frank ghery tapestry essay final with appendices 181111 1551
TRANSCRIPT
Tapestry and Architecture:
The Historical Context of the Eisenhower Memorial
Jonathan Warner
The Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Commission
August 10, 2011
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Introduction
Frank Gehry’s proposed design for the Eisenhower Memorial innovatively combines a
“tapestry,” woven of stainless steel, with an outdoor colonnade. There is nothing quite like it
anywhere in Washington or even the world. While this design may seem too experimental for a
presidential memorial, it is actually quite fitting for Eisenhower, a man of great depth and
complexity. Ike was the last president born in the 19th century, yet he was a modern man,
receptive to change and open to new ideas. He was a Kansan who left his home to serve his
country. He was a General who hated battle. Few men knew war better than he, and fewer did
more to prevent it. Gehry’s use of tapestry and architecture expresses the subtle nuances of
Eisenhower – the boy, the soldier, and the statesman. In fact, the history of tapestry, as well as
colonnaded spaces, reveals that Gehry’s design is uniquely appropriate for Ike.
Tapestry
The word tapestry comes to us from Ancient Greek, transmitted through Latin and then
French.1 In its most basic, technical definition, it involves the weaving of weft threads through
perpendicular warp threads in an “over-one, under-one sequence.”2 Separate weft threads of
different colors are woven independently of one another, starting and stopping periodically, to
form images. Often this is done using a “paint-by-number” method; different colors are assigned
to different parts of the figure, first drawn on the “cartoon,” which comes to life through
weaving.3
In its execution, Gehry’s design may not fit the exact technical definition of tapestry – its
images are not formed by multicolored wefts on perpendicular warps – but historically the word
has encompassed a broad range of subjects. For instance, the Bayeux Tapestry is no tapestry at
all but an embroidery, stitching done on a previously woven fabric.4 “Ressaut,” the wandering of
1 ταπης ταπητιον tapetium tapiz tapisser tapisserie tapissery tapestry; Francis Paul Thomson, Tapestry: Mirror of History (New York: Crown Publishers, Inc.), 11. 2 Harvey, Tapestry Weaving: A Comprehensive Study Guide (Loveland, Colorado: Interweave Press, 1991), 8; see appendix A, figure 1. 3 Ibid., 32-33. 4 John D. Anderson, “The Bayeux Tapestry: A 900-Year-Old Latin Cartoon,” The Classical Journal 81.3 (Feb. – Mar., 1986): 253.
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wefts from the perpendicular pattern, has defied the limits on tapestry from as early as the second
century A.D.5 More recently, the popular definition of tapestry has broadened, and new
questions have arisen about the limits of the craft.6 This year, one landscaper created several “6-
by-24-foot floral tapestry panels…using a plant-by-the numbers system.”7 This use of
landscaping has no direct connection to tapestry, except maybe in terms of function and the use
of color, yet it is dubbed “tapestry.” The definition of tapestry is so flexible that in the 19th
century it took on the meaning, still used, of “an intricate or complex combination of things or
sequence of events.”8 Rather than seek to preserve an orthodox definition of tapestry, the
Eisenhower Memorial’s designer considered the unique requirements of the memorial, as well as
historical precedent, and created an exceptionally appropriate design.
Timelessness
One chief concern for a presidential memorial is preservation. It must be built to endure
and to remain relevant for centuries. For this task, tapestry is appropriate; it has persisted as an
art-form for thousands of years, “especially closely bound up with the life of every time.”9
Weaving itself dates to prehistory. Some have postulated that early man, inspired by intertwined
weeds, fastened together grasses to fashion materials for use. One such woven basket found in
Egypt is over 7,000 years old.10 The earliest example of a woven textile was found in
Switzerland and dates to about 12,000 BC.11 The characteristics of tapestry production –
weaving perpendicular warp and weft threads of different colors to form images – are first seen
in Egyptian wall paintings and hieroglyphics from 3,000 BC.12 This sort of textile had obvious
advantages over animal skins and other types of cloth. It does not smell, when used as a
covering or wall hanging its density prevents draughts, and, depending on conditions, it can have
a longer lifespan than other forms of art, such as painting. In fact, the oldest surviving tapestry-
5 Thomson, Tapestry, 41. 6 Ibid., 9. 7 Dean Fosdick, “‘Living walls’ great backdrops for floral tapestry,” accessed August 3, 2011, http://www.timesunion.com/living/article/Living-walls-great-backdrops-for-floral-tapestry-1682116.php. 8 Oxford Dictionaries, “Tapestry,” accessed July 19, 2011, http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/tapestry?region=us. 9 Phyllis Ackerman, Tapestry: The Mirror of Civilization (New York: AMS Press, 1970), v. 10 Thomson, Tapestry, 27. 11 Ibid., 29. 12 Ibid., 25; see appendix A, figure 2.
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weavings were found in Egypt, in the tomb of Tuthmosis IV.13 These linen textile scraps, over
3,500 years old, are thought to have been used as ceremonial garments or as furniture
coverings.14 Greek vases and Roman wall paintings, as well as the remains of Coptic textiles,
show that tapestries continued to be produced in the Mediterranean through antiquity and into the
medieval period.
Besides material culture, classical literary sources provide ample evidence of the
significance of weaving to ancient culture and society. Weaving figures prominently in Homer’s
Odyssey; Penelope famously delays her work at the loom to thwart her vile suitors.15 In Greek
myth, Arachne competes with Athena in a weaving competition, only to be turned into a spider,
nature’s spinner of thread.16 Again, in Roman legend, Livy has Lucretia, a paragon of female
virtue, dutifully weave even as the other men and women gorge themselves with wine.17 In the
Judeo-Christian tradition, tapestries also are important. The original tabernacle was to be made
of costly textiles, and, according to the New Testament, this was “a copy and shadow of what is
in heaven.”18 In the temple, a linen veil partitioned the holy of holies, a cloth which is torn in the
Synoptic Gospels.19
As can be seen, weaving and tapestry has had a lasting effect upon western culture. For
thousands of years, tapestries have been used as a way to decorate, to depict scenes, and to tell
stories. This historic longevity is complemented by the excellent preservation of tapestry. In the
deserts of Egypt and Syria, as well as the arid coastal regions of Peru, dry climates have allowed
organic textiles to survive for thousands of years. The oldest extant tapestry, found in Thutmosis
IV’s tomb, still had bright blue and red hues upon discovery.20 Likewise, medieval and
Renaissance tapestries generally maintain much of their original vivid color. The Bayeux
Tapestry, one of the most famous examples of textile art, has survived for nearly one-thousand
years, almost having been used in 1792 as a wagon cover during the French Revolution!21
13 Rosalind M. Janssen, “The ‘Ceremonial Garments’ of Tuthmosis IV Reconsidered,” Studien zur Altagyptischen Kultur Bd. 19 (1992): 217, see appendix A, figure 3. 14 Ibid., 223. 15 Homer, Odyssey, 2.100-114. 16 Ovid, Metamorphoses, 6.5-54, 6.129-145. 17 Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, 1.57. 18 Exodus 25:4, 35:6; Hebrews 8:5, NIV. 19 Matthew 27:51, Mark 15:38, Luke 23:45. 20 Janssen, “The ‘Garments’ of Tuthmosis IV,” 217. 21 Joan Edwards, foreword to Conquest and Overlord: The Story of the Bayeux Tapestry and the Overlord Embroidery, by Brian Jewell (New York: Arco Publishing, Inc., 1981), 9.
