franklin d. roosevelt and the shadow of war,...
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Chapter33
FranklinD.RooseveltandtheShadowofWar,1933–1941
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I.TheLondonConference
• LondonEconomicConference1933:– Roosevelt'searlyforeignpolicysubordinatedtohisstrategyfordomesticeconomicrecovery:• Delegateshopedtocoordinateinternationalattackonglobaldepression– Bystabilizingvaluesofcurrenciesandrateofexchange– Exchange-ratestabilizationessentialtorevivalofworldtrade
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I.TheLondonConference(cont.)
– Rooseveltandconference:• Firstthoughtofsendingadelegation,includingSecretaryofStateCordellHullbutthenhadconcernsaboutconference'sagenda– WantedtopursueinflationarypoliciesathometostimulateAmericanrecovery
– Internationalagreementtomaintainvalueofdollarmighttiehishands
• FDRunwillingtosacrificepossibilityofdomesticrecoveryforsakeofinternationalcooperation
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I.TheLondonConference(cont.)
• FDRscoldedconferenceforattemptingtostabilizecurrency– EssentiallydeclaredAmerica'swithdrawalfromnegotiations
• Delegatesadjournedempty-handed,amidcriesofAmericanbadfaith• Roosevelt'sattitudeofevery-man-for-himselfplungedplanetevendeeperintoeconomiccrisis
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I.TheLondonConference(cont.)
• Conferencecollapsestrengthenedglobaltrendtowardextremenationalism• Madeinternationalcooperationevenmoredifficult• ReflectedpowerfulpersistenceofAmericanisolationism• Playedintohandsofdictatorsdeterminedtoshatterworldpeace• Americawouldpayhighpricefortryingtogoitaloneinmodernworld
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II.Freedomfor(from?)theFilipinosandRecognitionfortheRussians
– RooseveltmatchedisolationfromEuropewithwithdrawalfromAsia• GreatDepressionburstMcKinley'simperialisticdreaminFarEast• AmericanstaxpayerseagertorejectexpensiveliabilityofPhilippineIslands• Organizedlabordemandedexclusionoflow-wageFilipinoworkers• AmericansugarproducersclamoredforeliminationofPhilippinecompetition
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II.Freedomfor(from?)theFilipinosandRecognitionfortheRussians
– CongresspassedTydings-McDuffieAct1934:• ProvidedforindependenceofPhilippinesafter12-yearperiodofeconomicandpoliticaltutelage(1946)• UnitedStatesagreedtorelinquisharmybases• Navalbasesreservedforfuturediscussion—andretention• AmericansnotsomuchgivingfreedomtoPhilippinesasfreeingthemselvesfromthem• AmericansproposedtoleaveFilipinostotheirownfate• WhileimposinguponFilipinoseconomictermssoungenerousastothreatentheirfutureeconomy
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II.Freedomfor(from?)theFilipinosandRecognitionfortheRussians
• OnceagainAmericanisolationistsrejoiced• Rooseveltmadeoneinternationalistgesturewhen:
– HeformallyrecognizedSovietUnionin1933– Heextendeddiplomaticrecognitiondespite:
» Noisyprotestsofanti-communistconservatives» RomanCatholicsoffendedbyKremlin'santireligiouspolicies
– FDRmotivatedbytradewithSovietRussia– AndhopedtobolsterSovietRussiaascounterweighttoGermanyinEuropeandJapaninAsia
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III.BecomingaGoodNeighbor• RooseveltinauguratedrefreshingnewerainrelationswithLatinAmerica:– Proclaimedininauguraladdress“policyoftheGoodNeighbor”• SuggestedU.S.A.givingupambitiontobeworldpower• Wouldcontentitselfwithbeingregionalpower• InterestsandactivitiesconfinedtoWesternHemisphere• FDReagertolineupLatinAmericanstohelpdefendWesternHemisphere
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III.BecomingaGoodNeighbor(cont.)
– FDRrenouncedarmedintervention—especiallyRooseveltCorollarytoMonroeDoctrine
– In1933,at7thPan-AmericanConference,U.S.delegationformallyendorsednonintervention
– MarinesleftHaitiin1934– AfterFulgencioBatistacametopowerinCuba,CubansreleasedfromPlattAmendment—
– UnderwhichAmericahadbeenfreetointervene– U.S.A.retainedGuantanamonavalbase(seeChap.27)
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III.BecomingaGoodNeighbor(cont.)
