CHAPTER 9 FRENCH REVOLUTION

CHAPTER 9 - THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (Pages 349-394)INTRODUCTION: 1789 French Revolution begins Replaced the old regime with modern society very radical Ideas of revolution spread throughout Europe Influenced the development of political parties Had 24 million people in a single government France was the most advanced country of the day Center of intellectual movement of the Enlightenment Europeans took their ideas from France41. BACKGROUND:A. The Old Regime: The Three Estates Structure: The Old Regime was legally aristocratic and feudal society Everyone belonged to an estate society 1st Estate Clergy 2nd Estate Nobility Legal Rights and personal prestige 3rd Estate Everyone else depended on Estate. The Church: Levied a tithe on all agricultural products. Played a part in the government affairs 100 000 Clergy owned 5-10% of the land Most of the income went to the aristocratic holders of high Church offices The Nobility: (400 000 people) Monopolized all high offices (government, Church, army) Largely tax exempt Blocked royal plans for taxation Blocked all reforms Bourgeoisie(elite of the Third Estate): Foreign trade had increased five-fold (1713-1789) Resented privileges and arrogance of the nobilityB. The Agrarian System of the Old Regime Survival of Feudal Privileges: 80% of the people were rural, (no serfdom was involved) Peasants owed no labor to the lord, except a few a token services Worked their own land, rented the land or were sharecroppers (some were hired out to the lord or another peasant) Nobles retained a few feudal rights, hunting rights; collection of fees through banalities for use of mill, bakeshop or wine press (had monopolies). Possessed limited court and police powers. Property system of the Old Regime: Manor owners owned eminent property rights, with certain rents or transfer payments owed. Ownership was widespread: peasants owned 40%, nobles 20%, the Church 10%, and the remainder in crown, waste or common land. The Revolution was to free land ownership from all indirect hindrances: manorial fees, eminent property rights, communal village agricultural practices and church tithes. The Feudal Reaction Peasants occupied most of the land, either through ownership or lease. There was no big agriculture, no manorial lords, actually managing estates and selling his own crops. By 1780, many manorial lords, pinched by inflation or seeking greater returns, collected dues more rigorously and revived old dues that fallen into disuse. Lease and sharecropping terms became less favorable to the peasants. Resentments built the peasants resented the feudal dues, since the property system had no relation to economic usefulness. Political Unity of France France was unified: unpopular social conditions could bring national opinion and agitation. The Revolution was to rouse a sense of brotherhood, and to create a sense of citizenship and civic rights to the public advantage.C. Political Culture and Public Opinion after 1770 The Revolution and the Enlightenment 18th Century writers created a culture that encouraged political/social criticism Educated people of the 3rd Estate could use the Enlightenment concepts pf reason, natural rights and historical progress to complain about the irrationality of ancient privileges. The connections between the Enlightenment philosophies and the Revolution are inadequate Philosophies favored social reforms, but were not revolutionaries The Critical Spirit Critical Spirit developed in salons, coffeehouses and literary arguments spread rapidly into a developing public sphere of political debate Stories of corruption in high places stripped away the once sacred image of the monarchy, Church and social hierarchy. Lawyers could publish their legal briefs without securing the approval of government censors.