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Currently, Gehry Partners is planning for a lifespan of at least two-hundred years for the
stainless steel tapestry. This long-term vision for the memorial is appropriate considering
tapestry’s timelessness and remarkable survivability. An ancient art steeped in classical and
religious traditions is a fitting way to commemorate the deeds of a great American for future
generations.
Technology
One of the most exciting elements of the Eisenhower Memorial is the technological
challenges which the tapestry concept has overcome. Once no more than an idea, the stainless
steel woven tapestry is becoming more and more of a reality. Three different efforts, two in
America and one in Japan, assisted in discovering the best and most efficient way to produce a
tapestry that is durable, transparent, and artful. Historically, technology has always pushed the
boundaries of tapestry production forward. What began as a “low-warp” loom, consisting of
four stakes stuck in the ground to keep the warp threads taut, eventually became a complex
machine allowing for the speedy production of complex tapestries incorporating cotton, wool,
silk, metal, and other materials. The challenges confronted by the makers of the Eisenhower
Memorial’s tapestries are another chapter in the art-form’s story of technological innovation.
As trade and technology have evolved, the materials available to weavers have increased.
Early on, the simplest material available to weavers was flax, but soon other materials gained
prominence.22 In Egypt, the abundance of cotton encouraged the production of cotton
tapestries.23 In the orient, silk was available and proved to be a quite versatile substance,
providing a depth of color which cotton lacked.24 As cultures interacted and traded, a wider
variety of fibers were woven into tapestries, allowing for more richness of texture and vibrancy
of color. In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, wool threads wrapped in precious metals began
to be woven into fabrics.25 Metal in tapestries is nothing new, but a tapestry woven entirely of
stainless steel has few predecessors. This feat will be a testament to modern technology and
innovation: an outdoor tapestry which is not a textile and a memorial which is a work of art. For 22 Thomson, Tapestry, 28; during the French Revolution, many such tapestries were burned in order to recover the gold and silver inside. 23 “American Tapestry,” The Decorator and Furnisher 20.2 (May, 1892): 55. 24 Ibid. 25 Harvey, Tapestry Weaving, 9.
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Eisenhower, a president who was no stranger to innovation, a stainless steel tapestry is
appropriate.
The looms on which tapestries are weaved have changed significantly over time. When
tapestry weaving first began over 5,000 years ago, it was done on a low-warp loom, parallel to
the ground and supported by a wooden stake at each of the four corners.26 “High-warp” looms,
looms perpendicular to the ground on which the weaver works top to bottom, developed soon
afterwards and initially used weights to keep the warp threads taut. These weights, attested on
Greek vases and later on in Norse mythology, allowed the weaver of the tapestry the freedom to
change the tension of the loom, a useful ability for executing various weaving techniques.27 In
antiquity, the crude low-warp loom was eventually phased out in favor of the high-warp loom.
The high-warp loom remained virtually unchanged until it was replaced with the “treadle-
operated low-warp loom.”28 It is unknown precisely when this change occurred, since between
the second and thirteenth centuries A.D. there are virtually no depictions of looms in art.29 In
this new loom, foot pedals raised and lowered the odd-numbered or even-numbered warp
threads, allowing the weaver to throw the shuttle with weft thread across the loom more easily.
This mechanical loom, the “direct precursor of the modern loom,” may have emerged as early as
the late third century A.D.30
The “treadle-operated low-warp loom” had obvious advantages over the high-warp loom.
It permitted the weaver to keep both hands free to move the shuttle, allowing for greater speed
and efficiency. In the nineteenth century, low-warp was 33 percent faster than high-warp.31 In
fact, the Gobelins workshops in Paris, one of the most famous producers of tapestries in Europe
from the seventeenth century onward, employed low-warp looms after Henry IV became
unhappy with the inefficiency of the high-warp loom.32 Even so, the high-warp loom had some
benefits. It tended to be wider than its low-warp counterpart, permitting more flexibility of
design.33 William Morris, a tapestry-maker of the late nineteenth century, critical of the
26 Thomson, Tapestry, 25; from an Egyptian wall painting. 27 Ibid., 25-26. 28 Diane Lee Carroll, “Dating the Foot-Powered Loom: the Coptic Evidence,” American Journal of Archaeology 89.1 (Jan., 1985): 168. 29 Ibid., 169. 30 Ibid., 173. 31 “The History of Tapestry,” The Art Amateur 2.10 (Oct., 1907): 34. 32 Thomson, Tapestry, 120. 33 Carroll, “Dating the Foot-Powered Loom,” 171.
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Gobelins workshop’s methods, insisted that “only the high-warp loom” was sufficiently versatile
and exposed to light for the production of tapestries.34
Among artisans, flexibility in adopting and adapting existing looms has continued to the
present day. During the industrial revolution, the flying shuttle (1733), the power loom (1784),
and the Jacquard loom (1805) changed the face of commercial textile production forever.35
Punch cards allowed weavers to automate repetitive patterns, and they inspired Charles Babbage
to conceptualize the “analytical engine,” a primitive computer. Today, with new technological
developments, computers permit ever more complex patterns and weavings. But as an art-form,
textile weaving remains the domain of the artisan. The current attempt to produce a massive
stainless steel tapestry for the Eisenhower Memorial must negotiate technological requirements
and the need for artistry.
Broad Appeal
Tapestry and, more generally, weaving has developed everywhere, not just in the West.