– Panamareceivedsimilarupliftin1936:• WhenU.S.A.relaxedgriponisthmusnation
– GoodNeighborpolicy:• Accentonconsultationandnonintervention• ReceivedacidtestinMexico:
– MexicangovernmentseizedYankeeoilpropertiesin1934– Americaninvestorsdemandedarmedinterventiontorepossessconfiscatedbusinesses
– Rooseveltresistedbadgeringandsettlementmadein1941
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III.BecomingaGoodNeighbor(cont.)
• SuccessofRoosevelt'sGoodNeighborpolicy:– PaiddividendsingoodwillamongLatinAmericans– NootherU.S.citizenhasbeenheldinsuchhighregardasFDRinLatinAmerica
– ColossusofNorthnowseemedlessavultureandmoreaneagle
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IV.SecretaryHull'sReciprocalTradeAgreements
– ChiefarchitectSecretaryofStateHullbelieved:• Tradeatwo-waystreet• Anationcanonlysellabroadasitbuysabroad• Tariffbarrierschokeoffforeigntrade• Tradewarsbegetshootingwars
– ReciprocalTradeAgreementAct1934:• DesignedtoliftU.S.exporttradehurtbydepression• Aimedatbothreliefandrecovery• Activatedlow-tariffpoliciesofNewDealers(seetariffchartinAppendix)
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IV.SecretaryHull'sReciprocalTradeAgreements(cont.)
– Avoideddangersofwholesaletariffrevision:• WhittleddownmostobjectionableschedulesofHawley-Smootlawbyamendingthem:– Empoweredpresidenttolowerexistingratebyasmuchas50%inagreementswithothercountrieswillingtorespondwithsimilarreductions
– AgreementseffectivewithoutformalapprovalofSenate– Ensuredspeedieractionandsidesteppedtwinevilsofhigh-stakeslogrollingandhigh-pressurelobbyinginCongress
• Hullsuccessfullynegotiatedpactswith21countriesbyendof1939• U.S.foreigntradeincreasedappreciably
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IV.SecretaryHull'sReciprocalTradeAgreements(cont.)
– TradeagreementsimprovedeconomicandpoliticalrelationswithLatinAmerica
– Provedtobeinfluenceforpeaceinwar-bentworld
– ReciprocalTradeAgreementsAct:• Landmarkpieceoflegislation• Reversedhigh-protective-tariffpolicythathadexistedunbrokensinceCivilWar– HadsodamagedAmericanandinternationaleconomiesfollowingWorldWarI
• PavedwayforAmerican-ledfree-tradeinternationaleconomicsystemthattookshapeafterWWII
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V.Storm-CellarIsolationism
• Spreadoftotalitarianism:– Individualisnothing;stateiseverything– CommunistUSSRledway:• RuthlessJosephStalinemergedasdictator• In1936hebegantopurgeUSSRofallsuspecteddissidents:– Executedhundredsofthousands– BanishedmillionstoremoteSiberianforced-laborcamps
– BenitoMussolini,aFascist,seizedpowerinItalyin1922
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V.Storm-CellarIsolationism(cont.)
– AdolfHitler,afanaticwhoplottedandharanguedhiswaytocontrolofGermanyin1933• Mostdangerousdictatorbecausehecombinedtremendouspowerwithimpulsiveness• SecuredcontrolofNazipartybymakingpoliticalcapitalofTreatyofVersaillesandGermany'sdepression-spawnedunemployment• WithdrewGermanyfromLeagueofNationsin1933• Beganclandestinely(andillegally)rearming• 1936:HitlerandMussolinialliedthemselvesinRome-BerlinAxis
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V.Storm-CellarIsolationism(cont.)
• InternationalgangsterismalsospreadinFarEast:– ImperialJapan,likeGermanyandItaly
» Aso-calledhave-notpower» ResentedungenerousTreatyofVersailles» Demandedadditionalspaceforitsteemingmillions,cooped-upincrowdedislandnation
– Japanesenavalistsnottobedenied:» Gavenoticein1934ofterminationof12-year-oldWashingtonNavalTreaty
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V.Storm-CellarIsolationism(cont.)
– In1935inLondon,Japantorpedoedallhopeofeffectivenavaldisarmament• Whendeniedcompleteparity,theywalkedoutofmultipowerconference• Andacceleratedconstructionofgiantbattleships• 1935:JapanquitLeagueofNations• FiveyearslaterjoinedarmswithGermanyandItalyinTripartitePact
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V.Storm-CellarIsolationism(cont.)
