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International Journal of Botany

and Research (IJBR)

ISSN 2277-4815

Vol. 3, Issue 3, Aug 2013, 1-14

© TJPRC Pvt. Ltd.

FREE RADICALS, ANTIOXIDANTS AND CULINARY SPICES: IN HUMAN HEALTH AND

DISEASE RESPONSE

DIVYA SINGH, TARA CHANDRA RAM, AKHILESHWAR KUMAR SRIVASTAVA & BIJOY KRISHNA ROY,

Department of Botany (CAS), Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India

ABSTRACT

Free radicals and other reactive species have attracted attention to mitigate abiotic or biotic stress in recent years.

These are mainly derived from reactive oxygen species as well as reactive nitrogen species. The scientific studies in human

have described links of various metabolic pathway produced by-products acting as free radicals and other reactive species.

The free radicals could damage biomolecules and resulting for severe diseases. The organisms have several defence

mechanism to neutralize the effect of free radicals by synthesizing enzymes and vitamins. Spices and herbs have been used

as condiments and traditional medicines since ancient time, however in recent studies have established about the presence

of many bioactive components in spices and herbs that possess pharmacological and biochemical activities. Therefore

spices and herbs in regular diet may improve to health and lower the risk of many diseases. This review explores the

central actions of bioactive components of spices and herbs.

KEYWORDS: Reactive Oxygen Species, Diseases, Food, Natural Antioxidants, Spices

INTRODUCTION

About 5% or more inhaled oxygen is converted to reactive oxygen species. Since past decades, it became obvious

that reactive oxygen species exert deleterious effects on human health under certain conditions. Antioxidants neutralize the

harmful effects of free radicals and that may prevent body from invading the various diseases. Recent studies in the field of

free radicals and antioxidants have provided a new age for management of health against several diseases.

Free Radicals

The free radicals are comprised into reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species produced as by-product

in various metabolic processes (for example aerobic respiration in mitochondria, destruction of pathogen infected cells by

phagocytes, degradation of fatty acid by peroxisomes and p 450 mediated degradation of toxins) of living beings. Various

environmental factors, xenobiotics, and anthropogenic sources alter biological activities of organisms causing production

of reactive oxygen species in the body (Halliwell, 1994; Wong et al., 2000). Excess production of reactive oxygen species

(hydroxyl radical, superoxide radical, peroxyl radical and hydrogen peroxide) above the normal physiological levels could

damage bio molecules (lipids, proteins, enzymes, and nucleic acid) (Chen et al., 2005) which may lead to number of

diseases such as cancer, aging, cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer disease, brain dysfunction and rheumatoid arthritis etc.

(Langseth, 1993; Halliwell, 1994).

Antioxidants

Antioxidants are the substances that present naturally in plants and animal and protect the cell from harmful

effects of free radicals (Bjelakovic et al., 2007). Antioxidants work as scavenger for free radicals and inhibit their

excessive production in organisms (Niwa et al., 2001).

2 Divya Singh, Tara Chandra Ram, Akhileshwar Kumar Srivastava &Bijoy Krishna Roy

Antioxidants are classified into two groups (Kahl and Kappus, 1993):

Natural antioxidants

Synthetic antioxidants

Natural antioxidants like vitamin E (tochopherols and tocotrie-nols), vitamin C (ascorbic acid), carotenoids and

polyphenols are generally found in fruits and vegetables. Vitamin E included tocopherols and tocotrienols, in which α-

tocopherol has been most studied. Functionally, α-tocopherol is more active which quenches singlet oxygen and also acts

against peroxyl radicals (Rietjens et al., 2002). Vitamin C is a well known natural antioxidant which has reactive oxygen

species scavenging activity due to presence of enediol group (Kim and Lee, 2004). More than 700 naturally occurring

carotenoids have been reported from plants that act as antioxidant (Rietjens et al., 2002). Flavonoids, stilbenes, phenolic

acids and lignans are the most abundantly occurring polyphenols in plants (Escarpa and Gonzalez, 2001). However,

flavonoids scavenge of free radicals species and also act as powerful metal chelators (Amić et al., 2003). Some natural and

synthetic antioxidants are being presented with their structural formula as in Fig .1 and Fig. 2.