42. THE REVOLUTION AND THE REORGANIZATION OF FRANCEA. The Financial Crisis Revolution was triggered by financial collapse in France mainly because of war costs including past debts Problems of Taxation low revenues: not enough for debts and other costs this was due to tax evasion and exemptions Resistance of Tax Reform Aristocrats refused tax reforms by Mapeau, Turgot and Necker In 1786, Calonne suggested a land tax without tax exemptions, lessening of indirect taxes and abolition of internal tariffs, confiscation of some properties of the Church. Proposed establishment of provincial assemblies where all citizens would be represented. Resistance of Nobles The Assembly of notables was called to discuss the endorsement of Calonnes ideas this resulted in a deadlock, Calonne was fired. Brienne, succeeded Calonne and tried to push Calonnes program through the Parlement of Paris. The Parlement rejected, declaring that only an Estates General could consider the matter of new taxes. But, Brienne and Louis XVI refused to have the Estates General convene because it would be dominated by the nobility, replaced the parlements with a modernized judicial system. This resulted in a revolt of nobles, resistance from the parlements and Provincial Estates, army officers etc. Louis XVI agreed to call the Estates General for May, with the classes invited to elect representatives and prepare lists of grievances.B. From Estates General to National Assembly The Aims of the Nobility Nobles, through the Parlements, ruled that the Estates General should meet and vote by Estates giving them a two thirds majority aristocracy would rule.This was the aim of the nobility. Nobles had a liberal program: constitutional government with freedoms and limited tax privileges. The 3rd Estate Reacts The third Estate turned on the nobility in distrust. Abbe Sieyes Lunched his What is the Third Estate? pamphlet, declaring that the nobility was useless and could be abolished without loss and that the Third Estate was the general and necessary will of the nation. Class antagonisms built, making peaceful reform impossible. Estates General met in May it was boycotted by the Third Estate which insisted on one vote for very individual. After six weeks of debate they were joined by the clergy, and the 3rd Estate declared itself the National Assembly. The 3rd Estate was shut out of their meeting hall by troops; therefore, they met in a nearby indoor tennis court and swore the Tennis Court Oath on June 20 declaring that they would not disband until they had written a new national constitution. Failure of royal leadership Louis XVI had failed: lost control over the Estates General, exerted no leadership, offered no program until it was too late, and provided no symbol behind which parties could rally. He failed to make use of the profound loyalty to himself felt by the bourgeoisie and common people.(page 358) Defied by the National Assembly (the 3rd Estate), he yielded to advisors and close family members and moved 18 000 troops to Versailles to dissolve the Estates General by force.C. The Lower Classes in Action The Storming of the Bastille Harvest of 1988 was poor and 1789 was the year of depression: falling wages and unemployment, food prices continued to rise. The government unable to react to the crisis in order to relieve the distress. Workers rioted in Paris, peasants refused to pay taxes and beggars increased. Townspeople feared social violence and began to arm. On July 14 a mob, assaulted and captured the Bastille, murdering 6 soldiers, the governor of the Bastille and the mayor of Paris army units near the Bastille did not react to this. The King accepted a citizen committee as the government of Paris, sent away the troops he had called to Versailles, and ordered all to join the National Assembly. A bourgeois national guard was created to keep order in Paris, headed by Lafayette. The Great Fear of 1789 In the countryside, a general panic called the Great Fear began wanted to destroy the manorial regime by force by: burning manor houses, attacked any records of fees and dues. A wave of emigres, mainly nobles, fled France.D. The Initial Reforms of the National Assembly The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen On the night of August 4, the National Assembly ended all tithes and tax exemptions. On August 26, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was formed. Men are born, and remain, free and equal in rights. The rights of man included liberty, property, and resistance to oppression, freedom of thought and religion were guaranteed; powers of government were to be separated in branches. The Rights of Woman Olympe de Gouges wrote the The Rights of Women(1792) There were a few reforms that lead to the betterment of womens rights redefined marriage, legalized divorce and inheritance. National Assembly remained divided. Finally, a crowd of market women and revolutionary militants, followed by the Paris national guard, besieged Versailles and moved Louis and his family and the National Assembly to Paris in October. The Jacobins National Assembly became more liberal began to form into clubs, of which the most important was the Society of the Friends of the Constitution, known as Jacobins. The Jacobins discussed policies and plan change.E. Constitutional Changes The Constitution of 1791 The National Assembly/Constituent Assembly governed France from 1789 to 1791. They wrote a new constitution destroying the old regime: 83 departments with uniform municipal organization. Officials were to be elected locally. Sovereign power was vested in a unicameral assembly. The executive assembly was kept weak; the king could only suspend or postpone laws. The new Legislative Assembly was to be elected by active citizens (males over 25), who paid direct tax. These men elected electors: ho then elected the representatives. In July 1791, the King tried to flee, but was caught.F. Economic and Cultural Policies Assignats To help pay the debt and pay current expenses, the Constituent Assembly in 1789 confiscated all Church property and issued notes(assignats) against them. Assignats could be used to purchase church property. Banning labor organizations The government abolished the old guilds and trade unions in favor of free trade. A Revolutionary Political Culture France begins to develop a new national identity through the new flag, clothing, festivals and public monuments. The new cultural and political culture helped shape Frances national identity.G. The Quarrel with the Church The Civil Constitution of the Clergy The Church was outraged by the loss of property (and closing of schools), but the Civil Constitution of the Clergy of 1790 was worse. Assembly created a national Church: priests and bishops were to be elected by all citizens and were to be paid by the state. Bishops were forbidden to accept authority of the Pope and all religious orders were closed. These were all forced upon the clergy of the state. The Pope pronounced that the Civil Constitution as an usurpation and condemned the French Revolution. The Church was considered anti-democratic and anti-liberal.