– MussolinibrutallyattackedEthiopiain1935• Bravedefendersspeedilycrushed• LeaguecouldhavecrushedMussoliniwithoilembargobutrefusedtodoso
– IsolationisminAmericaboostedbyalarmsfromabroad:• Americabelievedencirclingseagaveherimmunity• ContinuedtosufferdisillusionmentfromparticipationinWWI• Nursedbittermemoriesaboutdebtors
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V.Storm-CellarIsolationism(cont.)
• CongresspassedJohnsonDebtDefaultAct(1934):– Preventeddebt-dodgingnationsfromborrowingfurtherinUnitedStates• Ifattacked,delinquentscould“stewintheirownjuices”
• MireddownbyGreatDepression,Americanshadnorealappreciationofrevolutionaryforcesbeingharnessedbydictators
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V.Storm-CellarIsolationism(cont.)
• Have-notpowersouttobecome“have”powers• Americansfearedbeingdrawnintototalitarianaggression• CalledforconstitutionamendmenttoforbiddeclarationofwarbyCongress—exceptincaseofinvasion—unlesstherewasfavorablepopularreferendum• PrincetonUniversitystudentsagitatedin1936forbonustobepaidtoVeteransofFutureWars(VFW)whileprospectivefrontlinersstillalive
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VI.CongressLegislatesNeutrality
– SenatorGeraldNyeofNorthDakotaappointedin1934toinvestigate“bloodbusiness”• SenatorialproberstendedtoshiftblameawayfromGermansubmarinesontoAmericanbankersandarmsmanufactures– Becausetheymademoney,illogicalconclusionwasthattheyhadcausedwartomakemoney
– Congressmadehastetolegislatenationoutofwar:
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VI.CongressLegislatesNeutrality(cont.)
• NeutralityActsof1935,1936,and1937:– Stipulatedthatwhenthepresidentproclaimedexistenceofforeignwar• Certainrestrictionsautomaticallygointoeffect• NoAmericancouldlegallysailonabelligerentship• Sellortransportmunitionstoabelligerent• Ormakeloanstoabelligerent
– Legislationabandonedtraditionalpolicyoffreedomofseas
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VI.CongressLegislatesNeutrality(cont.)
• SpecificallytailoredtokeepUnitedStatesoutofconflictlikeWorldWarI• Storm-cellarneutralityprovedtobetragicallyshortsighted:– FalselyassumeddecisionforpeaceorwarlayinU.S.hands– Prisonersofitsownfears,U.S.A.failedtorecognizeitmighthaveuseditsenormouspowertoshapeinternationalevents
– Instead,itremainedatmercyofeventscontrolledbydictators• Statutoryneutralityofdubiousmorality
– Americawouldmakenodistinctionsbetweenbrutalaggressorsorinnocentvictims
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VI.CongressLegislatesNeutrality(cont.)
– Americaactuallyhelpedencourageaggressorsalongtheirblood-spatteredpathofconquest• Bydecliningtouseindustrialstrengthto
– Aiddemocraticfriends– Anddefeattotalitarianfoes
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VII.AmericaDoomsLoyalistSpain
• SpanishCivilWarof1936-1939– Painfullessoninfollyofneutrality-by-legislation– GeneralFranciscoFranco:• FascistaidedbyfellowconspiratorsHitlerandMussolini• FrancosoughttotopplerepublicanLoyalistregime• LoyalistsgotsomeassistancefromSovietUnion• AmericanRomanCatholicsopposedLoyalistregime
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VII.AmericaDoomsLoyalistSpain (cont.)
• AbrahamLincolnBrigade:– 3,000headedtoSpaintofightasvolunteers–WashingtoncontinuedofficialrelationswithLoyalistgovernment
– ExistingneutralitylegislationchangedtoapplyarmsembargotobothLoyalistsandrebels
– RooseveltdidnothingwhileFrancoabundantlysuppliedbyfellowdictators
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VII.AmericaDoomsLoyalistSpain (cont.)
– Democraciessodeterminedtostayoutofwartheyhelpedcondemnfellowdemocracytodeath• Insodoing,theyencourageddictatorstowardfurtheraggression• Suchpeace-at-any-price-ismcursedwithillogic• Americadeclinedtobuildarmedforcestowhereitcoulddeteraggressors• Allowednavytodeclineinrelativestrength• WhenRooseveltrepeatedlycalledforpreparedness,hewasbrandedawarmonger
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VII.AmericaDoomsLoyalistSpain (cont.)
