonize areas from which they had previously
been extirpated (Sietman et al. 2001). Unfortunately, the
success of some of these recolonizations may be undermined
by emerging threats. The introduction of Silver Carp (Hypo-phthalmichthys molitrix) and Bighead Carp (Hypophthalmich-thys nobilis), hereafter referred to collectively as Asian carp,
into North America has had a substantial negative impact on
native fish species, including declines in condition indices and
population size (Irons et al. 2007; Crimmins et al. 2015).
However, little research has been conducted to evaluate how
Asian carp are affecting other aquatic organisms.
The life cycle of freshwater mussels is complex and unique
among bivalves. Larval mussels (glochidia) are released by the
adult female and must attach to gills or fins of a suitable host
fish (Kat 1984; Barnhart et al. 2008). If it is an appropriate
host, glochidia remain attached to the fish for several days to
several weeks and metamorphose into juvenile mussels.
Juveniles are released from the host and fall to the benthic
substrates to continue their life cycle as free-living organisms.
Glochidia can also attach to non-suitable hosts but the fishes’
immune systems eventually reject the glochidia, which fall
from the fish and perish (Kat 1984).*Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Asian carp have been reported to serve as fish hosts to
freshwater mussels in their native range (Djajasasmita 1982;
Girardi and Ledoux 1989; Domagala et al. 2007). However, no
research has been conducted on the potential for Silver Carp
and Bighead Carp to host North American freshwater mussels
or to determine if they serve as recruitment ‘‘sinks.’’ Asian
carp densities in Illinois River Basin are among the highest in
the world (~2,500 per river km; Sass et al. 2010), and
glochidia may inadvertently attach to carp. If glochidia do not
metamorphose, Asian carp may be reproductive sinks that
prevent glochidia from attaching to suitable native host fishes.
We conducted a study to evaluate the potential effects of
invasive Asian carp on native freshwater mussels. Our primary
objective was to investigate the presence of glochidia on
native and non-native fishes throughout the Illinois River
Basin. Special emphasis was placed on examining three
species of carp (Silver, Bighead, and Common Carp (Cyprinuscarpio)), as these species may have the potential to intercept
glochidia and interfere with glochidial attachment to suitable
native fish hosts. Secondary objectives were to identify other
parasite burdens carried by native and non-native fishes, as
well as determining an optimal concentration and exposure
time for potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution to increase
clarity of preserved fish gills to more effectively locate and
identify encysted glochidia.
METHODS
Fishes were collected during May, June, and July of 2014,
which coincides with peak glochidial release for most
freshwater mussel species in the Illinois River Basin (Watters
et al. 2009). We targeted native fishes that coincidentally occur
in microhabitat with Asian carp, as well as natives that are
proven hosts for a variety of common mussels in the basin. We
also collected Common Carp, a non-native species that has
existed in the river since the 1800’s and has been reported to
be a marginal host for three North American freshwater mussel
species (Lefevre and Curtis 1910; Hove et al. 2011a; Hove et
al. 2014). Fishes were collected from the Upper Illinois River
(Dresden and Marseilles reaches), the Middle Illinois River
(La Grange Reach), as well as from several major tributaries to
the Illinois River (Kankakee, Spoon, Mackinaw, and Sanga-
mon rivers, and Salt Creek of the Sangamon).
Fishes were collected using a combination of pulsed-DC boat
electrofishing, hoop netting, and fyke netting and were then
returned to the laboratory for analysis. Smaller fish were
preserved whole in 95% ethanol, while gills and fins were
removed from larger fish (e.g., invasive carp) and were either
preserved in 95% EtOH or were frozen. All Animal Care and Use
protocols for fish collection, anesthetization, and euthanasia were
followed (University of Illinois IACUC #14023). Freezing gills
is not believed to influence detection of glochidia (Cunjak and
McGladdery 1991). Fish were identified to species and then gill
and fin tissues were examined for glochidia and other parasites
under a Leica S8 APO stereomicroscope (Leica Microsystems,
Wetzlar, Germany). When glochidia were found, they were
counted, photographed with a Leica DMC 2900 digital camera
(Leica Microsystems, Wetzlar, Germany), and measured for their
length (parallel to hinge), height (perpendicular to hinge), and
hinge length using Leica scale bar measurements in ImageJ
(version 1.46r). Glochidia were left in the gill tissue unless they
released from the tissue during processing. Efforts were made to
orient all of the glochidia onto a level plane prior to being
photographed, and only glochidia with suitable orientations were
used for measurements. To ensure accuracy of our measure-
ments, a subset of glochidia were measured by using three
different techniques (Leica scale bar measurements in ImageJ,
micrometer photograph measurements in ImageJ, and Leica
measurements using the Leica measurement software). Efforts
were made to identify the glochidia using morphological features
to the lowest taxonomic level possible. Based upon morphomet-
ric data and recent mussel community information from the
Illinois River, we used a bivariate plot and simple qualitative
overlap to determine the most-likely identity of each glochidium,
as our sample size was small (Kennedy and Haag 2005).
Morphometric data were derived from Waller (1987), Hoggarth
(1999), Williams et al. (2008) and references therein, Watters et
al. (2009), Hove et al. (2012), Hove et al. (2015) and M.C. Hove
(Macalester College, personal communication). When other
types of parasites were encountered, the parasite type and
infection intensity was also recorded for all of the native and non-
native fishes. We also documented the occurrence of telangiec-
tasia, a condition in which the blood vessels within the lamellae
of the gill filaments burst and blood pools in the lamellae tips,
causing the gills to have cyst-like structures along the gill
margins that superficially resemble parasitic infections. We
recorded the occurrence of these structures and compared the
probability of occurrence in native versus non-native fishes using
logistic regression (R Core Package 2015).
Potassium hydroxide study for gill clarification optimization
We completed an experiment to determine the most
effective processing treatment for detection of gill parasites.