Constitutional and Refractory clergy The Constituent Assembly could not decide what to do, even with the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Sometimes they let the clergy do whatever they wished, other times they hunted out and persecuted the clergy (which stirred up religious fanaticism).43. THE REVOLUTION AND EUROPE: THE WAR AND THE SECOND REVOLUTION, 1792A. The International Impact of the Revolution Inspiration of the Revolution In Belgium, England, Germany and in other places, people began having strikes and revolts inspired by the events in France. Anti-Revolutionary Sentiment Edmund Burke in his Reflections on the Revolution in France predicted anarchy and dictatorship for France and advised England to support gradual change. The Russian Empress Catherine forbade Russian translations of Voltaire. The French emigrs, led by Louis XVIs brother, began using their aristocratic connections to preach a holy war against revolution. B. The Coming of war, April 1792 The Declaration of Pillnitz Austria and Prussia declared that they would take action if Leopold would take military steps to restore order to France. This action was unlikely. The Emigres used the Declaration as a threat against France. France Goes to War The Girondins became the dominant faction of the revolution. They believed that French armies should enter neighbouring countries, unite with the local revolutionaries and overthrow established governments. This would preserve the Revolution. Lafayette also favored war, but for a different reason. He believed that it would restore the constitutional monarchy. France declares war on Austria on April 20, 1792.C. The Second Revolution Agitation and Violence in Paris Return of the emigres, this was a real threat to the French people. Austria and Prussia are on the point of invading France. In Paris: On August 10, 1792, the working class and others stormed the Tuileries against resistance by the Swiss Guard, the royal family was imprisoned, and a revolutionary municipal government(Commune) was set up. This ended the Legislative Assembly, calling for an election of a Constitutional Convention elected by universal male suffrage. September Massacres 1100 counter-revolutionaries were killed due to war hysteria.44. THE EMERGENCY REPUBLIC, 1792 1795: THE TERRORA. The National Convention Spread of the Revolution The National Convention met on September 20, 1792 and proclaimed the Year One of the French Republic. On the same day, a minor victory at Valmy led to the Austrian retreat and the French occupation of Belgium, Savoy and Rhine. France declares war The Jacobins Split The Jacobins split, creating two new groups: Montagnards: the most radical people in Paris Sans-culottes: shop keepers and artisans The Execution of the King The sans-culottes denounced the king and queen for collusion with the Austrians. King Louis was put on trial in December 1792, found guilty of treason and was voted to be executed.B. Background to the Terror The Convention Under Attack France was in crisis: the French general, Dumouriez was defected and the Allies threatened to invade. Prices continued to rise, and food became very scarce. The sans-culottes demanded price controls, rationing, requisitioning of food, attacks on profiteering and currency controls; and the Jacobins agreed with them. In Vendee, the peasants revolted against military enlistment. The peasants were encouraged by British agents and Catholic priests. Other cities also rebelled after rebel Girondins reached them. These rebels also became counter-revolutionaries. Robespierre The Convention was also attacked by the enrages who demanded strong action. They formed revolutionary armies, searching for food, denouncing suspects and preaching revolution. Maximilien Robespierre was now the Convention leader. He was originally a lawyer, he had been elected in the Estates General (in 1789). In 1793-1794, he was determined to bring a democratic republic made of good, virtuous and honest citizens.C. The Program of the Convention, 1793 1794: The Terror The Reign of Terror In order to end civil strife and counter-revolution and to win the war by mobilizing the people and resources; the Convention created the Committee of Public Safety. The Committee consisted of a group of 12 members of the Convention and were re-elected every month. In order to repress the counter-revolution the Convention and the Committee of Public Safety set up the Reign of Terror Victims of the Terror The Terror struck those who were against the Republic or were suspected of hostile activities. Victims included the Queen, Girondins, Catholic peasants, nobles and enrages. The Committee of Public Safety The Committee functioned as a war cabinet: it centralized administration. It ordered the levee en masse, which controlled the export of gold and confiscated foreign currency. The Committee also ended the manorial system and slavery was abolished. The Revolution and Religion The program of Dechristianization was launched, adopting a republican calendar with new months, decades replacing weeks and no saints days and church holidays. Many proposed the worship of Reason, Robespierre was against this as it would alienate the people. Revolutionary Military victories By 1794, France had an army of 800 000 men, composed of those who felt that they were fighting for a just cause. The French troops retook Belgium and Holland. Fall of Robespierre Military successes made the French less willing to put up with the Terror. Robespierre was outlawed, and guillotined on 10 Thermidor. The Reign of Terror had ended.D. The Thermidorian Reaction Politics and Society after Thermidor Convention reduced the powers of the Committee and closed the Jacobin Club. Government controls were relaxed, producing inflation and uprisings. The Thermidorians believed in individual rights and a written constitution.45. THE CONSTITUTIONAL REPUBLIC: THE DIRECTORY, 1795 1799A. The Weakness of the Directory The Constitution of 1795 The Directory was the first constituted Republic. It was composed of two chambers: The Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Ancients. Two thirds of the new legislature had to be from the Convention. The Constitution applied to both France and Belgium. IT restricted the politically active class. It gave almost all adult males the vote, but they only voted for electors. France was split: The Right, royalists, who supported the restoration of the monarchy and the reinstatement of the nobility and church. The left favored the democratic ideals of the Revolution.