• Nottill1938wouldCongresspassbillion-dollarnavalconstructionact– Calamitousstoryrepeated:toolittle,toolate
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VIII.AppeasingJapanandGermany
• 1937Japanesemilitariststouchedoffexplosionthatledtoall-outinvasionofChina
• RooseveltdeclinedtoinvokeneutralitylawsbyrefusingtocallChinaincidentanofficiallydeclaredwar– DidnotwanttocutofftrickleofmunitionsonwhichChinesedepended
– WhileJapanesecouldcontinuetobuywarsuppliesinUnitedStates
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VIII.AppeasingJapanandGermany(cont.)
• QuarantineSpeechbyRooseveltinChicago,autumnof1937:– Calledfor“positiveendeavors”to“quarantine”aggressors—presumablybyeconomicembargoes
– Isolationistsfearedamoralquarantinewouldleadtoashootingquarantine
– Rooseveltretreatedandsoughtlessdirectmeanstocurbdictators
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VIII.AppeasingJapanandGermany(cont.)
• America'sisolationistmoodintensified:– December1937JapanesebombedandsankAmericangunboatPanay:• Twokilledandthirtywounded• Tokyomadenecessaryapologiesandpaidproperindemnity—Americansbreathedsighofrelief
– HitlergrewlouderandbolderinEurope:• OpenlyfloutedTreatyofVersaillesbyintroducingcompulsorymilitaryserviceinGermany• 1935hesenttroopsintodemilitarizedGermanRhineland
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VIII.AppeasingJapanandGermany(cont.)
• March1938,HitlerbloodlesslyoccupiedGerman-speakingAustria• ThendemandedGerman-inhabitedSudetenlandofneighboringCzechoslovakia• Roosevelt'smessagestobothHitlerandMussoliniurgedpeacefulsettlement• ConferenceheldinMunich,Germany(Sept.1938)
– WesternEuropeandemocracies,badlyunpreparedforwar,betrayedCzechoslovakiatoGermanybyshearingoffSudetenland
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VIII.AppeasingJapanandGermany(cont.)
• Appeasementofdictators:– SymbolizedbyuglywordMunich– Surrenderoninstallmentplan– InMarch1939,scarcelysixmonthslater:• HitlererasedrestofCzechoslovakiafrommap• Contrarytohissolemnvows
– Democraticworldstunned
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IX.Hitler'sBelligerencyandU.S.Neutrality
• Stalin,sphinxofKremlin,keytopeacepuzzle:– OnAugust23,1939,astoundedworldbysigningnonaggressiontreatywithGermandictator
– NotoriousHitler-Stalinpact:• GaveHitlergreenlighttomakewarwithPolandandWesterndemocracies• StalinplottedtoturnGermanaccompliceagainstWesterndemocracies
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IX.Hitler'sBelligerencyandU.S.Neutrality(cont.)
• Withsigningofpact,WorldWarIIonlyhoursaway• HitlerdemandedPolandreturnlandshegainedfromGermanyafterWWI– HitlerattackedPolandonSept.1,1939
• BritainandFrance,honoringcommitmentstoPoland,declaredwar– AtlonglasttheyperceivedfollyofcontinuedappeasementbuttheywerepowerlesstoaidPoland
• WorldWarIInowfullylaunched,andlongtruceof1919-1939atend
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IX.Hitler'sBelligerencyandU.S.Neutrality(cont.)
• Rooseveltissuedroutineproclamationofneutrality• Americansoverwhelminglyanti-Naziandanti-Hitler
– Ferventlyhopeddemocracieswouldwin– Fondlybelievedforcesofrighteousnesswouldtriumph,asin1918
– Determinedtostayout;notgoingtobe“suckers”again– NeutralitypromptlybecameheatedissueinU.S.– BritainandFranceurgentlyneededAmericanplanesandweapons
– NeutralityActof1937raisedforbiddinghand
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IX.Hitler'sBelligerencyandU.S.Neutrality(cont.)
• NeutralityActof1939:– EuropeandemocraciesmightbuyU.S.warmaterialsbutonlyon“cash-and-carrybasis”• Wouldhavetotransportmunitionsintheirownships,afterpayingforthemincash• Americawouldavoidloans,wardebts,andtorpedoingofAmericanarms-carriers• RooseveltauthorizedtoproclaimdangerzonesintowhichU.S.merchantshipsforbiddentoenter
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IX.Hitler'sBelligerencyandU.S.Neutrality(cont.)