Gill size was determined by measuring from dorsal to ventral
margin of an entire gill arch removed from the fish; small,
medium, and large size classes were approximately 10mm
(i.e., Spotfin Shiner, Cyprinella spiloptera), 10-50mm (i.e.,
Smallmouth Bass, Micropterus dolomieu), and greater than
50mm (i.e., Silver Carp), respectively. Three concentrations of
KOH were used: 2%, 5%, and 10% KOH. Transparency and
intactness of the gills were evaluated at six different time
points: 1, 5, 10, 20, 30, and 60 minutes. A black and white grid
(cell size of 10 3 10 mm) was used to record transparency by
determining when the transition line from black to white was
visible through the gill filament. Transparency was noted for
tips or edges of gill filament, mid-vein of filament, and whole
filament. Intactness was determined by picking up the gill and
recording if parts of it began to disintegrate.
23GLOCHIDIA PRESENCE ON ILLINOIS RIVER FISHES
RESULTS
Fishes were collected from 66 sites between 20 May 2014
and 22 July 2014 (Figure 1). We analyzed a total of 435 fishes
for this study, including 145 non-natives (92 Silver Carp, 3
Bighead Carp, and 50 Common Carp) and 290 native fishes
(12 species from 5 families) that are known to be host fish for
the larval stage of at least one freshwater mussel species
(Table 1). Of the total number of native fish collected, 10.7%
were infected with glochidia, and five native fish species were
infected. Infection rates among these species ranged from
12.5-100%. We recovered 242 glochidia from the 5 native fish
species: Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), Largemouth Bass
(Micropterus salmoides), Smallmouth Bass, Freshwater Drum
(Aplodinotus grunniens), and Sauger (Sander canadensis)
(Table 2). We identified the glochidial larval stage of 5 groups
of freshwater mussels: Group A-Lilliput (Toxolasma parvum),
Group B- Threeridge (Amblema plicata), Group C- Deertoe
(Truncilla truncata) or Fawnsfoot (Truncilla donaciformis),
Group D-Threehorn Wartyback (Obliquaria reflexa), and
Group E- Fragile Papershell (Leptodea fragilis) (Table 3,
Figure 2).
We recovered 9 types of non-glochidial parasites on 10 fish
species. These parasites included: anchor worms (Lernaeasp.), black grub (Neascus), white grub (Posthodiplostomumminimum), yellow grub (Clinostomum sp.), monogenean
trematodes (Dactylogyrus sp.), digenean trematode (Bolbo-phorus sp.), copepods, leeches, and nematodes. Telangiectasia
were documented in eight fish species, and this phenomenon
occurred more frequently in non-native fishes (Silver Carp and
Common Carp) (Figure 3, Table 4). Non-native fishes were
4.3 times more likely to have telangiectasia than native fishes
(95% confidence interval ¼ 2.9 to 7.9 times more likely).
Potassium hydroxide study for gill clarification optimization
The optimal concentration of KOH was determined to be a
5% KOH bath for 20 minutes. This concentration provided
maximum transparency without causing excessive gill tissue
deterioration. Smaller fishes and frozen Silver Carp gill
specimens reached a sufficient level of transparency in less
Figure 1: Fish collection sites on the Illinois River and its tributaries, Illinois,
USA.
Table 1. Native and non-native fishes collected in the Illinois River and its tributaries during May, June, and July of 2014.
Common name Scientific Name Tributaries Upper Illinois Middle Illinois
Gizzard Shad Dorosoma cepedianum 0 1 0
Red Shiner Cyprinella lutrensis 0 0 93
Spotfin Shiner Cyprinella spiloptera 5 31 0
Common Carp Cyprinus carpio 0 27 22
Silver Carp Hypophthalmichthys molitrix 53 0 39
Bighead Carp Hypophthalmichthys nobilis 1 0 2
Spottail Shiner Notropis hudsonius 0 0 9
Bluntnose Minnow Pimephales notatus 0 5 0
Bullhead Minnow Pimephales vigilax 0 9 31
Green Sunfish Lepomis cyanellus 0 1 0
Bluegill Lepomis macrochirus 0 29 28
Smallmouth Bass Micropterus dolomieu 0 4 0
Largemouth Bass Micropterus salmoides 0 14 5
Sauger Sander canadensis 0 1 0
Freshwater Drum Aplodinotus grunniens 0 0 24
24 FRITTS ET AL.
time, but the intactness of their gills was not negatively
affected after 20 minutes of KOH exposure.
DISCUSSION
We did not recover glochidia from any non-native fishes in
this study. This result was not entirely unexpected for a
number of reasons. First, if Asian carp were intercepting
glochidia but were not suitable hosts, it is likely that the
glochidia would slough from the carp within 1-4 days (Arey
1932a; Zale and Neves 1982a; Waller and Mitchell 1989). To
document attachment, we would need to have collected fishes
within a short period of time (i.e., ,4 days) after they
encountered the glochidia. Second, the Illinois River was in
flood stage for most of the summer during 2014. Any
glochidia that would have been present in the system,
particularly in the water column, would have been more
dilute than in a regular flow year. The flooding may have
contributed to us not finding glochidia on any of our pelagic
species (e.g., native cyprinids or Silver Carp). We also found
no evidence of natural infestation on the benthic dwelling
Common Carp. The gills of this species were rather difficult to
process; the densely packed gill filaments of the Common
Carp began to deteriorate in the KOH bath more quickly than
any other species. This phenomenon could have decreased our
ability to detect glochidia on Common Carp. Further, they are
only considered marginal hosts for three native mussel species
in Illinois that are considered host generalists: Rock
Pocketbook (Arcidens confragosus), Flutedshell (Lasmigonacostata), and Giant Floater (Pyganodon grandis) (Lefevre and
Curtis 1910; Hove et al. 2011a; Hove et al. 2014). Thus
glochidia would be subject to sloughing in a short time period
in this case as well.