B. The Political Crisis of 1797 Napoleon Bonaparte Elections in March 1797 brought a body favoring a constitutional monarchy, and this was intolerable to the old republicans and Napoleon. Napoleon Bonaparte captures Italy. The coup detat of Fructidor This coup detat resolved any issues. The Directory turned to Bonaparte for help. They annulled the elections and made peace with Austria. France annexed Belgium and the west bank of the Rhine. Revolutionary Republicanism Spreads French Revolutionary ideals spread through Italy and Switzerland.C. The Coup dtat of 1799: Bonaparte The Directory Turns to Bonaparte Napoleon indirectly attacks England by threatening India through the invasion of Egypt. The Directory was inefficient, as it could not solve the problem of national debt. Those who were looking to find a person who could lead France to victory and they chose Napoleon. The coup resulted in a Consulate, run by three man committee (consuls), with Napoleon as the leader. 46. THE AUTHORITAN REPUBLIC: THE CONSULATE, 1799 1804A. The Consulate Napoleons Genius Napoleon had extraordinary intellect. He also had the ability to lead men and inspired confidence. He had a quick grasp of problems and the ability to make rapid decisions. Bonaporte as First Consul He made peace with Britain. He created a secret police and a centralized administrative machine. Enemies of this new order were ruthlessly suppressed.B. The Settlement with the Church; Other Reforms Concordat with the Vatican Napoleon signed a Concordat with the Vatican in 1801 giving the Pope the right to depose bishops. The Pope recognized the Republic and accepted the loss of church lands. Clergy were promised state salaries. Consulate Reforms Feudal ideas were eliminated. Careers were open to talent Established a Bank of France Schools were reorganized. Estates, legal classes, privileges and guilds no longer existed. The Napoleonic Codes They included the Civil Code, the codes of civil and criminal procedure, and the commercial and penal codes. The Code set the character of France as it has been ever since: socially bourgeoisie, legally egalitarian and administratively bureaucratic.C. The End of the Revolution From Consulate to Empire France was at peace at home. Napoleon was soon to become the Emperor France was larger, more powerful and more willing to use its power to change Europe.

1. Describe the members and the rights and obligations of each of the Three Estates of France. What were the grievances of each on the eve of the revolution?

There were 3 Estates of France; these were divided as the following: The First Estate: Church, played a part in the government affairs, levied tithe on agricultural products. The Second Estate: Nobility, monopolized all high offices (government, Church and army), largely tax exempt and blocked all reforms. The Third Estate: Peasants and Bourgeoisie had no tax privileges. Had to pay the most amount of taxes.

The grievances of the Estates on the eve of the Revolution were: First Estate: called for an end to bishops that were not nobles, were willing to give up financial privileges of the Church and wanted Roman Catholicism as the official religion of France. Second Estate: willing to give up financial privileges, accepted the idea of careers open to academic merit and said that the government was out of date. Third Estate: wanted a fair voting system in the Estates General and resented the tax privileges of the other estates.