– UnneutralneutralitylawhurtChina,whichwaseffectivelyblockadedbyImperialJapaneseNavy
– ClearlyfavoredEuropeandemocraciesagainstdictators• UnitedStatesnotonlyimproveditsmoralpositionbutalsohelpeditseconomicposition• Overseasdemandforwargoodsbroughtsharpupswingfromrecessionof1937-1938• Ultimatelysolveddecade-longunemploymentcrisis(seeFigure32.4)
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X.TheFallofFrance• “Phonywar”—periodfollowingcollapseofPoland
• SilencefellonEurope• HitlershifteddivisionsfromPolandforknockoutblowatFrance• SovietspreparedtoattackFinland• Finlandgranted$30millionbyisolationistCongressfornonmilitarysupplies• FinlandflattenedbySovietsteamroller• Abruptendto“phonywar”inApril1940whenHitleroverranDenmarkandNorway
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X.TheFallofFrance(cont.)
• HitlerthantookNetherlandsandBelgium,followedbyparalyzingblowatFrance• BylateJune,Franceforcedtosurrender• CrisisbroughtforthinspiredleaderinPrimeMinisterWinstonChurchill– Nervedhispeopletofightofffearfulairbombingsoftheircities
• France'ssuddencollapseshockedAmericansoutofdaydreams• PossibledeathofBritain,aconstitutionalgovernment,steeledAmericanpeopletotremendouseffort
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X.TheFallofFrance(cont.)
• Roosevelt'smoves:– Calleduponalreadydebt-burdenednationtobuildhugeairfleetsandtwo-oceannavy,whichcouldcheckJapan
– Congressappropriated$37billion:• FiguremorethantotalcostofWorldWarI• AboutfivetimeslargerthananyNewDealannualbudget
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X.TheFallofFrance(cont.)
• CongresspassedconscriptionlawonSept.6,1940– America'sfirstpeacetimedraft:
» Providedfortrainingeachyear1.2milliontroopsand800,000reserves
– Actlateradaptedtorequirementsofglobalwar• HavanaConferenceof1940:
– UnitedStatesagreedtosharewithtwentyNewWorldneighborsresponsibilityofupholdingMonroeDoctrine
– Nowmultilateral,itwouldtobewieldedbytwenty-onepairsofhands—atleastintheory
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XI.RefugeesfromtheHolocaust• JewishcommunitiesinEasternEurope:
• Frequentvictimsofpogroms,mobattacksapprovedorcondonedbylocalauthorities• November9,1938,instigatedbyspeechfromNaziJosephGoebbels:– MobsransackedmorethanseventhousandJewishshopsandalmostallsynagoguesinGermany
– Ninety-oneJewskilled– About30,000senttoconcentrationcampsinwakeofKristallnacht,“nightofbrokenglass”
– St.LouisleftGermanyin1939with937passengers,almostallJewishrefugees,wenttoCuba,Miami,Canada» HadtoreturntoEurope,wheremanykilledbyNazis
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XI.RefugeesfromtheHolocaust(cont.)
• WarRefugeeBoard:– CreatedbyRooseveltin1942– SavedthousandsofHungarianJewsfromdeportationtodeathcampatAuschwitz
– Only150,000Jews,mostlyGermansandAustrians,foundrefugeinUnitedStates
– Byendofwar,6millionJewshadbeenmurderedinHolocaust
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XII.BolsteringBritain• Britaininwar:– August1940,HitlerlaunchedairattacksonBritain,toprepareforSeptemberinvasion
– BattleofBritainragedformonthsinair– RoyalAirForce'stenaciousdefenseeventuallyledHitlertopostponeplannedinvasionindefinitely
• DebateintensifiedinUnitedStatesoverwhatforeignpolicytoembrace
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XII.BolsteringBritain (cont.)
• RadiobuiltsympathyforBritish,butnotenoughtopushUnitedStatesintowar• Rooseveltfacedhistoricdecision:
– HunkerdowninWesternHemisphere,assume“FortressAmerica”defensiveposture» Letrestofworldgoitalone
– OrbolsterbeleagueredBritainbyallmeansshortofwaritself– Bothpositionshadadvocates
• SupportersofaidtoBritainformedpropagandagroups:– Mostpotentone—CommitteetoDefendAmericabyAidingtheAllies
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XII.BolsteringBritain (cont.)