The majority of the native species that were infested with
glochidia were collected in the Upper Illinois River, where
recent surveys have seen a considerable rebound in mussel
populations over the last decade (INHS Mollusk Collection;
http://wwx.inhs.illinois.edu/collections/mollusk; accessed 1
July 2015). This recovery may be a response to improved
water quality conditions brought forth by the Clean Water Act
of 1972, as an extensive mussel survey in 1966 revealed
extremely low mussel populations (Starrett 1971). Fifty-five
percent of the Bluegill and 50% of Largemouth Bass collected
from the Upper Illinois River were infected with glochidia.
The best fit mussel species for identified glochidia are from the
tribes Lampsilini and Amblemini. Lampsiline species typically
have high fecundity, shorter life spans, and are host specialists
that utilize only a single host fish species or a few species
within a genus or family. Fragile Papershell, Deertoe, and
Fawnsfoot are Freshwater Drum specialists and cannot
metamorphose on any other fish species. Lilliput likely use
Lepomis spp. and potentially darters as hosts (Mermilliod inFuller, 1978; Hove, 1995; Watters et al. 2005). Threehorn
Wartyback are known to metamorphose on cyprinids, but
marginal metamorphosis success on fishes from several
families has also been observed (Watters et al. 1998, B.R.
Table 2. Native fish species from the Upper and Middle Illinois River (ILR) with glochidia presence. N ¼ number of native fish collected.
Fish species Upper ILR Middle ILR Total N % infested No. glochidia Mean glochidia/fish
Bluegill 16 3 57 33% 178 9.4
Smallmouth Bass 1 0 4 25% 1 1.0
Largemouth Bass 7 0 19 37% 8 1.1
Sauger 1 0 1 100% 38 38.0
Freshwater Drum 0 3 24 13% 17 5.7
Table 3. Mean (61 SE) and ranges (in parentheses) for measurements of glochidia recovered from naturally infested fishes of the Upper and Middle Illinois River
(ILR). N¼ number of glochidia identified from each reach. Best fit species were assigned based upon established glochidial measurements from the literature and
knowledge of the current mussel assemblage present in the ILR. Fish species¼ species from which the glochidia were obtained.
Glochidia
group
Height
(lm)
Length
(lm)
Hinge
(lm)
N, Upper
ILR
N, Middle
ILR
Total
N
Best fit
species
Fish
species
A 176 6 1
(163-188)
158 6 1
(146-171)
87 6 1
(78-97)
52 0 52 Lilliput Bluegill, Sauger
B 208 6 1
(206-210)
187 6 1
(182-190)
134 6 1
(131-136)
3 2 5 Threeridge Bluegill, Largemouth
Bass, Freshwater Drum
C 54 6 1
(52-58)
57 6 3
(49-64)
36
(36-36)
0 7 7 Deertoe, Fawnsfoot Freshwater Drum
D 263 6 7
(251-281)
251 6 1
(243-259)
147 6 3
(139-154)
0 15 15 Threehorn Wartyback Bluegill
E 77 71 45 0 1 1 Fragile Papershell Freshwater Drum
25GLOCHIDIA PRESENCE ON ILLINOIS RIVER FISHES
Bosman, Texas Tech, personal communication). Amblemines
are typically longer-lived, slower to reach sexual maturity, and
can be host specialists or generalists (Watters et al. 2009). The
Threeridge is a host generalist that can utilize many fish
species, which is a factor that likely contributes to its
dominance among mussel fauna within the Illinois River
(Haag 2012).
We used a combination of morphological measurements and
current species distribution to determine the most likely species
assignment of attached glochidia. There were additional species
that did overlap morphometrically with our glochidia but were
eliminated based on known status of freshwater mussels in
Illinois. Specifically, Spike (Elliptio dilatata) and Spectaclecase
(Margaritifera monodonta) both have similar measurements as
our designated Groups B and C, respectively, but have not been
recovered alive from the Illinois since the early 20th century
(Starrett 1971, Sietman et al. 2001). However, there have been
recent discoveries of species considered extirpated, such as
Scaleshell (Leptodea leptodon) (Illinois Natural History Survey
Mollusk Collection; http://wwx.inhs.illinois.edu/collections/
mollusk; accessed 1 July 2015), thus we cannot completely
rule out the possibility that Spike or Spectaclecase may be
attached to native fishes in the Illinois River.
Glochidia size can vary widely within a species throughout
its range (Hove et al. 2011b, 2012, and M.C. Hove Macalester
College, personal communication). An optimal situation
would be to collect gravid females from the same waterbody
and compare known glochidia morphology with the unknown
glochidia from natural infestations. This was not an option in
this study due to the flooding/sampling conditions at the time
of fish collection; additionally, the availability of preserved
specimens with mature glochidia from the Illinois River is also
very limited, given the recent recolonization of this water
body. Future research involving naturally infested glochidia
should strive to include the collection of brooding females and
glochidia from the areas of interest to allow for more accurate
morphological comparisons.
In much of the literature with wild-caught fish, thousands
of fish were examined to elucidate glochidial infestation levels
(Zale and Neves 1982b; Neves and Widlak 1988; Weiss and
Figure 2. Bivariate plot of glochidia height and length, with assumed groups
labeled as A, B, C, D, or E. Published size ranges for known glochidia are
represented by labeled dotted lines.
Figure 3. The occurrence of telangiectasia in gill filaments on Silver Carp. Top
photo is of a freshly collected gill and the bottom photo is a gill that had been
preserved in 95% EtOH.
Table 4. Occurrence of telangiectasia on native and non-native fishes in the
Illinois River (ILR) and its tributaries. Total N¼ total number of fish collected
per species.