From Berlin to Beijing, from Cairo to Kentucky, woven objects and textiles are used functionally
and aesthetically. For this reason tapestry resonates at not merely a cultural level but at a more
human level. Since prehistory, people have crafted baskets, rugs, and wall hangings using
weaving techniques which are fundamentally the same as those used today. Doric columns and
triglyphs may be relevant in Greece and Rome, but tapestry focuses on a more basic and broad-
based human experience. Although significant to Western cultures, tapestry is not exclusive to
any one people but is the shared treasure of all mankind.
This is appropriate for President and General Eisenhower, a true internationalist and a
“citizen of the world.”36 He was the first president to travel by jet and the first to average four
foreign trips a year in office. He established programs aimed at protecting peace by building
international cooperation, and he made personal diplomacy a model for the presidency. This
outward-looking attitude makes tapestry a good choice for Eisenhower’s memorial, since its
history is international and not confined to any one culture.
34 Ibid., 158-159. 35 “Jacquard Loom,” Encyclopædia Britannica Online, accessed 26 Jul. 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/299155/Jacquard-loom. 36 David Eisenhower, Eisenhower: At War, 1943-1945 (New York: Random House, 1986), 822.
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Many non-European cultures have created stunning tapestries. In East-Asia, for instance,
extremely fine silk tapestries began to be produced before A.D. 700.37 In contrast to their
European counterparts, the warp runs vertical with respect to the pattern. Contact with the
Middle East through the Silk Road may have influenced Chinese designs which often juxtaposed
heroic images with graceful landscapes filled with smaller figures.38 The Japanese adapted the
“k’o-ssu” tapestries of China to their own purposes. Instead of weaving entirely from silk,
Japanese weavers wrapped cotton wefts with silk to create rougher but more vibrant designs.
These oriental tapestries in turn influenced European weavers who, in accordance with
contemporary fashion, copied elements of Chinese and Japanese patterns, often at the expense of
the distinct historical and cultural significance of the original style. In Asia, these traditions
continue to remain relevant to the present and continue to influence the weaving of wall-
hangings and garments.
Our knowledge of Native American weaving is severely limited by the lack of written
sources. However, archaeological remains and current practices provide us with a basic
knowledge of weaving in the Americas. In the northern parts, a harsh environment meant that
there was little time for purely decorative textiles. Among the Aleuts, for instance, most
weaving was, and still is, functional, used as blankets or baskets.39 However, farther south,
textiles had more decorative and ceremonial functions. The Incans are probably most famous for
their woven designs, but their lack of a written language and the paucity of material culture make
dating such textiles difficult. Few examples of tapestry remain, but a plethora of other weaving
techniques – including embroidery, cross-stitch, and plain weave – has survived. Pre-Columbian
weaving technology was quite limited; it consisted of a “backstrap loom,” wooden needles, and
spindles with stone whorls. Despite primitive equipment and relative isolation – the Incans were
separated not only from the “Old World” but also, to a certain degree, from the Aztecs and
Mayans – textile production developed as a vibrant art and rivaled, or even surpassed, European
tapestry weaving in terms of complexity of technique and range of colors.40
37 Thomson, Tapestry, 44. 38 Ibid., 49; for an example, see appendix A, figure 4. 39 Ibid., 32. 40 Ibid., 37; for an example, see appendix A, figure 5.
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Egypt became an important producer of textiles during the Roman Empire, when the
Coptic Egyptians Christianized in the second or third centuries A.D.41 This had an interesting
effect upon Coptic textiles, which would often use Christian imagery to depict Pagan scenes or
figures.42 For instance, a tapestry commissioned by a Roman elite but crafted by a Christian
Copt, might feature a Pagan god with a halo. Later on, after the fall of the Roman Empire and
the rise of Islam, Coptic weavers continued to make tapestries. As non-Muslims they were
permitted to weave images of humans or animals without violating Islamic religious restrictions.
The history of weaving in Egypt and the Levant closely follows important religious changes, but
even as religious transformations took place, tapestry continued to be significant, underlying its
relevance to people of all backgrounds and cultures.43
In light of the broad based appeal of tapestries, the use of woven metal as an integral
element of the Eisenhower Memorial is appropriate. Eisenhower grew up in Abilene, Kansas, a
small town in the middle of America. The son of a mechanic, he grew to appreciate the value of
hard work and craftsmanship for a tightly knit local community. Once Eisenhower appeared on
the world stage, he emphasized the commonalities which bring people together. In the city of
London, in his first major public speech, Eisenhower remarked that when we consider important
values, “then the valley of the Thames draws closer to the farms of Kansas and the plains of
Texas.”44 Eisenhower’s actions, as general and president, show how earnestly he believed in
trying to forge bonds of friendship between nations. How appropriate, then, that he should be
memorialized with a tapestry, an art-form appealing to people of every creed and color, a craft
which calls to mind the ingenuity and thrift of hard-working Americans and people the world
over.
Tapestry as Communicator
The power of tapestry goes beyond aesthetic appeal. Far from purely decorative,
tapestries are used to tell stories and to inform. This makes the Eisenhower Memorial’s tapestry
much more meaningful, since it tells the story of Eisenhower’s small town roots and juxtaposes 41 Ibid., 39. 42 Ibid., 40. 43 For an example of Coptic tapestry, see figure 6. 44 The Eisenhower Memorial Commission, “Guildhall Address,” accessed August 11, 2011, http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/pages.php?pid=91.
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those with the magnitude of his accomplishments in war and peace. The tapestry will not be a
high tech billboard that clutters the memorial area. Rather, it will, like other tapestries before it,
play an important role in telling a story and informing the viewer.
Narrative elements are central to the art-form of tapestry. During the Middle Ages and
Renaissance, historical, biblical, and mythological scenes were quite popular among weavers
who produced tapestries for ecclesiastical settings and increasingly for secular contexts.45
Scenes from Herodotus,46 Ovid,47 and other classical writers48 adorned the walls of castles and
the halls of estates as wealthy men attempted to tie the present to the pagan past,49 even as
beautiful tapestries with biblical and hagiographic scenes advertised their piety.50 The
coexistence of Christian and classical themes on tapestry during the Renaissance speaks to the
power of tapestries to communicate both religious and secular messages.