Many synthetic antioxidants have been used in a wide variety of food products and cosmetics. Nonetheless,

Butylatedhydroxytoluene (BHT), butylatedhydroxyanisol (BHA), propylgallate (PG), tertiary butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ),

2,4,5-trihydroxybutyrophenone (THBP), di-tertbutyl-4-hydroxymethylphenol (IONOX-100), octylgalate (OG),

nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA) and 4-hexylresorcinol (4HR) are more common. The use of excess synthetic

antioxidants in foods might produce toxicities and mutagenicities, and thus harmful for health (Xiu-Quin et al., 2009).

However, wide varieties of natural antioxidants have different properties like their constituents, mechanisms of

action and site of target (Jacob and Michael, 1999). Some main categories of natural antioxidative enzymes are being

described below:

Enzymes: It is a natural gift to plants and animals to synthesize proteins, enzymes and secondary metabolites.

Like enzymes activity, also several antioxidants acting as biocatalysts in metabolic pathways are referred as

antioxidative enzymes like catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), superoxide dismutase (SOD) etc.

transfer reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species into stable compounds (Tiwari, 2001).

High molecular weight compounds: Albumin, transferin, ceruplasmin come under this category which prevent the

production of metals catalyzed by free radicals (Bostwick et al., 2000).

Low molecular weight compounds: These can be subdivided into two categories: water soluble antioxidants and

lipid soluble antioxidants. Water soluble antioxidants include ascorbic acid, uric acid and some polyphenols and

lipid soluble antioxidants are tocopherol, quinines, carotenoids, bilirubin and some polyphenols (Halliwell, 1991).

Minerals: Minerals or micronutrients like manganese, copper, zinc and selenium etc. have been well recognised

for antioxidative properties (Shirwaikar et al., 2004).

Vitamins: Vitamin A, C and E are well known stable antioxidants which play important role in minimizing the

risk of damage in the biological system from peroxidation (Fogliano et al., 1999; Mantena et al., 2003).

Plants antioxidants: Vegetables, fruits and medicinal plants are the main sources of natural antioxidants (Ali et al.,

2008). Recently, a great deal of interest has been developed by consumers towards novel spices and herbs for

good sources of natural antioxidants, some of which have been reviewed and discussed here (Tsai et al., 2005).

Free Radicals, Antioxidants and Culinary Spices: In Human Health and Disease Response 3

Mechanism of Action of Antioxidants

Mainly two types of mechanism of action have been proposed for antioxidants. The first mechanism is chain

breaking by which primary antioxidant neutralizes free radicals by donating an electron to it. The second preventive

mechanism involves removal of ROS/RNS initiators (secondary antioxidants) by quenching chain initiation step (Krinsky,

1992).

Level of Antioxidant Action

Antioxidants, capable to neutralize free radicals act at different levels of defence such as preventive, radical

scavenging, repair and adaptation.

First line defence consists of superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase,

selenoprotein, transferrin, lactoferrin, ferritin some minerals Mn, Zn, Cu, Se and non-enzymatic proteins etc. which are

considered as preventive antioxidants and restrict the formation of free radicals. Superoxide dismutase converts superoxide

radical (O-2) to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The breakdown of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to water (H2O) and oxygen (O2) is

catalyzed by catalase. Glutathion peroxidase is a selenium dependent enzyme which detoxifies lipid hydro peroxides to

alcohols. The cytosolic superoxide dismutase is a Cu containing enzyme which removes superoxide radicals from cytosol.

Selenium is an essential element for removal of peroxide from cytosol and cell membrane. Zinc is a component of several

enzymes like alcohol dehydrogenase, carbonic anhydrase, alkaline phosphatase, cytosolic superoxide dismutase etc and

also play important role in growth and reproduction.