Fish species Tributaries Upper ILR Middle ILR Total N
Red Shiner – – 16 93
Common Carp – – 16 49
Silver Carp 7 – 39 92
Bullhead Minnow – – 1 40
Bluegill – – 3 57
Smallmouth Bass – 2 – 4
Largemouth Bass – – 1 19
Freshwater Drum – – 6 24
26 FRITTS ET AL.
Layzer 1995; Boyer et al. 2011). Thus, the fact that we found
glochidia on a large percentage of the relatively low numbers
of fishes examined during this study suggests that the Illinois
River mussel community is recovering. However, it also
means we would need to examine a substantial number of
Asian carp to truly rule out the possibility that carp are not
intercepting glochidia, since we only examined 145 carp
during this study.
Silver, Bighead, and Common Carp did not carry many
parasites, but Silver and Common Carp did have a substantially
higher occurrence of telangiectasia hemorrhages compared to
native fishes. This is a novel finding that is not well reported in
the literature. It is unknown as to why non-native fishes may
experience a higher degree of hemorrhages. There was also a
higher occurrence of this condition in main stem fishes compared
to tributaries, despite the fact that the fishes were collected with
the same protocols and electrofishing settings. Variation in
conductivity between the tributaries and the main stem may have
contributed to the pattern; conductivity in the tributaries was
generally lower than that in the main stem and pulsed DC-
electrofishing can be affected by different conductivities (M.W.
Fritts and R.M. Pendleton, Illinois Natural History Survey, C.
Morgeson, Eastern Illinois University, personal communica-
tion). This may contribute to the increased presence of
hemorrhages, but ultimately the cause of this phenomenon
remains unresolved and will need additional research.
Asian carp are voracious filter-feeding consumers that can
filter particles (e.g., plankton and algae) as small as 10-20 lm
(Jennings 1988; Smith 1989; Voros 1997). This feeding
behavior introduces the potential for Asian carp to be
consuming glochidia, an area of research that is currently
unstudied. We focused our laboratory efforts on the filament
structure of the gills, because this is the most likely location
for glochidial gill-attachment in native fishes (Arey 1932b).
However, the Asian carp could have been collecting glochidia
with the fused, sponge-like gill rakers and subsequently
ingesting the glochidia. Further studies should consider
examining the gill rakers in addition to the filaments. It is
unlikely that we would be able to detect glochidia in the
stomach contents, but use of advance dietary studies, such as
stable isotope analysis, may shed light on the potential for
Asian carp to be ingesting glochidia.
Future work should include conducting laboratory host trials
to evaluate the physiological ability of Asian carp to successfully
transform any of our native mussel species, focusing on both
host specialists and host generalists. This would be an efficient
method to determine whether the Asian carp could successfully
metamorphose glochidia to the juvenile life stage. If they are not
suitable hosts, we could determine the period before untrans-
formed glochidia are sloughed.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Funding for this research was provided by the University
of Illinois-National Great Rivers Research and Education
Center Challenge Grant. We thank A. Casper, K. Cummings,
J. DeBoer, M. Fritts, C. Morgeson, R. Pendleton, L. Solomon,
and J. Tiemann for assistance in the field and laboratory. We
thank J. Epifanio for his helpful input on this study and his
laboratory that provided some fish collection assistance.
Members of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service La Crosse
Fish Health Center provided assistance on identification of
assorted parasites. The manuscript was improved with reviews
by M. Fritts, M. Hove, and an anonymous reviewer. All
Animal Care and Use protocols for fish collection, anesthe-
tization, and euthanasia were followed (University of Illinois
IACUC #14023).
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28 FRITTS ET AL.
Freshwater Mollusk Biology and Conservation 19:29–35, 2016
� Freshwater Mollusk Conservation Society 2016
ARTICLE
TOXICITY OF SODIUM DODECYL SULFATE TOFEDERALLY THREATENED AND PETITIONEDFRESHWATER MOLLUSK SPECIES
Kesley J. Gibson1,3, Jonathan M. Miller1, Paul D. Johnson2 & Paul M. Stewart1*
1 Troy University, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, 223 MSCX, Troy, AL
36082 USA2 Alabama Aquatic Biodiversity Center, 2200 Highway 175, Marion, AL, 36756 USA
ABSTRACT
Anthropogenically caused physical and chemical habitat degradation, including water pollution,have caused dramatic declines in freshwater mollusk populations. Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), asurfactant with no USEPA Water Quality Criteria (WQC), is commonly used in industrial applications,household cleaners, personal hygiene products, and herbicides. In aquatic habitats, previous SDSstudies have associated deformities and death to mollusks found in these systems. The objective of thisstudy was to determine EC50 values for two freshwater juvenile unionids (Villosa nebulosa and Hamiotaperovalis) and two freshwater caenogastropods (Leptoxis ampla and Somatogyrus sp.) endemic to theMobile River Basin, USA, to SDS. Using the Trimmed Spearman-Karber method, EC50 values werecalculated. Results found that EC50 values were: V. nebulosa¼14,469 lg/L (95% CI: 13,436 – 15,581 lg/L), H. perovalis ¼ 6,102 lg/L (95% CI: 4,727 – 7,876 lg/L), Somatogyrus sp. ¼ 1,986 lg/L (95% CI:1,453 – 2,715 lg/L), and L. ampla¼ 26 lg/L (95% CI: 6 – 112 lg/L). Freshwater gastropods were moresensitive to SDS than freshwater unionids. Leptoxis ampla was the most sensitive species tested and hadsuch a low EC50 value that more protective regional criteria may be required. Therefore, futureresearch should include additional testing on mollusk species, particularly regionally isolated speciesthat may display increased sensitivity.
KEY WORDS - SDS, threatened, mollusk, Mobile River Basin, Water Quality Criteria
INTRODUCTION
In North America, freshwater mollusks are the most
imperiled aquatic fauna with 74% of 703 identified gastropods
imperiled, followed by unionids with 72% of 298 identified
species imperiled (Wilcove and Master 2008; Johnson et al.