The narrative purpose of tapestries is underscored by the use of captions to denote
figures, describe scenes, and record ownership. The 3,500-year-old textile found in the tomb of
Tuthmosis IV was emblazoned with hieroglyphs meant to inform the viewer of the owner. Much
more than a “property of Tuthmosis” caption, the text tells the story of the Pharoah’s legitimacy
and power, describing him as “son of....., his beloved, lord of the crowns, who fights against a
multitude.”51 The mere fact that he could afford a costly textile is evidence of his wealth. Other
tapestries are also meant to convey specific messages. The Bayeux Tapestry is a running
narrative, which, assisted by Latin captions, tells the story of William’s 1066 invasion of
England. The message of the tapestry is clear and powerful because “the Latin…is simple; the
context visually exciting; the content historically significant.”52 A clear agenda is also at work in
the tapestry; it is meant to portray Harold as a treacherous king and William a justified
conqueror. On account of its clarity of message and narrative, the tapestry has been described by 45 “American Tapestry,” 55. 46 Life of Cyrus, King of Persia (16th c.) is still displayed in the home of the Marquess of Bath at Longleat House; Thomson, Tapestry, 74-75; see appendix A, figure 7. 47 Ovid’s Metamorphoses (1545) designed by Battista Dossi and completed by Hans Karcher, now hangs in the Louvre; ibid., 96. 48 Theagenes and Chariclea depicts scenes from the little-known Heliodorus’ Aethiopica and became quite popular in the 17th c.; ibid., 117; see appendix A, figure 8. 49 For instance, in the 15th c. tapestry, Hercules Initiating the Olympic Games, Hercules resembles Philip the Good of Burgundy, and a mounted figure beside him appears to be his son, Charles the Bold; ibid., 66; see appendix A, figure 9. 50 Consider Peter van Aelst’s Acts of the Apostles (1519), based on Raphael’s cartoons, and its considerable impact on 16th c. tapestry; ibid., 89-94; see appendix A, figure 10. 51 Janssen, “The ‘Garments’ of Tuthmosis IV,” 218. 52 Anderson, “The Bayeux Tapestry,” 257; see appendix A, figure 11.
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one scholar as “one of the most powerful pieces of visual propaganda ever produced.”53 In other
works, text supports the narrative elements. In a fifteenth century set of tapestries, War of Troy,
captions inform the viewer of characters, assisting the narrative process.54 Diomedes,
Agamemnon, and Achilles, decked in medieval armor, are indistinguishable from contemporary
warriors, so written aids help identify characters. Moreover, Greek text lets the viewer know that
the scene is from classical literature, even if the reader does not know the language.
In other instances, tapestries move beyond depicting simple scenes and narratives to
communicating more complex ideas. This can be done through the inclusion of a simple motto,
as was done in the Cordoba Armorial Tapestry: “nothing is done without himself.”55 Symbols
also have an important function in tapestry-art. Coats of arms, found in armorial tapestry, not
only denote ownership but also symbolize the power, values, and traditions of the family. In the
Cordoba Tapestry, crests of different families are included to celebrate the union of marriage. In
the Americas, symbolism was even more important. The Incans, lacking a written language,
may have used tapestry as a medium to record religious information.56 So powerful has textile
art been as a communicator that, in some cases, it was used as a replacement for language!
In light of the versatility of tapestry as a communicator, the Eisenhower Memorial’s
tapestry, integrated with text, will tell a story with clarity. The Commission wishes to inspire
visitors with Ike’s “leadership, integrity, life-long work ethic and self-improvement, and
especially his total devotion to the values and processes of democracy.”57 The interplay between
Eisenhower’s quotations, inscribed on stone, and the tapestry, mounted on columns, displays
Eisenhower’s values and accomplishments for all to see.
Tapestry as Celebrator
Tapestry is not only an established way to communicate ideas but also an effective
medium to commemorate great events and people of the past. This has often been done with a
53 Suzanne Lewis, The Rhetoric of Power in the Bayeux Tapestry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), xiii. 54 Thomson, Tapestry, 68-69; see appendix A, figure 12. Ackerman, Tapestry, 80-81; the set was hugely popular, and over a dozen pieces still survive. 55 Ibid., 106; “sine ipso factum est nihil,” translation my own; see appendix A, figure 13. 56 Ibid., 38. 57 The Eisenhower Memorial Commission, “Our Mission,” accessed August 3, 2011, http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/menu.php?mid=28.
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focus on martial subjects. In this regard, tapestry is a doubly effective way to honor Eisenhower.
The historical nexus between warfare and tapestry makes the art fitting for a military man just as
the display of a peaceful Abilene landscape reflects Eisenhower’s commitment to peace and
aversion to war.
Important events, particularly military scenes have often been displayed on tapestry. The
Bayeux Tapestry, the most famous example of this, records the momentous events of the
Norman conquest of England. Some of the most famous battles in world history are recorded on
tapestry. For instance, the tapestry series known as the Defeat of the Spanish Armada, was
commissioned to recount the English victory in 1588 and was hung in the Royal Wardrobe of the
Tower of London and later on in the Houses of Parliament.58 Contemporaries considered the
battle the greatest English victory since Agincourt; the event marked a decisive shift in naval
power from Spain to England. The Prestonpans Tapestry, currently the longest tapestry in the
world, was completed in 2010 to commemorate the 1745 battle and to impart the values of
“hope, ambition, and victory” to future generations.59 Another hugely important military event,
the June 6, 1944 invasion of Normandy, is recorded in textile art through the Overlord
Embroidery. Commissioned in 1968 by Lord Dulverton, this piece of art has a direct connection
to Eisenhower, both because he appears in three panels and because he himself organized and led
the force, the largest armada in history, which turned the tide of the war.60
Tapestry is also employed to honor great people, especially military leaders. In fifteenth
century France, tapestries glorified Caesar, Clovis, Charlemagne, and Roland, all of whom were
considered to have played a pivotal role in French military history.61 Julius Caesar’s life has
been the subject of several other tapestries,62 and William the Conqueror has the distinction of
58 These Tapestries were lost in a fire in 1834, but engravings survive; Thomson, Tapestry, 107; see appendix A, figure 14. 59 The Prestonpans Tapestry, accessed August 3, 2011, http://www.prestoungrange.org/tapestry/The_Tapestry.aspx; see appendix A, figure 15. 60 Lady Mark Fitzalan Howard, Foreword to Conquest and Overlord: The Story of the Bayeux Tapestry and the Overlord Embroidery, by Brian Jewell (New York: Arco Publishing, Inc., 1981), 52; Stephen Brooks and Eve Eckstein, Operation Overlord: The History of D-Day and the Overlord Embroidery (London: Danilo Printing Ltd., 1983), panels 9, 15, 28; see appendix A, figure 16 or Appendix C for more detailed information on the Overlord Embroidery. 61 Ackerman, Tapestry, 78-80. 62 The workshops in Milan produced several panels of Caesar in the 15th c., and at Mortlake, the Triumps of Julius Caesar (17th c.) were produced, modeling Mantegna’s painting; Thomson, Tapestry, 95, 111.