Second line defence include glutathion (GSH), vitamin E, vitamin C, uric acid, bilirubin, albumin, carotenoids,

flavonoids etc. have radical scavenging activity. Glutathion scavenges reactive oxygen species like lipid peroxyl radical,

peroxynitrite and hydrogen peroxide. It also helps in the detoxification of inhaled oxidizing air pollutants. Vitamin E

protects poly unsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) and low density lipoprotein by scavenging peroxyl radical intermediates which

are generated in lipid peroxidation reactions. It prevents coronary heart disease and atherosclerosis. Vitamin C quenches

radicals like singlet oxygen, superoxide radical, hydroxyl radical. β-carotene is helpful in removal of singlet oxygen.

Flavonoids inhibit lipoxygenases and lipid peroxidation.

Third line defence comprises group of enzymes required for repairing mechanism of damaged DNA, proteins,

lipids. These enzymes are capable to stop chain propagation of peroxyl lipid radical. e.g. DNA repair enzymes, protease,

lipase, transferase, methionine sulphoxide reductase etc.

Fourth line defence is an adaptation where immunology plays important role in production and reaction of free

radicals with appropriate antioxidants (Escarpa and Gonzalez, 2001., Nichenametla et al., 2006).

Spices as Antioxidants

It has been reported that balance loss between production of reactive oxygen species and antioxidative defence

system resulting into oxidative stress leads to various hazardous diseases such as cancer, gastric ulcer and other conditions

(Smith et al., 1992). Antioxidants prevent from deleterious effects of oxidative stress. In recent years, interest in the plant

derived food additives has been increased to know their role in health promoting effects (Wang and Lin, 2000). The

various metabolic products and its derivatives derived from spices and aromatic herbs were identified as an important

antioxidants (Sabir and Rocha, 2008). A spice can be defined as a herbal plant, which specific parts provide colour and

flavour along with stimulating odour used in culinary and condiments, as well as in cosmetics, fragrances and medications.

These peculiar properties of herbs and spices have supported it to be applied to functional food for nutrients, bioactive


compounds, disease prevention and health promotion. The different plants parts used as spices are rhizomes, leaves, buds,

flowers, fruits, seeds, secretary products and even bark of a tree (Williams, 1999). Since long periods, herbs have been

used for nearly all medicinal therapy until in development of synthetic drugs. Spices influence on various body systems

such as cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, reproductive and nervous systems (Kochhar, 2008). The antioxidant activity of

spices was described by Chipault et al (1956) in different substrates. Previously it has been reported that the presence of

phenolic compounds in spices also shown antioxidant properties for different substrates (Chipault et al., 1956).

Some Specific Antioxidative Compounds in Spices

Except some, common antioxidants present in all group of plants, in which some specific antioxidative

compounds were reported in spices and aromatic herbs (Kulisic et al., 2004). Among them rosmadial, rosmanol,

rosmaridiphenol, rosmariquinone, carnosol, carnosic acid and various ethyl and methyl esters of these compounds were

reported in rosemary and sage; caffeic acid, protocatechuic acid, rosmarinic acid, a phenyl glycoside and 2-caffeoyloxy-3-

[2-(4-hydroxybenzyl)-4,5-dihydroxyphenyl] propionic acid in oregano (Pizzale et al., 2002) (Figure 3); eugenol, eugenyl

acetate and gallates in clove (Lee and Shibamato, 2001); gingerol, zingerone and diarylheptanoids in ginger (Kikuzaki and

Nakatani, 1993; Kikuzaki et al., 1994); thymol, carvacrol and p-cumene-2,3-diol in thyme (Schwarz et al., 1996) (Figure

4); curcumin and its derivatives in turmeric (Masuda et al., 1999) (Figure 5); apigenin, camphene and terpinolene in

coriander (Rajeshwari and Andallu, 2011); piperine, ferulic acid, phenolic amide feruperine in black pepper (Nakatani et

al., 1986) (Figure 4).

Rosmarinic acid is a dominant compound in herbs of family Labiateae with four hydroxyl groups (catechol

structures) in the structure, are responsible for antioxidative property. Caffeic acid, carnasoic acid and gallic acid are also

present in these herbs and possess antioxidant activity because of catechol structures (Cuvelier et al., 1996).