• Argumentdouble-barreled:– Tointerventionists—appealedfordirectsuccortoBritishbysuchslogansas“BritainIsFightingOurFight”
– Toisolationists—appealedforassistancetodemocraciesby“AllMethodsShortofWar,”soconflictwouldbekepttofarawayEurope
• Isolationists,bothnumerousandsincere,veryvocal– OrganizedAmericaFirstCommittee– ContendedAmericansshouldconcentratestrengthtodefendtheirownshores
– Basicphilosophy:“TheYanksAreNotComing”– MosteffectivespeechmakerwasCharlesA.Lindbergh
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XII.BolsteringBritain (cont.)
– Britain:• IncriticalneedofdestroyersbecauseofGermansubs• OnSeptember2,1940,RooseveltagreedtotransfertoGreatBritainfiftyWWIdestroyers• Inreturn,BritishhandedovertoU.S.A.eightvaluablebasesites,stretchingfromNetherlandtoSouthAmerica– ToremainunderStarsandStripesfor99years
• Agreementlegallyquestionablesinceitwasapresidentialagreement,notpassedbyCongress• Anun-neutralact,butpublic-opinionpollsdemonstratedmajoritysupported“allaidshortofwar”toEngland
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XIII.ShatteringtheTwo-TermTradition
• Distractingpresidentialelection• Republicans:– SenatorRobertA.TaftofOhio– LawyerThomasE.DeweyofNewYork– Latecomer:WendellL.WillkieofIndiana– AtPhiladelphiaconvention,Willkiechosen– PlatformcondemnedFDR'sallegeddictatorshipandcostlyandconfusingzigzagsofNewDeal
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XIII.ShatteringtheTwo-TermTradition(cont.)
• Democrats:– DemocratsinChicagodecidedthird-termerbetterthan“Third-Rater”
–WillkieagreedwithFDRonnecessitytobolsterbeleaguereddemocracies
– Inforeignpolicy:• Bothpromisedtostayoutofwar• Bothpromisedtostrengthennation'sdefenses• WillkiehithardatRooseveltian“dictatorship”andthirdterm
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XIII.ShatteringtheTwo-termTradition(cont.)
– Roosevelt,busyinWhiteHouse,madefewspeeches• Promisednomenwouldbe“sentintoforeignwars;”thislatercamebacktoplaguehim
– HeandsupportersdefendedNewDealandall-outpreparationsfordefenseofAmericaandaidtoAllies
• Thecount:– Roosevelttriumphed,althoughWillkieranstrongrace
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XIII.ShatteringtheTwo-termTradition(cont.)
– Populartotal27,307,819to22,321,018andelectoralcount449to82(seeMap33.1)
– Contestlessawalkawaythanin1932and1936– DemocraticmajoritiesinCongressremainedaboutsame
– Democratshailedtriumphasmandatetoabolishtwo-termtradition• Votersfeltthatshouldwarcome,experiencedleaderneededathelm
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Map 33-1 p782
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XIV.ALandmarkLend-LeaseLaw
• Lendingandleasingpolicy:– SchemeofRoosevelttoprovidearmstodemocraciesrunningoutofmoney
– Lend-LeaseBill,patrioticallynumbered1776,entitled“AnActFurthertoPromotetheDefenseoftheUnitedStates”:• Praisedbyadministrationasdevicethatwouldkeepnationoutofwarratherthandragitin• Underlyingconceptwas“Sendguns,notsons”or“Billions,notbodies”
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XIV.ALandmarkLend-LeaseLaw(cont.)
• America,Rooseveltpromised,wouldbe“arsenalofdemocracy”• Sendlimitlesssupplyofarmstovictimsofaggression:
– Whointurnwouldfinishjob– AndkeepwarontheirsideofAtlantic– AccountssettledbyreturningusedweaponsorequivalentstoUnitedStateswhenwarended
• DebatedinCongress,withoppositioncomingfromisolationistsandanti-RooseveltRepublicans:– Schemeassailedas“blank-checkbill”– NeverthelessbillapprovedinMarch1941bysweepingmajoritiesinbothhousesofCongress
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XIV.ALandmarkLend-LeaseLaw(cont.)
• Lend-leaseoneofmostmomentouslawsevertopassCongress:
• ChallengehurleddirectlyatAxisdictators• AmericapledgedtobolsternationsindirectlydefendingU.S.A.byfightingaggression• By1945,Americanshadsentabout$50billionworthofarmsandequipmenttonationsfightingaggressors(seeMap33.2)• Passingoflend-lease,aneconomicdeclarationofwar• Ashootingdeclarationcouldnotbeveryfararoundcorner
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Map 33-2 p783
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XIV.ALandmarkLend-LeaseLaw(cont.)