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being the key figure in the Bayeux Tapestry. Is it not fitting that Eisenhower should join the
only two other men to lead successful cross-channel attacks63 in being the subject of a tapestry?
But there is so much more to Eisenhower than his military career. He was a statesman
and a devoted public servant. As is fitting for Eisenhower’s life, the history of tapestry is not
tied solely to military subjects but has relevance in a wide range of contexts. Commoners often
show up in medieval and Renaissance tapestries,64 and religious subjects are perhaps more
frequent than martial.65 Currently, plans are moving forward to complete The Great Tapestry of
Scotland, a textile that will celebrate the accomplishments of the people of Scotland. The
makers of the tapestry, inspired by the recently created Prestonpans Tapestry, seek to use textile
art to narrate history and to honor the people of Scotland.66
Likewise, the Eisenhower memorial will celebrate the deeds of a great man who left a
legacy of peace and democracy for America. The centrality of the Abilene landscape in the
Eisenhower Memorial will highlight the fact that Eisenhower was a man of peace who hated war.
It also calls to mind Eisenhower’s identity as an American. There is a strong tradition of
landscape art in the United States, so the selection of a peaceful frontier scene, as opposed to a
battle narrative, is highly appropriate. The historic use of tapestry to celebrate significant
historic events and people makes tapestry an excellent choice for Eisenhower’s memorialization.
Architectural Elements
Another aspect of the Eisenhower memorial which deserves some consideration is the
architecture. The current design features ten unfluted columns, each one about 80 feet tall. The
columns support the tapestry and form a “U” shape, defining the memorial precinct. Overall, the
memorial will take up nearly four acres, a significant plot of land for downtown Washington, and
the project will revitalize a public space south of the National Mall and near the Capitol.
63 Stephen E. Ambrose, Eisenhower: Soldier and President (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000), 144; see De Bello Gallico, 4.25-27 for Caesar’s account of the 54 B.C. amphibious landings. 64 For instance, the mid-15th c. work, Labors of the Months, features agricultural activity; Thomson, Tapestry, 60. 65 Ibid., 51; in the early middle ages, tapestries were limited to liturgical contexts, for the church was “the sanctuary, the place of refuge…for literature, artwork, and even money.” 66 David Robinson, “Author plans to tell story of Scotland with one of world’s biggest tapestries,” accessed August 4, 2011, http://news.scotsman.com/scotland/Author-plans-to-tell-story.6746688.jp.
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Memorials and Public Structures
A structure of this size will require a significant investment of time and resources.
Current estimates put the cost of the memorial at $120 million. At a time when budgets are tight
and fiscal restraint is needed, it is important to understand why we build memorials in the first
place. They are celebrations of human achievement, tangible representations of the legacy which
past Americans have left us. In Washington, we dedicate memorials to presidents,67 soldiers,68
and responsible citizens.69 Eisenhower fits into all of these categories; his memorial is entirely
consistent with past projects in Washington.
The tradition of celebrating human achievement through public buildings has a long
history. In antiquity, victorious generals would dedicate spoils in public temples and erect
trophies to celebrate victory. This “euergetism,” as it has been called, was as much an attempt at
self-promotion as it was a genuine act of munificence. Whatever the motives of such behavior, it
resulted in a host of magnificent structures adorning the ancient city. Paul Zanker describes
these as Volksbauten or “buildings for the people.”70 These could develop as loci for sharing and
expressing community identity. The construction of public buildings by private individuals
waned in late antiquity, but the notion that a community could celebrate its shared values at a
particular monument or memorial persisted.
Many of the same principles apply to the urban landscape of Washington. For instance,
the National Mall has developed a special place in the national psyche. Once every four years,
the country’s eyes turn towards the Capitol to witness the inauguration of a president, and
periodically, the people of America look to the other end of the Mall to behold demonstrations
and speeches at the Lincoln Memorial. Every spring, when the cherry blossoms around the Tidal
Basin bloom, the area around the Jefferson Memorial comes alive with visitors. One of the
beautiful things about the city of Washington is that its monuments and memorials have become
integrated into the fabric and life of the city. The Eisenhower Memorial, adjacent to the Mall
and just blocks from the Capitol, will certainly develop its unique role in the cityscape, it will 67 Washington Monument, Lincoln Memorial, Jefferson Memorial, Teddy Roosevelt Island, FDR Memorial, the Kennedy Center. 68 World War II Memorial, Korean War Memorial, Vietnam War Memorial, African American Civil War Memorial, District of Columbia World War I Memorial. 69 George Mason Memorial, Martin Luther King Memorial, Boy Scouts Memorial, etc. 70 Carlos F. Norena, “Medium and Message in Vespasian’s Templum Pacis,” Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 48 (2003): 27.
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mark the farthest West that America is nationally celebrating a president, bringing the heartland
to the Capitol.
Columns, Outdoor Spaces, and Art
Much ink has been spilled discussing, debating, and criticizing the design of the
Eisenhower Memorial. One group, the National Civic Art Society, has gone so far as to launch a
design counterproposal competition.71 Apparently, the Eisenhower Memorial does not live up to
the classical ideals of ancient Greece and Rome. This could not be further from the truth. Using
columns to create outdoor spaces for enjoying art is a Greek and Roman tradition. The design
for the Eisenhower Memorial, while certainly modern, does not substantially deviate from past
methods of framing public space.
Although columns and pillars have been used in many societies to support structures in a
“post and lintel” manner, the Greeks and Romans were among the first to use columns for purely
aesthetic reasons. From an early date, colonnaded spaces were associated with commemorative
artwork. For instance, the Stoa Poikile, the “Painted Stoa,” had paintings fronted by 2 rows of
columns.72 The stoa, situated in the Athenian Agora, was completed by 460 B.C. during the
Pentacontaetia, a period of great properity for Athens.73 One of its four paintings celebrated the
recent victory over the Persians at Marathon and is thought to have served as a source for the
historian Herodotus.74 As “a well known and prominent building” over 44 meters in length, the
Stoa Poikile had an important role in the life of Athens.75 The covered pavilion became a place
for philosophical discussions and was the birthplace of Stoicism. The topographical connection
to nearby statues and structures strengthened this monument’s significance. Aeschines writes,
“pass on in imagination to the Stoa Poikile; for the memorials of all our noble deeds stand
dedicated in the Agora.”76 The ancient Athenians thought a colonnade coupled with painted
71 National Civic Art Society, “Eisenhower Memorial Competition: 2011,” accessed August 4, 2011, http://www.civicart.org/eisenhower.html. 72 John McKesson Camp, “Excavations in the Athenian Agora,” The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens 76.4 (Oct.-Dec., 2007): 647; see appendix A, figure 17. 73 E. D. Francis and Michael Vickers, “The Oenoe Painting in the Stoa Poikile, and Herodotus’ Account of Marathon,” The Annual of the British School at Athens 80 (1985): 100. 74 Ibid., 109. 75 Camp, “Excavations in the Athenian Agora,” 650. 76 Aeschines, 3.186, translated by Charles Darwin Adams (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1919), accessed August 8, 2011,
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images was a fitting memorial for those who gave their lives in the service of the community.