2. What role did the Enlightenment ideas and values play in provoking the French Revolution?

The Enlightenment ideas and values played a role in provoking the French Revolution by: Making the people have a new perspective about life, thus becoming very critical. They began to see the truth of Opinion governs the world. Campaigns to influence public opinion became a powerful political force in French society. Began to see a better life with rights and freedoms.This is how the critical thought of the Enlightenment entered the political conflicts which led to the revolution.3. How did the struggle over taxation set the stage for revolution?

The struggle over taxation set the stage for revolution through: The French nobility through the Parlement summoned the Estates General because they also wanted freedoms and were willing to give up special tax privileges. The meeting of the Estates General, which resulted in a deadlock. This later on, resulted in the formation of the National Assembly and the Tennis Court Oath. This was a revolutionary step because the National Assembly assumed sovereign power, but had no legal authority.

4. Why did the Third Estate declare itself the National Assembly? How did the king react?

The Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly because: The Third Estate did not accept the division of the orders into to three separate chambers. The Third Estate initially had been granted double representation due to the population of this estate, but they were later informed that the voting would be according to the Estates and not individuals. The Third Estate refused to follow this, and thus, created the National Assembly.The king opposed the National Assembly, but later gave in and allowed the National Assembly to remain in being.

5. What were the causes of social disorder in 1789? What impact did the actions of the lower classes have on the course of the revolution?

The causes of social disorder in 1789 were: The price of bread rose, because the harvest of 1788 had been poor. The growth of trade suddenly halted: wages fell, unemployment rates went up and scarcity caused food prices to go higher.In response to this, the lower classes: The Storming of the Bastille: assaulting the fortress, killing soldiers and capturing the governor. The King accepted this situation and recognized the citizens committee in Paris as the municipal government. He also commanded the nobles and the clergy to join the National Assembly. Destroying the manorial regime by force by destroying the manors and manorial archives. This resulted in the National Assembly ending serfdom, tithes, tax privileges, hunting rights, manorial rights and feudal rights. This also later on led to the formation of the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen.The impact of the actions of the lower classes on the revolution was such that it resulted in the recognition of the National Assembly, abolishing feudalism and the creation of the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen.

6. How did the National Assembly destroy feudalism and satisfy the demands of peasants?

The National Assembly destroyed feudalism and satisfied the demands of peasants by: On August 4, 1789, the National Assembly declared in a decree that feudalism is abolished. They abolished tithes, personal tax privileges, hunting rights, and serfdom. Dues were ended with compensation. On August 26, 1789, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was issued. Men are born and remain, free and equal in rights, the rights included liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression. Careers were open for all.

7. What freedoms did the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen guarantee? To whom did it guarantee those freedoms?The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen guaranteed freedoms of thought (press), no taxation without representation and religion. These freedoms were guaranteed for all men.

8. Who were the Jacobins? What social classes did they represent? How did the actions of Jacobins shape the revolutionary governments in the years after 1792?

The Jacobins were those who wanted the Revolution to continue. They began to organize in club like the Society of Friends of the Constitution, called the Jacobins for short. The Jacobins were from the Bourgeoisie social class. The actions of Jacobins shaped the revolutionary governments after 1792 by: The addition of the Committee of Public Safety and the Reign of Terror. Leading France into war

9. What were the economic policies of the Constituent Assembly? Who did those policies benefit?

The economic policies of the Constituent Assembly were: They confiscated all the property of the Church They issued notes called assignats that were used to buy former Church lands. Abolished the old guilds and trade unions.All these economic changes by the Constituent Assembly benefited the Third Estate and the Bourgeoisie.10. How did the revolutionary government deal with labor unions?

The Revolutionary government dealt with the labor unions by: They banned the labor organizations Abolished the guilds

11. How did the French Revolution create and promote national identity among the French people?

The French Revolution created and promoted national identity among the French people through: Developing a new political culture that would be symbolized by a new flag, clothing, festivals and public monuments. Supporters of the revolution planted liberty trees, and wore liberty caps. Revolutionary plays, novels and songs were also created to convey the message of national sovereignty and liberty that had replaced the King and the Church. Created a new symbol of liberty: Marianne. This figure offered an alternative image compared to the Catholic symbol of Virgin Mary.Through the promotion of new political ideas and symbols through various aspects of daily life, the French Revolution creates a new national identity through the use of cultural rituals and symbols.12. How did the Constituent Assembly view the role of the church in French society?