2013). Many freshwater mollusk species are highly endemic,
particularly in the Mobile River Basin, USA, which includes
139 endemic freshwater mollusk taxa (34 unionids and 105
gastropods) (Neves et al. 1997; Williams et al. 2008; O Foighil
et al. 2011). Stenotypic species are often underrepresented in
traditional toxicity testing that normally utilize broad ranging
species, usually distributed across multiple drainage basins (O
Foighil et al. 2011; Wang et al. 2010; Wang et al. 2011).
Declines in freshwater gastropod and unionid populations
are attributed to increases in the human population, leading to
alteration or destruction of habitat both physically and
chemically (Villella et al. 2004; Johnson et al. 2013). Pollution
is ranked as the second leading cause of stream impairment
(USEPA 2009), following physical habitat alteration (Neves et
al. 1997). Toxicity testing is important in protecting organisms
by providing information on specific pollutant effects, such as
reduced survival and growth or inhibited biological processes
on a particular life stage (American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) 2013). Using data from these tests, criteria
inclusive of imperiled organisms can be established to help
protect remaining populations.
*Corresponding Author: [email protected] Address: Texas A&M University- Corpus Christi, Harte
Research Institute, 6300 Ocean Drive, Corpus Christi, TX, 78412 USA
Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), a surfactant, is the most
widely used synthetic organic chemical found in detergents,
shampoos, cosmetics, household cleaners, herbicides, and
dispersants used in oil-spill cleanups (Cowan-Ellsberry et al.
2014). Sodium dodecyl sulfate is an alkylsulfate with sodium
as the counter ion with a chain length of 12 carbons (Cowan-
Ellsberry et al. 2014). Sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) and SDS
are often used synonymously in reporting of product
ingredients (Singer and Tjeerdema 1993; NIH, 2014).
Concentrations .67% SLS (active ingredients) can be found
in household products, dispersants, and herbicides (Lewis
1991; Singer and Tjeerdema 1993; Kegley et al. 2014).
Sodium dodecyl sulfate is also used in the cleanup of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g., oil and gas products).
The major exposure route for SDS to aquatic environments is
through contaminated waters, sediments, or soils, which
threatens drinking water supplies or organisms living in these
environments (Singer and Tjeerdema 1993). Contamination of
groundwater by surfactants is caused primarily by leaching
from industrial and municipal sewage systems, but can also be
introduced to the environment by domestic and industrial
effluents from discarded cleaning products (Singer and
Tjeerdema 1993; Chaturvedi and Kumar 2010). In the United
States, per capita detergent consumption is about 10 kg/year
(Rebello et al. 2014), but consumption declined 3.9% per year
during 2008 – 2013 (Cowan-Ellsberry et al. 2014). However,
in 2008, 76% of alkylsulfate consumed in North America were
found in household laundry detergents (59%) and personal
care products (17%) (Cowan-Ellsberry et al. 2014).
Sodium dodecyl sulfate is not currently monitored in water
systems or listed as a ground water contaminant (Kegley et al.
2014). Other surfactants with similar uses are monitored
(reviewed by Rebello et al. 2014 and Singer and Tjeerdema
1993). In the United Kingdom, surfactant concentrations in
surface waters have been recorded as high as 416 lg/L (Fox et
al. 2000), while sewage effluents have had concentrations
documented up to 1,090 lg/L (Holt et al. 1989). Treated
sludge has been found to have concentrations of linear
alkylbenzene sulfonate as high as 30,200,000 lg/kg (dry
weight) (Berna et al. 1989). All monitored concentrations for
sulfates exceed the predicted no-effect concentration value
(250 lg/L) for surfactants by van de Plassche et al. (1999). In
Massachusetts, the Town River had reported concentrations
between 40 lg/L and 590 lg/L (Lewis and Wee 1983), while
other major rivers in the United States had reported surfactant
concentrations that ranged from 10 lg/L to 3,300 lg/L (A.D.
Little Co. 1981) or 10 lg/L to 40 lg/L (Hennes and Rapaport
1989).
Sodium dodecyl sulfate was formally classified as
‘environmental friendly’ based on its readily biodegradable
and low bioaccumulation properties, meaning it does not
persist long in the environment (Belanger et al. 2004).
However, some studies have suggested that SDS can be lethal
in acute exposures (e.g., 19,040 lg/L for Utterbackiaimbecilis, Keller 1993; summarized in Singer and Tjeerdema
1993; summarized in Kegley et al. 2014; Table 2). Because of
its fast acting, nonselective, and consistent toxicity, SDS is
commonly used as a reference toxicant in toxicity tests
(USEPA 2002). Developmental abnormalities in Illyanassaobsoleta embryos, such as incomplete or inhibited formation
of lobe-dependent structures (e.g., foot, operculum, and eyes)
of gastropods have been attributed to SDS exposure
(treatments ranging from 10,000 – 30,000 lg/L) (Render
1990). Tarazona and Nunez (1987) reported that SDS
exposure significantly decreased shell weights in lymnaeid
gastropods and impeded normal shell deposition (EC50¼ 540
lg/L for Lymnaea vulgaris and 610 lg/L for Physaheterostropha). When exposed to SDS (EC50 ¼ 31,400 lg/
L), Corbicula fluminea displayed avoidance behaviors and gill
damage which decreased oxygen consumption and reduced
siphoning activity (Graney and Giesy 1988).
Previous studies suggest early life stages of unionids are
more sensitive than later life stages or other commonly used
aquatic test organisms (Keller et al. 2007; Augspurger 2013).
Until recently, freshwater unionid toxicity tests were not
included in establishing Water Quality Criteria (WQC) due to
limited information available (e.g., life cycle, host fish,
sensitivity, populations), and the inability to culture them in
sufficient numbers to support testing needs (Keller et al. 2007).
Table 1. Data from acute toxicity trials using SDS on four mollusk species,
including toxicant concentrations, number of dead organisms, and number of
organisms exposed.