To this day, “the simple pavilion…is the time-honored, respected form of memorial.”77 The
recently completed Prestonpans Tapestry is intended to be displayed in the “Prestonpans
Pavillion,” a circular portico which, much like the Stoa Poikile, protects the artwork from the
elements but uses columns to open up an outdoor space.78
The connection between outdoor colonnades and public art is also evident in the Roman
period. Imperial fora were often associated with the display of art. The Forum of Augustus,
dedicated in 2 B.C., was surrounded by colonnaded porticoes which housed statues of the summi
viri, famous men from Rome’s past.79 At the center of the plaza was a statue of Augustus. The
Templum Pacis, the Temple of Peace, completed by Vespasian in 75 A.D., consisted of a large
colonnaded square with a series of buildings coming off of the south-eastern end.80 The central
square contained a garden area with flower beds or water features. Greek works of art and spoils
taken from Jerusalem adorned the inside of the portico, making the complex a sort of “open-air
museum,” a public space where Romans could engage with art and architecture.81 Emperor
Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli has other fine examples of the synthesis of colonnades and artwork.
Hadrian chose to model many of the buildings after famous structures in the Greek world, so he
made his own Stoa Poikile.82 He also constructed a “Canopus,” a reflecting pool which imitated
a waterway in Egypt.83 Columns surrounding the water were topped by alternating arched and
flat stones. These columns served no functional purpose and were solely meant to define the
edge of the pool and to frame a number of Greek and Egyptian statues. In Classical Greece, the
Hellenistic World, and the Roman Empire, columns were used to create outdoor spaces to view
and enjoy artwork.
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0002%3Aspeech%3D3%3Asection%3D186. 77 Thomas H. Creighton, The Architecture of Monuments: The Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial Competition (New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1962), 106. 78 Baron Courts of Prestoungrange & Dolphinstoun, “Displaying the Prestonpans Tapestry – in Prestonpans,” accessed August 9, 2011, http://www.globalartsandtourism.net/prestoungrange/html/news/show_news.asp?newsid=2992; see appendix A, figure 18. 79 Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, Augustan Rome, (Bristol Classical Press: London, 2000), 56. 80 Norena, “Medium and Message in Vespasian’s Templum Pacis,” 26; see appendix A, figure 19. 81 Ibid., 27. 82 Charles W. Moore, “Hadrian’s Villa,” Perspecta 6 (1960): 24. 83 Ibid., 26; see appendix A, figure 20.
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In a similar manner, the Eisenhower Memorial will synthesize columns with artwork, in
this case a tapestry. The columns will be both functional – they hold up the tapestry – and
aesthetic – their sheer scale is appropriate for a man of Eisenhower’s achievements and status.
Together, the tapestry and columns define the memorial precinct. Surely columns are fitting for
a presidential memorial in Washington; they are central to the Jefferson Memorial, the Lincoln
Memorial, and nearly all government buildings in the city.
One should not be concerned that the columns, unfluted and void of capitals, depart from
classical paradigms. Similar, truncated columns were originally designed for the World War II
memorial before being replaced by pillars.84 In fact, a brief survey of classical architecture will
reveal just how much flexibility there is in the use of columns. In ancient buildings, we find both
fluted and unfluted columns, varying degrees of entasis, different materials and methods of
construction, and five categories of capitals – Doric, Tuscan, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite –
each one differing in style depending upon the period. Hadrian was innovative, even eccentric,
when he made his “Canopus” using forms unattested in Greek, Roman, or Egyptian
architecture.85 In the American neo-classical tradition, we can see experimentation with different
sorts of columns at an early date. Benjamin Latrobe, appointed Surveyor of Public Buildings by
President Jefferson, designed corn and tobacco capitals – acanthus was the orthodox choice – for
part of the U.S. Capitol Building.86 These capitals’ incorporation of native vegetation celebrates
our independence and unique identity. Likewise, the clean, simple, and colossal limestone
columns of the Eisenhower Memorial will call to mind a man of unswerving integrity and
principle.
Synthesis of Tapestry and Architecture
Historically, economic and practical considerations have limited the audience of
tapestries. The fine threads and artisanship required to produce tapestry made it prohibitively
expensive for everyone but the most privileged of individuals. Moreover, the massive size of
tapestries means that few can display them. Consequently, only churches, castles, and private
84 Thomas B. Grooms, World War II Memorial: Washington, DC (Washington: U.S. General Services Administration: 2004), 68. 85 Moore, “Hadrian’s Villa,” 26. 86 Joseph Downs, “The Capitol,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art 1.5 (Jan., 1943): 172; see appendix A, figure 21.
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estates could afford large tapestries until recently. The emergence of art museums has allowed a
greater number of people to view famous tapestries. In Washington, the Smithsonian,
Dumbarton Oaks and the Textile Museum have collections of textile art from all over the world.
Nevertheless, the material limits on tapestries continue to restrict viewing audiences. For
obvious reasons, textiles cannot be kept outdoors. Even when stored inside, they must be stored
in special environments to stay in good condition. Their large size also makes it difficult for
some museums to display them. The genius of Gehry’s memorial design is that it overcomes the
traditional limits on tapestry. By using stainless steel as the primary material and integrating it
with architecture, Gehry is able to create a public square where tapestry is accessible to all
people. No longer confined to cramped rooms in dusty museums and castles, tapestry can now
move into a centralized and outdoor space. This egalitarian shift is fitting for Eisenhower, a man
dedicated to the values of equality and democracy.
Conclusion
Frank Gehry’s design is fitting for Eisenhower’s memorialization. It is a difficult task to
reflect in brick and mortar a legacy as complex and multifaceted as Eisenhower’s. The
achievements and character of the general and president deserve a timeless and powerful
monument which embodies his values. Tapestry, spanning time as an art and craft, resonates
fundamentally at a human level. By combining it with columns, Gehry has given tapestry the
gravitas and scale fitting of a presidential memorial. In fact, the meaning caught up in tapestry –
its association with military victory and its shift from the private sphere to the public square –
makes the design uniquely appropriate for Ike.