Eugenol and its derivatives contain a phenolic group in the structure have relatively lower antioxidant activity

than other phenolics with more hydroxyl groups. The phenolic group plays important role in free radical scavenging

activity of eugenol (Lee and Shibamoto, 2001). Eugenol, cuminaldehyde, curcumin, piperine, zingerone and linalool have

been reported as effective antioxidants. These compounds inhibit lipid peroxidation mainly by two ways 1. By quenching

free radicals and 2. By increasing activity of endogenous antioxidative enzymes (catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathion

transferase and glutathion peroxidase). Eugenol and curcumin can inhibit lipid peroxidation at lower concentrations while

zingerone is effective for the same process at high concentrations. On other hand, linalool and cuminaldehyde may have

marginal effects on peroxidation even at very high concentrations (Reddy and Lokesh, 1992, 1994). The structures of

antioxidative compounds are demonstrated in Figure 3-5.

Oil Chemistry

An essential oil in herbs and spices demonstrated fruitful to biological activities, the major components of

essential oil were identified as polyphenols, terpenes, monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes (Kulisic et al., 2004). A list of

major essential oil components of some known spices are being presented in Table 1.

Among the constituents of essential oils, eugenol, carvacrol, thymol and 4-allylphenol can exhibit potent

antioxidative activities. Linalool, estragol, methylsalicylate, 1,8-cineole, benzylaldehyde and 4-terpineol are reported for

their slight antioxidant activity at a level of 50 µg/ml (Lee et al., 2005). γ-Terpinene retards lipid peroxidation. The typical

chain reactions are involved in peroxidation of linoleyl acid in which linoleyl hydroperoxides are formed after transferring

of chain by linoleyl peroxyl radicals. γ-Terpinene may retard linoleic acid peroxidation by rapid cross-reaction between

linoleyl peroxyl radicals and hydroperoxyl radicals in the chain reaction of peroxidation (Foti and Ingold, 2003 ).


Therapeutic Importance of Spices

Essential oils extracted from rosemary, sage and thyme were shown to inhibit osteoclast activity in bone as well as

increase bone density in vitro condition (Putnam et al., 2007). Atsumi and Tonosaki (2007) found that essential oils of

lavender and rosemary decrease level of stress hormone like cortisol and protect body from oxidative stress. Functionally

ethanol extract of rosemary delayed in oxidation of lipid fraction of minced meat ball during storage in the freezer

(Karpinska et al., 2000).

In a study antioxidant activities of crude hot water extract of 13 spices (clove, thyme, rosemary, savory, oregano,

basil, cumin, caraway, coriander, marjoram, turmeric, mace, fennel) were compared and found clove, thyme, and rosemary

exhibited higher DPPH radical scavenging activity. Whereas extracts of marjoram, rosemary, and oregano were found to

have higher superoxide radical scavenging activity differ from extracts of turmeric and mace have higher hydroxyl radical

scavenging activity. The total phenolic and flavonoid contents in clove and turmeric was highest among these spices (Kim

et al., 2011).

The carcinogens activities of benzo(a)pyrene [B(a)P] induced forestomach tumorigenesis in stomach and 3-

methylcholanthrene (MCA) uterine cervix tumorigenesis in cervices were inhibited by different doses of cumin seed with

mixed diet (Gagandeep et al., 2003). Cardioprotective effect of fenugreek on antioxidative defence system and lipid

peroxidation was observed in isoproterenol-induced mycocardial infractions in rats. The reason was explained that

fenugreek significantly decreased thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) in rats and enhanced the antioxidant

status (Murugesan et al., 2011).

Gastroprotective activity of coriander has been shown in case of gastric mucosal injuries caused by NaCl, NaOH,

ethanol, and indomethacin due to activities of antioxidative components (linanool, catechins, coumarins, terpines, and

polyphenolic compounds) present in it (Al-Mofleh et al., 2006).

A study was conducted to test effect of ajowain extract on hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) induced oxidative stress

and toxicity in rats. Pre-feeding of ajowain extract to rats enhanced the activity of antioxidative enzymes and showed

decrease in hepatic level of lipid peroxides. It was concluded that ajowain extract could reduce toxic and oxidative effects

of HCH (Anila et al., 2009).