Species
Concentration
(lg/L) Dead
Number
exposed
Villosa nebulosa Control 3 10
5,000 1 30
10,000 1 30
15,000 16 30
20,000 28 30
30,000 30 30
Hamiota perovalis Control 0 10
5,000 11 30
10,000 16 30
15,000 17 30
20,000 28 30
30,000 30 30
Leptoxis ampla Control 0 10
1 3 30
10 11 30
100 21 30
1,000 23 30
10,000 18 30
Somatogyrus sp. Control 0 10
1,000 7 30
3,000 20 30
10,000 30 30
30,000 30 30
100,000 30 30
30 GIBSON ET AL.
Similarly, caenogastropods (respire using a gill or ctenidia) are
considered among the most sensitive aquatic organisms to
contaminants (Besser et al. 2009), but are rarely used for
toxicity testing due to slow growth and low reproductive rates,
which make them difficult to culture or test in the laboratory
(Besser et al. 2009). New propagation and rearing techniques
have been recently developed that allow sufficient numbers of
organisms to support formal toxicity testing (Barnhart 2006).
The goal of the current study was to evaluate acute SDS
exposure to four Mobile River Basin endemic mollusks, two
freshwater juvenile unionids and gastropods. These data may
eventually contribute to the development of a specific WQC
for SDS for freshwater mollusks.
METHODS
Two lotic freshwater unionids (Hamiota perovalis and
Villosa nebulosa) and two lotic freshwater caenogastropods
(Leptoxis ampla and Somatogyrus sp.) endemic to the Mobile
River Basin were used. Hamiota perovalis (Orangenacre
Mucket) and Leptoxis ampla (Round Rocksnail) were
federally listed as threatened under the Endangered Species
Act (ESA) (USFWS 1993, 1998). Villosa nebulosa (Alabama
Rainbow) has been formally petitioned for federal protection
under the ESA (Center for Biological Diversity 2010). The
specific taxonomic position of Somatogyrus sp., Cahaba
Pebblesnail, is unclear (E.E. Strong and P.D. Johnson,
Alabama Aquatic Biodiversity Center (AABC), personal
observation).
Unionids were propagated by the AABC, Marion,
Alabama, using host-fish infections and standard culturing
methods (Barnhart 2006). Villosa nebulosa adults (n¼6) were
collected from South Fork Terrapin Creek in Celburne County,
Alabama while H. perovalis adults (n¼4) were collected from
Rush Creek in Winston County, Alabama. Both species used
Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides) for transformation.
Unionids were fed a diet of Nanochloropsis, Shellfish diet
(Reed Mariculture) at a concentration of ~50K cells/mL.
For gastropods, Leptoxis ampla was propagated by AABC,
while Somatogyrus sp. was collected from the Cahaba River
(Latitude: 328 57.5770 N, Longitude: 878 08.4410 W). The
AABC commonly uses this location for reintroductions,
restocking, and translocations of threatened and endangered
mollusk species. Juvenile unionids were 30 – 60 days post-
transformation, and gastropods were 5 – 8 months post hatch.
Somatogyrus sp. is considered to be an annual species with
juveniles hatching in spring. Adults die soon after the
reproductive season is concluded (Johnson et al. 2013). Test
organisms were kept in an aquarium with dilution water
prepared following ASTM (2007) guidelines and used in
testing within 14 days of arrival, so feeding was not necessary
(ASTM 2013). Since it can absorb contaminants (Newton and
Bartsch 2007), sediment was not used during toxicity testing,
which reduced the likelihood of organisms being exposed to
contaminants that may be present in sediment or uncontrolled
chemical reactions occurring within the sediments.
Experimental Conditions
Static renewal toxicity tests for both classes of organisms
were completed following ASTM Standard Guide for
Conducting Laboratory Toxicity Tests with Freshwater
Mussels (E2455-06) (ASTM 2013). Dilution water recipe
additions included sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), calcium
sulfate (CaSO4 �H2O), magnesium sulfate (MgSO4), and
potassium chloride (KCl) following ASTM Standard Guide
for Conducting Acute Toxicity Tests on Test Materials with
Fishes, Macroinvertebrates, and Amphibians (E729-96)
(ASTM 2007). The mean physiochemical variables of the
dilution water were as follows: pH - 7.3 (7.1 – 7.4), hardness -
Table 2. Median effective concentrations (EC50) for 96 h acute toxicity tests of sulfate surfactants on mollusk species.
Mollusk species Common name Age Hardness (mg CaCO3/L) 96 h EC50 (lg/L) References
Bivalves
Corbicula fluminea Asiatic Clam NR NR 31,400 Graney and Gisey 1988
Utterbackia imbecillis Paper Pondshell Juveniles NR 19,040a Keller 1993
Hamiota perovalis Orangenacre Mucket Juveniles 43 6,102 Current Study
Villosa nebulosa Alabama Rainbow Juveniles 43 14,469 Current Study
Gastropods
Physa heterostropha* Pewter Physa NR NR 34,161 Patrick et al. 1968
Lymnaea peregra* Wandering Pond Snail NR NR 15 Misra et al. 1984
Lymnaea vulgaris* Great Pond Snail Juveniles 35.6 540 Tarazona and Nunez 1987
Lymnaea vulgaris* Great Pond Snail Juveniles 35.6 610 Tarazona and Nunez 1987
Leptoxis ampla Round Rocksnail Juveniles 43 26 Current Study
Somatogyrus sp. Cahaba Pebblesnail Adults 43 1,986 Current Study
NR ¼ not reporteda ¼ 48 h LC50 value
* ¼ pulmonate gastropod
31TOXICITY OF SODIUM DODECYL SULFATE TO FRESHWATER MOLLUSKS
41 (40 – 42) mg CaCO3/L, alkalinity - 33.5 (33 – 34) mg
CaCO3/L, and conductivity - 168 (130 – 189) lX/cm.