• Abandonedanypretenseofneutrality• NodestroyerdealarrangedprivatelybyRoosevelt• Billuniversallydebated• MostAmericanspreparedtotakechanceratherthanseeBritaincollapseandthenfacedictatorsalone
– Resultsoflend-lease:• GearedU.S.factoriesforall-outwarproduction• EnormouslyincreasedcapacitythatsavedAmericawhenshootingwarstarted
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XIV.ALandmarkLend-LeaseLaw(cont.)
• Hitlerrecognizedlend-leaseasunofficialdeclarationofwar– Untilthen,GermanyavoidedattackingU.S.ships– Afterlend-lease,littlepointintryingtocurryfavorwithUnitedStates
– OnMay21,1941,RobinMoor,unarmedAmericanmerchantman,torpedoedanddestroyedbyGermansubmarine
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XV.ChartingaNewWorld
• TwoglobaleventsmarkedcourseofWorldWarII:– FallofFranceinJune1940– Hitler'sinvasionofSovietUnion,June1941• StalinbalkedatGermancontrolofBalkans• Hitlerdecidedtocrushcoconspirator,seizeoilandotherresourcesofSovietUnion• OnJune22,HitlerlauncheddevastatingattackonSovietneighbor
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p784
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XV.ChartingaNewWorld (cont.)
– SoundAmericanstrategydictatedspeedyaidtoMoscow
– Rooseveltmadesomemilitarysuppliesavailable– Extended$1billioninlend-leasetoSovietUnion—firstinstallmentonultimatetotalof$11billion• RussianvalorandRussianwinterhaltedHitler'sinvasion
• AtlanticConference(August1941):– MeetingofChurchillandRooseveltonwarshipoffcoastofNewfoundland
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XV.ChartingaNewWorld (cont.)
– History-makingconferencetodiscusscommonproblems,includingmenaceofJapan
– AtlanticCharter;eightpointcharter:• FormerlyacceptedbyChurchillandRoosevelt,laterbySovietUnion• Outlinedaspirationsforbetterworldatwar'send• Arguedforrightsofindividualsratherthannations• Laidgroundworkforlateradvocacyonbehalfofuniversalhumanrights
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XV.ChartingaNewWorld (cont.)
• Opposedimperialisticannexations:– Noterritorialchangescontrarytowishesofthepeople(self-determination)
• Affirmedrightofpeopletochoosetheirownformofgovernment:– Inparticular,toregaingovernmentsabolishedbydictators
• Charterdeclaredfordisarmament• Andapeaceofsecurity:
– Pending“permanentsystemofgeneralsecurity,”newLeagueofNations
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XV.ChartingaNewWorld (cont.)
• Worldviews:– LiberalstookheartfromAtlanticCharter:• AstheyhadtakenheartfromWilson'sFourteenPoints• Especiallygratifyingtosubjectpopulations:
– LikePolesunderironheelofaconqueror• CondemnedinUnitedStatesbyisolationistsandothershostiletoRoosevelt– Whatrighthad“neutral”AmericatoconferwithbelligerentBritishoncommonpolicies?
– Suchcriticsmissedpoint:U.S.A.nolongerneutral
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XVI.U.S.DestroyersandHitler'sU-boatsClash
• Lend-leaseshipmentsofarmstoBritain:– FreightersneededtobeescortedbyU.S.warships• Britaindidnothaveenoughdestroyers• RooseveltmadefatefuldecisioninJuly1941
– Ascommanderinchief,issuedorderstonavytoescortlend-leaseshipmentsasfarasIceland
– Britishwouldthenshepherdthemrestoftheway– September1941,U.S.destroyerGreerattackedbyGermansubithadbeentrailing,withoutdamagetoeither
– Rooseveltproclaimedshoot-on-sightpolicy
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XVI.U.S.DestroyersandHitler'sU-boatsClash(cont.)