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Bibliography Ackerman, Phyllis. Tapestry: The Mirror of Civilization. New York: AMS Press, 1970. Ambrose, Stephen E. Eisenhower: Soldier and President. New York: Simon and Schuster: 1990. “American Tapestry.” The Decorator and Furnisher 20.2 (May, 1892): 55-56. Anderson, John D. “The Bayeux Tapestry: A 900-Year-Old Latin Cartoon.” The Classical
Journal 81.3 (Feb. – Mar., 1986): 253-257. Baron Courts of Prestoungrange & Dolphinstoun. “Displaying the Prestonpans Tapestry – in
Prestonpans.” Accessed August 9, 2011, http://www.globalartsandtourism.net/prestoungrange/html/news/show_news.asp?newsid=2992.
BBC. “’Longest’ tapestry tells story of Bonnie Prince Charlie.” Accessed August 11, 2011,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-10764176. Brooklyn College Classics Department. “The Painted Stoa.” Accessed August 11, 2011,
http://depthome.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/dunkle/athnlife/poikile.htm. Brooks, Stephen and Eve Eckstein. Operation Overlord: The History of D-Day and the Overlord
Embroidery. London: Danilo Printing Ltd., 1983. Camp II, John McKesson. “Excavations in the Athenian Agroa: 2002-2007.” Hesperia: The
Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens 76.4 (Oct. – Dec., 2007): 627-623.
Carroll, Dianne Lee. “Dating the Foot-Powered Loom: The Coptic Evidence.” American Journal
of Archaeology 89.1 Centennial Issue (Jan., 1985): 168-173. Clarke, C. Purdon. “A Piece of Egyptian Tapestry.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin
2.10 (Oct., 1907): 161-162. Creighton, Thomas H. The Architecture of Monuments: The Franklin Delano Roosevelt
Memorial Competition. New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1962. Downs, Joseph. “The Capitol.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art 1.5 (Jan., 1943): 171-174. Dumbarton Oaks, “All T’oqapu Tunic,” accessed August 11, 2011,
http://museum.doaks.org/VieO23071?sid=381&x=21331.
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Edwards, Joan. Foreword to Conquest & Overlord: The Story of the Bayeux Tapestry and the Overlord Embroidery, by Brian Jewell, 8-9. New York: Arco Publishing, Inc., 1981.
Eisenhower, David. Eisenhower: At War, 1943-1945. New York: Random House, 1986. The Eisenhower Memorial Commission, “Guildhall Address,” accessed August 11, 2011,
http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/pages.php?pid=91. The Eisenhower Memorial Commission. “Our Mission.” Accessed August 3, 2011,
http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/menu.php?mid=28. Eisenhower, Susan. Foreword to Eisenhower College: The Life and Death of a Living Memorial
by David L. Dresser, xix. Interlaken, New York: Heart of the Lakes Publishing, 1995. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “Jacquard Loom.” Accessed July 26, 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/299155/Jacquard-loom. Fosdick, Dean. “‘Living walls’ great backdrops for floral tapestry.” Accessed August 3, 2011,
http://www.timesunion.com/living/article/Living-walls-great-backdrops-for-floral-tapestry-1682116.php.
Francis, E. D. and Michael Vickers. “The Oenoe Painting in the Stoa Poikile, and Herodotus’
Account of Marathon.” The Annual of the British School at Athens 80 (1985): 99-113. Grooms, Thomas B. World War II Memorial: Washington, DC. Washington: U.S. General
Services Administration, 2004. Harvey, Nancy. Tapestry Weaving: A Comprehensive Study Guide. Loveland, Colorado:
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Tapestry and the Overlord Embroidery, by Brian Jewell, 52-53. New York: Arco Publishing, Inc., 1981.
Janssen, Rosalind M. “The ‘Ceremonial Garments’ of Tuthmosis IV Reconsidered.” Studien zur
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National Civic Art Society. “Eisenhower Memorial Competition: 2011.” Accessed August 4,
2011, http://www.civicart.org/eisenhower.html. Norena, Carlos F. “Medium and Message in Vespasian’s Templum Pacis.” Memoirs of the
American Academy in Rome 48 (2003): 25-43. Oxford Dictionaries. “Tapestry.” Accessed July 19, 2011,
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Thomson, Francis Paul. Tapestry: Mirror of History. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1980. Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. Augustan Rome. Bristol Classical Press: London, 2000.
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Appendix A: Images for Reference
Figure 1: “Plain weave,” shown here is fundamental to tapestry, the interlocking of perpendicular warp and weft threads in an over-under pattern.87
Figure 2: This image, one of the earliest depictions of weaving, comes from the tomb of Beni-Hassan in Egypt (3000 BC). The figures on the top are shown spinning thread in preparation for weaving done on a simple high-warp loom.88
Figure 3: These tapestry fragments, dating to the 15th century BC, bear the name of Amenhotep III, a Pharaoh of Egypt. They are the oldest extant examples of tapestry we have.89
87 Harvey, Tapestry Weaving, 8. 88 Thomson, Tapestry, 25. 89 Janssen, “The ‘Ceremonial Garments’ of Tuthmosis IV,” 225.
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Figure 4: This nineteenth century Chinese k’o-ssu tapestry depicts a princess being greeted by Immortals and scholars as she descends from the sky on a bird. Taoist themes and symbols appear throughout the piece.90
Figure 5: An Incan weaving, intended to be worn as a tunic. This garment would have been a symbol of status for its wearer. In fact, so fine were textiles, that they were valued more highly than gold in the Incan Empire. The pattern of images may be significant symbolically. The Incans never developed a written language, so tapestry gave a way to communicate and to record.91
90 Thomson, Tapestry, 151. 91 Dumbarton Oaks, “All T’oqapu Tunic,” accessed August 11, 2011, http://museum.doaks.org/VieO23071?sid=381&x=21331.
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Figure 6: A Coptic tapestry from the 2nd to 3rd c. AD. A number of tapestries survived from antiquity in Egypt due to the dry conditions in the desert. This tapestry shows evidence of “ressaut,” or the technique of weaving without being constrained by the perpendicular warps and wefts.92
Figure 7: The Life of Cyrus, as it would have originally been displayed, currently sits in the home of the Marquess of Bath near Warminster. Tapestries were not meant to stand alone but were intended to be integrated with the furniture and architecture of the room.93
92 C. Purdon Clarke, “A Piece of Egyptian Tapestry,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 2.10 (Oct., 1907): 162. 93 Thomson, Tapestry, 75.