Dissolved oxygen saturation measured �90%, temperature
was kept at 25 6 1 8C, and ambient light from overhead
fluorescent laboratory lights was used with a photoperiod of
16L: 8D. Test organisms were acclimated in the dilution water
for at least 24 hours before trials by adjusting the temperature
no more than 3 8C/h until reaching 25 8C (Wang et al. 2007;
ASTM 2013). Ten individuals were used in triplicate per
concentration (n ¼ 30). Chambers (600 mL Pyrext beakers)
were filled with 300 mL of either dilution water (controls) or
toxicant solution and were changed at 48 h (Table 1). Stock
SDS toxicant solutions (Laboratory grade, Lot # AD-14008-
56, Carolina Biological Supply) analyses were not conducted
to quantify concentrations in toxicant exposure; therefore,
EC50 values are based on nominal concentrations.
Endpoint determinations were completed after the 96 h
tests, unionids were placed under a microscope to view
heartbeat or foot movement. If no movement was observed
after five-minutes, the unionid was classified as dead.
Gastropods were classified as dead if no movement was
detected within a five-minute observation period (Archambault
et al. 2015) or after the ‘‘tickle’’ test, performed by touching
the organisms with a soft pick to provoke a stimulus response.
An eyelash stick was used to prevent any excess pressure
being placed on the foot and observing a false reaction. Non-
decaying individuals were placed in fresh dilution water for
thirty minutes and rechecked for survival. Control survivor-
ship had to exceed 90% at the end of each trial for results to be
acceptable (ASTM 2013) (Table 1).
Data Analysis
The 96 hour EC50 values for SDS were determined using
ToxStatt 3.5 from West, Inc. (downloaded from https://www.
msu.edu/course/zol/868/) using the Trimmed Spearman-Karb-
er method (TSK). The EC50 values of test organisms were then
compared to EC50 values of other species in the published
literature.
RESULTS
In accordance with ASTM (2013) protocols, control
survivability was �90% for each unionid trial and 100% for
each gastropod trial. Gastropods were active and scaling the
beaker walls within control test chambers. The EC50 value for
Hamiota perovalis was 6,102 lg/L (95% CI: 4,727 – 7,876
lg/L), and Villosa nebulosa was 14,469 lg/L (95% CI: 13,436
– 15,581 lg/L), more than double the EC50 value of H.perovalis (Table 2). In all treatments containing SDS, juvenile
unionids of both species purged a mucus-like substance that
coated the entire organism. While little foot movement was
observed, a heartbeat was always detected in live unionids.
However, in high concentrations of SDS, no soft tissue was
observed in the shells at the end of the 96 h acute toxicity tests.
Gastropods tested in the current study were more sensitive
to SDS than unionid species evaluated. Leptoxis ampla had an
EC50 value of 26 lg/L (95% CI: 6 – 112 lg/L), which was the
lowest EC50 value calculated in this study. Somatogyrus sp.
had an EC50 value of 1,986 lg/L (95% CI: 1,453 – 2,715 lg/
L) (Table 2). Similar to unionids, soft tissues dissolved or
completely separated from the shell in the highest concentra-
tions, and most dead gastropods had begun to decompose so
death was easily determined. Living gastropods from lower
concentrations appeared to begin normal activity once
transferred to water lacking SDS. Movement was observed
without ‘‘tickling’’ in most low concentrations.
DISCUSSION
Sodium dodecyl sulfate is commonly found in high
concentrations in detergents and household cleaners and
contaminates drinking water and aquatic ecosystems (Cow-
an-Ellsberry et al. 2014); however, it has no WQC. Keller
(1993) reported a 48 h LC50 value of 19,040 lg/L for juvenile
Utterbackia imbecillis, a species classified as having a stable
conservation status (Williams et al. 2008). Both juvenile
unionid species exposed to SDS in the current study had 96 h
EC50 values (V. nebulosa: 14,469 lg/L (federally petitioned);
H. perovalis: 6,102 lg/L (federally threatened)) below the
value reported by Keller (1993). In a related study, Graney and
Giesy (1988) reported a 96 h LC50 value of 31,400 lg/L for
SDS using Corbicula fluminea (Asiatic clam), which is 2x and
5x higher than the EC50 values determined for V. nebulosa and
Hamiota perovalis, respectively, in the current study.
The gastropod species used in the current study, L. amplaand Somatogyrus sp., were generally more sensitive to SDS as
compared to other published studies, but Tarazona and Nunez
(1987) reported a 96 h LC50 value of 540 lg/L for SLS using
Lymnaea vulgaris, a pulmonate gastropod. This reported value
was higher than the 96 h EC50 value for Leptoxis amplareported in the current study (26 lg/L), but Somatogyrus sp.
had a higher 96 h EC50 value at 1,986 lg/L, suggesting it may
be more tolerant than Lymnaea vulgaris. Patrick et al. (1968)
reported a LC50 value of 34,161 lg/L for alkylbenzene
sulfonate using the pulmonate gastropod Physa heterostropha,
which was a greater concentration than any EC50 value
reported in this study. Misra et al. (1984) reported an EC50
value of 15 lg/L (endpoint: calcium uptake) for alkylbenzene
sulfonate using Lymnaea peregra, which was similar to the
EC50 value for Leptoxis ampla. No other published EC50 or
LC50 values were close to the EC50 value of Leptoxis ampla,
suggesting that this highly stenotypic species (Cahaba River
Basin endemic) could be one of the most sensitive aquatic
species to SDS tested to date. These reported values suggest
that caenogastropods display increased sensitivity over
pulmonate gastropods to SDS contamination.