Pradhan et al (2008) examined and reported the cytoprotection activity of methanolic extract of Foeniculum

vulgare and Helicteres isora against normal human blood lymphocytes. The culture of lymphocytes treated with 70%

methanolic extract of Foeniculum vulgare and 50% methanolic extract of Helicteres isora showed three times less

micronucleus as compared to widely used standard drug doxorubicin (Pradhan et al., 2008).

Biochemically it has been investigated that saffron have modulatory effects on some phase II detoxifying enzymes

(GST, GPx, CAT, and SOD) in mice which were induced by 7-12 dimethyl benzy[a]anthracin (DMBA) and promoted with

croton oil (Das et al., 2004). In another experiment use of black pepper expressed same kind of role to detoxify of enzymes

in rats fed a high fat diet (Vijayakumar et al., 2004).

Therapeutic role and antioxidative effects of curcumin was examined after oral administration of curcumin to rats

in exposed to mercury. Curcumin was found to have protective effect on lipid peroxidation, glutathion levels, superoxide

dismutase, glutathion peroxidase and catalase activities in the liver, kidney and brain (Agrawal et al., 2010). In a study, n-

hexane extract of curcumin showed cytotoxic and telomerase inhibitory effect on cell line A549 and could be appropriate

source for developing drugs against lung cancer (Mohammad et al., 2010).


The crude methanolic extracts and its fraction of Amomum subulatum and Elettaria cardamomum, viz. essential

oil, petroleum ether and ethyl acetate inhibited gastric lesions induced by ethanol, but not those that were induced by

pylorus ligation and aspirin (Jafri et al., 2001; Jamal et al., 2006).

Overall it can be concluded that on the basis of all reports that spices have crucial therapeutic properties and

antioxidant activity so it can be useful for food preservation and reduction of peroxidation in biological systems.

CONCLUSIONS

The increasing health consciousness has been one of the most important stimulation factors for spices production

and herbs products. Herein, sources of spices and herbs products have received much attention since a large number of

phytochemicals and bioactive components present in spices and herbs. Notably, phytochemicals present in spices and herbs

have been evidenced to play a vital role in human health and nutrition due to their numerous biological activities and health

benefit effects. Reactive oxygen species are continuously produced inside our body due to many endogenous and

exogenous factors. They can damage cellular biomolecules, resulting into several types of diseases. This becoming a

burning problem and it is necessary to find out alternatives to protect tissues and organs against oxidative damage induced

by free radicals. Many approaches were made in this direction and significant results have come in light. Traditional

spices, herbs and medicinal plants are rich sources of natural antioxidants. The antioxidant activity of spices and herbs may

help in inhibiting the lipid peroxidation. As several diseases and age related disorders are closely related to oxidative

process in the body so the use of spices and herbs in regular diet may be effective in reducing the risk of diseases. Spices

and herbs are rich with different types of chemical constituents and possess remarkable antioxidant activity. Antioxidant

activity is not restricted to particular part or in the specific families. The presence of curcumin in rhizome and monoterpine

hydrocarbon may inhibit the replication of DNA and disturb the bonding of DNA, which is thought to stop the formation

of cancerous tissues. All herbs and spices discussed in this review have clinical and medicinal activity with very less side

effects, but since they are ingested continuously in certain amount as part of diet, they may have a remarkable long-term

physiological effect. Therefore it is necessary to standardize the doses which are crucial in treatment for mankind.