The Constituent Assembly viewed the role of the church in French society as: A form of public authority, thus secondary to the foreign power

13. Why is the Civil Constitution of the Clergy considered a blunder by some historians?

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy is considered a blunder by some historians because: The Constituent Assembly could truly never decide what to do. Sometimes they allowed the refractory clergy to continue what they were doing and other times they hunted down and persecuted the refractories, which stirred up religious fanaticism.

14. What were some of the anti-revolutionary reactions throughout Europe? Why did various individuals and social classes either support or criticize the revolution?

Some of the anti-revolutionary reactions throughout Europe were: Edmund Burke published Reflections on the Revolution in France. He predicted anarchy and dictatorship and advised England to accept slow adaption of liberties. Russian Empress Catherine, forbade translations of Voltaire. She also made Radischev (a Russian) go to Siberia because in his book Voyage from St. Petersburg to Moscow he pointed out the evils of serfdom.Various individuals and social classes criticized and supported the revolution because they either were protecting their own interests, such as the royalty and higher social classes; or because they wanted a government and society where their rights and freedoms were protected, such as the lower social classes and other individuals.15. How did the Declaration of Pillintz enhance the power of the Girondins?

The Declaration of Pillintz enhanced the power of the Girondins by enraging the French against all the crowned heads of Europe. This gave political advantage to the Girondins.

16. Why was war declared on the Austrian monarchy in 1792?

War was declared on the Austrian monarchy in 1792 because: Girondins: believed that with war the French armies would enter neighbouring countries, unite with local revolutionaries, overthrow the established goverments and set up a federation of republics. Another group led by Lafayette (who wished to not to have the Revolution) who mistakenly believed that the war would help hold the constitutional monarchy and restore the damaged popularity of King Louis XVI; and to unite the country under a new government.

17. Why did war exacerbate the dissatisfactions of the lower classes?

The war worsened the dissatisfactions of the lower classes because: The peasants were dissatisfied with the inadequate measures taken to facilitate land distribution. Workers started feeling the effects of soaring prices. A lot of the gold was taken out of the country by the emigres, and paper money and assignats slowly lost their value, so no one trusted them. Peasants began concealing their food, rather than selling it. The cost of living rose higher and higher. They were also threatened by the return of the emigres and the restoration of the Old Regime, which the peasants didnt want.

18. How did the French spread revolution throughout Europe? Where did it spread most successfully? Where was it held in check by opposing forces?

The France spread Revolution throughout Europe by: Providing assistance to all peoples wishing to recover their liberty in the areas that the French armies occupied. The assistance they provided was through: dissolving old governments, confiscating government/Church property, abolish tithes, hunting rights and seigneurial dues. They also set up provisional governments. France spread The Revolution successfully in Belgium, Savoy region and the German Left Bank of the Rhine.The British and Dutch prepared to resist. The French were not truly held in check by opposing forces because of the weakness of the coalition of Britain, Holland, Prussia and Austria. Britain and Holland had no land forces, and Prussia and Austria were jealous of each other and were too preoccupied with Poland to focus on the French.19. Who were the sans-culottes? What were their political demands?

The sans-culottes were the working class of a preindustrial age with shop keepers and artisans. They were called sans-culottes because they did not wear the knee breeches of the middle and upper classes. Their political demands were that they wanted an equality that would be meaningful people like them, called for an effort against foreign powers that wanted to intervene in the French Revolution and denounced the king and queen for conspiracy with the Austrian monarchy.

20. Why did leftist extremists attack the Convention in 1793? What motivated their criticisms and demands of the revolutionary government?

The leftist extremists attacked the Convention in 1793 because they believed that the parliamentary methods were useless. The British agents, refractory priests and the royalist emissaries of the Count of Artois helped to motivate their criticisms and demands of the revolutionary government by making them revolt against military conscription, demanded a more federal republic.

21. Who was Robespierre? Describe his career during the revolution.

Robespierre was the new leader of the Convention. Before the revolution he was a lawyer who had been elected in 1789 to sit for the Estates General. In the Constituent Assembly he played a minor role, where he was against capital punishment and in favor if universal suffrage. During the time of the Legislative Assembly, in 1791-1792 he continued to ask for democracy and pleaded against the declaration of war. In the Convention, elected in September 1792, he sat for a Paris constituency. He was a prominent member of the Mountain and welcomed the elimination of the Girondins. He believed in the importance of unselfish public spirit and civic zeal in republics. In 1793 and 1794, he was determined to bring about a democratic republic consisting of good, virtuous and honest citizens.