Fish have more frequently been subjected to SDS acute
toxicity testing than freshwater mollusks and tend to have
slightly higher LC50 values than mollusks (Table 3). However,
32 GIBSON ET AL.
invertebrates tend to be more sensitive than fish to SDS, and
few toxicity studies have focused on freshwater unionids using
SDS. The cladoceran Daphnia magna had 48 h LC50 value of
10,300 lg/L (Keller 1993), while Daphnia pulex had 48 h
LC50 values ranging between 1,400 lg/L and 15,200 lg/L
(Lewis and Weber 1985; Singer and Tjeerdema 1993) (Table
3). These lower values compared to the EC50 values of
Somatogyrus sp. reported in the current study suggest that D.pulex and Somatogyrus sp. may have similar SDS sensitivity.
Few toxicity studies have been conducted on caenogastropods
(Besser et al. 2009; Johnson et al. 2013), and previous
investigations with surfactants have used pulmonate gastro-
pods (e.g., Patrick et al. 1968; Misra et al. 1984; Tarazona and
Nunez 1987).
Other surfactants have been studied more extensively on
freshwater mollusks. Ostroumov and Widdows (2006) exam-
ined surfactants hindering filter feeding for unionids by
reporting a drop in clearance rates after a 10 minute exposure.
Bringolf et al. (2007b) examined the components of Roundupt
using Lampsilis siliquoidea and found that MON 0818, the
polyethoxylated tallow amine (POEA) surfactant blend that
helps the active ingredients penetrate the waxy coverings of
plant leaves, was the most toxic component of that herbicide.
In a similar study, Bringolf et al. (2007a) further examined
MON 0818 and reported that unionids during their earlier life
stages (i.e., glochidia and juvenile stages) are among the most
sensitive organisms tested.
The EC50 values of the current study were lower than most
reported in the literature (Tables 2 – 3) for SDS, suggesting
that some freshwater mollusks may be among the most
sensitive aquatic species tested to date. The majority of
mollusk species previously tested have broad geographical
ranges and occur across multiple basins and are, therefore,
probably adapted to a broad range of physical and chemical
water quality. In contrast, many federally listed freshwater
mollusks have distributions limited to a distinct, regional
drainage, such as the Mobile River Basin species utilized in
the current study. These regionalized species would be adapted
to specific regional physical and chemical parameters.
Freshwater unionids and caenogastropods in the current study
were found to be sensitive to SDS, particularly the Cahaba
River Basin endemic, Leptoxis ampla had the lowest LC50
value recorded to date. Threatened species, such as L. amplaor H. perovalis, often demonstrate increased sensitivity to
environmental changes than other broad ranging species. The
stenotypic biology of small range endemic mollusks with
unique generic placement (e.g., Hamiota) may represent
increased sensitivity to a variety of toxicants (Gibson 2015)
than wider ranging species adapted to a broad range of normal
water quality variables (e.g., Lampsilis siliquoidea).
Toxicity tests are important tools that provide information
for risk assessment of chemicals and are used when
determining USEPA WQC. This study is one of the few
testing toxicity of SDS using Mobile River Basin freshwater
mollusks, specifically using federally threatened or petitioned
species. Many mollusks have a narrow endemic range which
Table 3. Median effective concentrations (EC50) for 96 h acute toxicity tests of sulfate surfactants on macroinvertebrate and fish species.
Species name Common Name Hardness (mg CaCO3/L) 96 h EC50 (lg/L) References
Invertebrates
Daphnia magna Cladoceran NR 10,300 Keller 1993
Daphnia magna Cladoceran NR 5,400 – 15,000a Lewis and Weber 1985
Daphnia pulex Cladoceran NR 1,400 – 15,200a Lewis and Weber 1985
Fish
Danio rerio Zebrafish NR 7970 Fogels and Sprague 1977
Danio rerio Zebrafish NR 8810a Fogels and Sprague 1977
Danio rerio Zebrafish NR 9,900 – 20,100 Newsome 1982
Cichlasoma nigrofaciatum Convict Cichlid NR 16,100 – 30,000 Newsome 1982
Ctenopharyngodon idella Grass Carp NR 7,700 Susmi et al. 2010
Cynopoecilus melanotaenia Killfish NR 14,900 Arenzon et al. 2003
Cyprinus carpio Common Carp NR 1,310 Verma et al. 1981
Jordanella floridae Flagfish NR 8,100 Fogels and Sprague 1977
Macrones vittatus Asian Striped Catfish NR 1,390 Verma et al. 1978
Menidia beryllina Inland silverside NR 9,500 Hemmer et al. 2010
Oncorhynchus mykiss Rainbow Trout NR 4,620 Fogels and Sprague 1977
Piaractus brachypomus Red Pacu 24 11,290 Reategui-Zirena et al. 2013
Pimephales promelas Fathead Minnow NR 6,600 Conway et al. 1983
Pimephales promelas Fathead Minnow NR 10,000 – 22,500 Newsome 1982
Pimephales promelas Fathead Minnow NR 8,600 USEPA 2002
Poecilia reticulartus Guppy NR 13,500 – 18,300 Newsome 1982
NR ¼ not reporteda ¼ 48 h LC50 value
33TOXICITY OF SODIUM DODECYL SULFATE TO FRESHWATER MOLLUSKS
may increase sensitivity to water quality as compared to the
broader ranging species. Further testing is urged for regional
mollusk species, and especially determination of WQC for
SDS, which currently does not exist. Criteria may need to be
established using a suite of organisms from various river
basins to include stenotypic species (e.g., Cahaba River Basin
endemics) that may display increased sensitivity to SDS.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Dr. Chris Barnhart (Missouri
State University), Dr. Ning Wang (USGS), and Jennifer
Archambault (North Carolina State University) for their
assistance with this project. This manuscript benefited greatly
from input from two anonymous reviewers. This research was
done under FWS permit #TE130300-4. Funding was provided
by the ALFA Fellowship.
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35TOXICITY OF SODIUM DODECYL SULFATE TO FRESHWATER MOLLUSKS