• October17escortingdestroyerKearny– EngagedinbattlewithU-boats– Lost11whenitwascrippled,butnotsunk
• TwoweekslaterdestroyerReubenJames:– TorpedoedandsunkoffsouthwesternIceland– Lossofmorethanahundredofficersandenlistedmen
• Neutralitystillonbooks,butnotinAmericanhearts:– Congressvotedinmid-November1941topullteethfromnow-uselessNeutralityActof1939byallowingarmingofmerchantships
– AmericansbracedthemselvesforwholesaleattacksbyHitler'ssubmarines
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XVII.SurpriseAssaultonPearlHarbor
– Japan,sinceSeptember1940,hadbeenformalmilitaryallyofNaziGermany:
– America'sshootingfoeinNorthAtlantic– Japanmireddownincostlyandexhausting“Chinaincident”
• JapanandAmericanrelations:– Japanfatallydependentonimmenseshipmentsofsteel,scrapiron,oil,andaviationgasolinefromU.S.A.
– SuchassistancetoJapaneseaggressorhighlyunpopularinAmerica
– Washington,latein1940,imposedfirstembargoonJapan-boundsupplies
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XVII.SurpriseAssaultonPearlHarbor(cont.)
– Mid-1941,UnitedStatesfrozeJapan'sassetsinUnitedStates– Imposedcessationofallshipmentsofgasolineandothersinewsofwar
– Asoilgaugedropped,squeezeonJapangrewsteadilymorenerve-racking
• Japan'sleadersfacedtwoalternatives:– EitherknuckleundertoAmerica– OrbreakoutofembargoringbydesperateattackonoilsuppliesandotherrichesofSoutheastAsia
• TensenegotiationswithJapantookplaceinWashingtonduringNovemberandearlyDecember1941
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XVII.SurpriseAssaultonPearlHarbor(cont.)
– StateDepartmentinsistedJapanleaveChina» OfferedJapannewtraderelationsonlimitedbasis
– Japan'simperialistsunwillingtolosefacebywithdrawal– Facedwithcapitulationorcontinuedconquest,theychosesword
– WashingtonhadcrackedcodeandlearnedTokyo'sdecisionforwar
– NooneinhighauthorityinWashingtonbelievedJapaneseeitherstrongenoughorfoolhardyenoughtostrikeHawaii
• StruckPearlHarborwhileTokyodeliberatelyprolongednegotiationsinWashington
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XVII.SurpriseAssaultonPearlHarbor(cont.)
• December7,1941,“BlackSunday,”JapanesebombersattackedPearlHarborwithoutwarning• Adate“whichwillliveininfamy,”RoosevelttoldCongress• About3,000casualtiesinflictedonAmericanpersonnel• Manyaircraftdestroyed• Battleshipfleetvirtuallywipedoutwheneightweresunk• Numeroussmallvesselsdamagedordestroyed• FortunatelyforAmerica,threeaircraftcarriersnotinharbor
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XVI.SurpriseAssaultonPearlHarbor(cont.)
– AngeredCongressnextdayofficiallyrecognizedwarhadbeen“thrust”onU.S.A.• SenateandHouserollcallonevoteshortofunanimity• GermanyandItaly,alliesofJapan,sparedCongressfurtherdebatebydeclaringwaronDec.11,1941• ChallengeformallyacceptedbyunanimousvoteofbothSenateandHouseonsameday• Unofficialwar,alreadyofmanymonths'duration,nowofficial
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XVIII.America'sTransformationfromBystandertoBelligerent
• Japan'shara-kirigambleinHawaiipaidoffonlyinshortrun:– Toverydayofattack,strongmajorityofAmericanswantedtokeepoutofwar• BombsonPearlHarborblastedisolationistsintosilence
– PearlHarbornotfullanswertoquestionwhyUnitedStateswenttowar:• Attacklastexplosioninlongchainreaction
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XVIII.America'sTransformationfromBystandertoBelligerent
– FollowingfallofFrance• Americansconfrontedwithdilemma:
– Desiredabovealltostayoutofconflict,– Yet,theydidnotwantBritaintobeknockedout
• TheywishedtohaltJapan'sconquestsinFarEast:– ConquestsmenacednotonlyAmericantradeandsecuritybutinternationalpeaceaswell
• TokeepBritainfromcollapsing:– RooseveltfeltcompelledtoextendunneutralaidthatinvitedattacksfromGermansubmarines
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XVIII.America'sTransformationfromBystandertoBelligerent
• TokeepJapanfromexpanding:– WashingtonundertooktocutoffvitalJapanesesupplieswithembargoesthatinvitedpossibleretaliation
– Ratherthanletdemocracydieanddictatorshiprulesupreme,mostcitizensevidentlydeterminedtosupportapolicythatmightleadtowar
– Itdid
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