22. What were the goals of the Terror? Who were its victims?

The goals of the Terror were to repress the counter-revolution. The Terror struck those who were against the Republic or were suspected of hostile activities. Victims included the Queen, Girondins, Catholic peasants, nobles and enrages.

23. How did the Committee of Public Safety attempt to overcome the problems caused by wartime?The Committee of Public Safety attempted to overcome the problems caused by wartime through centralizing administration and ordering the levee en masse, which controlled the export of gold and confiscated foreign currency. It also gave freer rein to private enterprise to encourage production.24. What happened in Haiti before and during the French Revolution? What do you think the significance of these events was for people in France?

Before the French Revolution, the black slaves had already liberated themselves in a rebellion. During the Revolution, the Napoleon government re-established slavery in the French colonies. Slavery was not effectively abolished until 1848. The significance of these events for the people in France was

25. What was the Paris Commune? When and why was it established? How and why was it destroyed?

The Paris Commune was a government that briefly ruled Paris. It was established on August 10, 1792, in Paris. It was established because of the dissatisfaction of the lower classes. It helped to stop civil unrest. The Commune wished to prepare a new and more democratic constitution under a Convention that was to govern France. It was destroyed because the people were no longer willing to put up with the dictatorial rule.

26. Who were the Thermidorians? What were their political views?The Thermidorians were those who were against the Reign of Terror. Their political views were against those who supported Robespierre and the Reign of Terror. They eliminated and sought revenge on those responsible for the Reign of Terror: Jacobins. The Thermidorians brought a return to civil freedoms and a free market.27. Why did the Directory have enemies on both the right and the left?

The Directory had enemies on both the right and the left: Right Side: Royalists who were in touch with the Count of Provence and wanted the restoration of the monarchy. Left Side: those who favoured the democratic ideas from earlier in the Revolution.The Directory had enemies on both the right and the left because the society was still confused as to what is the right thing to govern France.28. How did Napoleon Bonaparte take advantage of the opportunities for social mobility offered by the revolution?

Napoleon Bonaparte took advantage of the opportunities for social mobility offered by the revolution by: He was the conquering hero, so he was assigned to command the army to invade England. Instead of attacking England directly, he attacks them indirectly through threatening India in an invasion of Egypt.

29. How was peace established in 1797?

Peace was established in 1797 through the coup detat of Fructidor. They annulled the elections and made peace with Austria.

30. Why did the Directory turn to Napoleon in 1799? What was the result?

The Directory turned to Napoleon in 1799 because Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyes wanted to protect the French government from future instability and disturbances. The result was that Napoleon became the leader of a military dictatorship.

31. Why was Napoleon considered a genius? Do you agree with this assessment?Napoleon was considered a genius because he revolutionized warfare with his great tactics. His ideas of good were blunt, but he was a man of extraordinary intellectual capacity. He had excellent leadership qualities.

32. How did Napoleon establish and maintain peace at home and abroad?

Napoleon established and maintained peace at home and abroad by a secret political police and through a powerful and centralized administrative machine.

33. How did both Napoleon and the papacy benefit from their agreement in 1801?

Napoleon and the papacy benefited from their agreement in 1801: Church: The pope received the right to depose French bishops. Publicity of Catholic worship was allowed. Napoleon: With the signing of the concordat the pope officially recognized the French Republic. Vatican agreed to raise no question over former tithes and church lands.

34. How did Napoleons reforms put an end to all feudalistic aspects of French society?

Napoleons reforms put an end to all feudalistic aspects of French society through: Eliminating estates, legal classes, privileges, local liberties, hereditary offices, guilds or manors. Military commissions and civil offices could not be bought and sold. Judges, officials and army officers received specified salaries. Citizens were to rise in government service according to their abilities rather than wealth or privileged birth. Careers were open to talent.

35. What were the Napoleonic codes? How did they shape French life in the centuries following their establishment?The Napoleonic codes were the Civil Code (also known as the Code Napoleon), the codes of civil and criminal procedure, and the commercial and penal codes. The codes made France legally uniform. They assured legal equality; all French citizens had the same civil rights. They shaped French life in the centuries following their establishment by making it socially bourgeoisie, legally egalitarian and administratively bureaucratic.