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APPENDICES

Figure 1: Chemical Structures of Some Natural Antioxidants

Figure 2: Chemical Structures of Some Synthetic Antioxidants


Figure 3: Formulae of Antioxidative Compounds Isolated from Rosemary and

Sage (16-21), Thyme (22-24) and Oregano (25-29) (Yanishlieva et al., 2006)

Figure 4: Formulae of Antioxidative Compounds Isolated from Clove (30-32), Ginger (33-34)

and Black Pepper (35-39) (Yanishlieva et al., 2006; Mann, 2011)


Figure 5: Formulae of Antioxidative Compounds Isolated from Turmeric (Yanishlieva et al., 2006)

Table 1: A Brief Description of Common Spices and Herbs

Botanical Name Common/English Name Family Part Used Major Components of Essential Oil References

Acorus calamus Sweet flag Araceae Rhizome β-asarone, isocalamendol, sesquestrine ketones, α-asarone,

eugenol, monoterpine hydrocarbons Mazza, 1985

Alpinia galanga Greater galanga Zingiberaceae Rhizome 1,8-cineole, α-fenchyl acetate, camphor Jirovetz et al, 2003

Amomum

subulatum Large cardamom Zingiberaceae Fruit 1,8-cineole, limonene, monoterpene hydrocarbon Patra et al., 1982;

Pruthi, 1993

Anethum

graveolens Dill Apiaceae Fruit Carvone, limonene, α-phellandrene Ishikawa et al.,

2002

Apium graveolens Celery Apiaceae Arial parts α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene, γ-terpinene, allo-ocimene,

myrcene, senkyunolide Saleh et al., 1985

Carum carvy Caraway Apiaceae Fruit R-carvone, D-limonene, α-pinene, cis-carveol, β-myrcene Fang et al., 2010

Cinnamomum

tamala Tejpat Lauraceae Leaf

Eugenol, β-caryophyllene, aomadendrene, viridiflorene, δ-

cadinene, spathulenol, sesquiterpenoid Kapoor et al., 2009

Coriandrum

sativum Coriander Apiaceae Seed Linalool, cis-dihydrocavone, thymol

Msaada et al., 2007;

Pande et al., 2010

Crocus sativus Saffron Iridaceae Stigma Safranal, crocin, picrocin, crocetin Rios et al., 1996;

Abdullaev, 1993

Cuminum

cyminum Cumin Apiaceae Seed Cumin aldehyde, γ-terpinene , β-pinene

Iacobellis et al.,

2005

Curcuma longa Turmeric Zingiberaceae Rhizome ar-tumerone, α-tumerone, β-tumerone, (Z)-β-ocimene Awasthi and Dixit,

2009

Elettaria

cardamomum Cardamom Zingiberaceae Seeds 1,8-cineole, α-terpinyl Leela et al., 2008

Ferula asafoetida Asafoetida Apiaceae Oleo gum

resin

(Z)-1-propenyl sec-butyl disulfide, (E)-1-propenyl sec-butyl

disulfide, α-pinene Sadraei et al., 2003

Foeniculum

vulgare Fennel Apiaceae Fruits Trans anethole, fenchone, methyl chavicol Gulfraz et al., 2008

Murraya koenigii Curry leaves Rutaceae Leaf 3-carene, caryophyllene, β-myrcene Chowadhury et al.,

2008

Pimpinella

anisum Anise Apiaceae Fruit Trans-anethole, estragole Gulcin et al., 2003

Piper longum Long pepper Piperaceae Fruit β-caryophyllene, 3-carene, eugenol, D-limonene,

zingiberene, cubenol Liu et al., 2007

Piper nigrum Black pepper Piperaceae Fruit β-caryophyllene, 3-carene, D-limonene, β-pinene, α-pinene Liu et al., 2007

Syzigium

aromaticum Clove Myrtaceae Bud Eugenol, β-caryophyllene, eugenyl acetate Srivastava et al.,

2005

Trachyspermum

ammi Ajwain Apiaceae Seeds

p-cymene, γ-terpinenine, α-pinenes, β-pinenes, dipentene,

α-terpinene, terpinene-4-ol

Chopra, 1982;

Singh et al., 2004

Trigonella

foenum-graecum Fenugreek Fabaceae Seeds

Palmidrol, octanamide n-(2-hydroxyethyl), dioctyl

phthalate, d-limonene, 1-carvone, o-cymene, γ-terpinene Pande, 2011

Zingiber

officinale Ginger Zingiberaceae Rhizome

Zingiberene, β-sesquiphellendrene, α-curcumene, farnasene,

sesquiterpene alcohols Kizhakkayil and

Sasikumar, 2012

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