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Figure 8: This tapestry, woven of wool and silk at the Gobelins manufactory in Paris, depicts a scene of Theagenes and Chariclea from the Aethiopica, a tale written by Heliodorus of Emesa. The story was a popular subject of tapestries in the seventeenth century. The extremely ornate border, typical of baroque tapestries, has the effect of crowding the central scene.94
Figure 9: This wall hanging, made of silk and wool, depicts Hercules initiating the Olympic Games. The garb in the scene, however, is suggestive of the fifteenth century, when the tapestry was made. The central figures resemble Phillip the Good of Burgundy and Charles the Bold, his son, an obvious attempt to connect the owners of the tapestry to the mythological hero.95
94 Ibid., 117. 95 Ibid., 66.
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Figure 10: This cartoon, commissioned by Pope Leo X, was painted by Raphael between 1515 and 1516. It was part of a series from the Acts of the Apostles. This image depicts The Healing of the Lame Man by St. Peter and St. John at the Beautiful Gate of the Temple. According to Thomson, these cartoons mark the beginning of the Renaissance for tapestry.96
Figure 11: The Bayeux Tapestry, technically an embroidery, is one of the most famous examples of textile art. The tapestry tells the story of Harold’s treachery and William the Conqueror’s invasion of Britain. The scene shown here comes from the segment depicting the Battle of Hastings. The tapestry ends abruptly with the flight of Harold’s army, and many scholars believe that a scene depicting Williams coronation was originally at the end.97
96 Ibid., 92. 97 Jewell, Conquest and Overlord, 44.
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Figure 12: Detail from one of the War of Troy tapestries woven in 1475 by the Tournai workshop. The text inscribed on the characters, banners, and tent, as well as the captions at the base of the tapestry, informs the viewer of the scene depicted.98
Figure 13: The Cordoba Armorial Tapestry, woven in Salamanca by Pedro Gutierrez, features the crests of Cordoba, Santillan, Carrillo, and Mendoza de la Vega, celebrating the union of two Spanish nobles.99
Figure 14: A 1789 engraving by John Pine of an English tapestry celebrating the victory over the Spanish armada. The tapestries were lost when parliament burned down in 1834.100
98 Thomson, Tapestry, 69. 99 Ibid., 106. 100 Ibid., 107.
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Figure 15: In the tradition of the Bayeux Tapestry, this embroidery, the recently completed Prestonpans Tapestry, has captions and gives a narrative of the events leading up to the 1745 battle.101
Figure 16: The Overlord Embroidery, in the tradition of The Bayeux Tapestry, celebrates the successful invasion of Normandy on June 6, 1944. The tapestry resides in the D-Day Museum in the UK, but the cartoons are displayed in the Pentagon.102
Figure 17: The Stoa Poikile (Painted Stoa), built in the Athenian Agora after the Persian Wars of the early 5th c. BC, celebrated victory at Marathon and other battles. Behind the front colonnades were displayed images from history and mythology, as well as shields captured during various wars.103
Figure 18: The Prestonpan Tapestry, just completed in 2010, will be displayed in a circular pavilion, open to a central park area. The use of an outdoor space to display tapestry looks forward to Gehry’s innovative design for the Eisenhower Memorial.104
101 BBC, “’Longest’ tapestry tells story of Bonnie Prince Charlie,” accessed August 11, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-10764176. 102 Stephen Brooks and Eve Eckstein, Operation Overlord: The History of D-Day and the Overlord Embroidery, London: Danilo Printing Ltd., 1983. 103 Brooklyn College Classics Department, “The Painted Stoa,” accessed August 11, 2011, http://depthome.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/dunkle/athnlife/poikile.htm. 104 Baron Courts of Prestoungrange & Dolphinstoun, “Displaying the Prestonpans Tapestry – in Prestonpans.”
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Figure 19: The Templum Pacis (Temple of Peace) in Rome. It defined a large public space with water features and shrubbery. The columns on the side created an area to view statuary, paintings from Greece, and spoils from the Jewish Revolt. One scholar has described the structure as “an open air museum.”105
Figure 20: The “Canopus” at Hadrian’s Villa was surrounded by a series of columns. They had no practical function, but were used aesthetically to define the outdoor space and to frame a series of Greek sculptures and Egyptian works of Art, many of which now sit in the Vatican Museum. The architrave alternates between an arched and a “post and lintel” design.106
105 Mercati e Foro di Traiano: Archaeological Area, “The Temple of Peace,” accessed August 11, 2011, http://en.mercatiditraiano.it/sede/area_archeologica/tempio_della_pace. 106 Angela Stubbs, “The Villas and Gardens of Lazio,” accessed August 15, 2011, http://www.cornwallgardenstrust.org.uk/journal/cgt-journal-2008/the-villas-and-gardens-of-lazio/.
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Figure 21: One of Latrobe’s “Corn Cob Capitals.” American architects liked to use variants of classical designs that resonated with the nation’s identity. In this case, Latrobe felt that corn and tobacco were more appropriate plants than acanthus, the classical choice for Corinthian capitals.107
107 Joseph Downs, “The Capitol,” 173.
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Appendix B: Criticism and Counter-arguments: A number of commentators have come
forward and criticized Gehry’s design. The main lines of argument against the memorial are:
1. The design is not faithful to L’Enfant’s plan for the city
Counter-argument: L’Enfant’s highly esteemed plan for the city of Washington had its
critics and has undergone numerous changes (Ellicot, McMillan, etc.). Even so, Gehry’s
design is faithful to the basic elements of L’Enfant’s plan. It preserves the viewshed
along Maryland Avenue to the Capitol, as well as the orthogonal street grid. It does not
violate L’Enfant’s plan “by striving to create an additional square.”108 The area in front
of the Department of Education is already a public square, and Gehry’s design will more
effectively delineate the Maryland Avenue viewshed.
2. The design fails to incorporate classical elements
Counter-argument: As demonstrated in the narrative’s examples, tapestry is an ancient
art, and its use in a memorial is innovative without departing from traditional art.
Moreover, the use of colonnaded architecture to frame works of art dates to the classical
period (e.g. Stoa Poikile, 5th century BC; Templum Pacis, 75 AD; Villa Adriana, 117-125
AD; etc.). In fact, this established classical form is unknown in Washington. Bringing a
colonnade integrated with a work of art to the capital will add flavor to the city’s
architecture.
3. The woven metal tapestry will not work aesthetically or practically
Counter-argument: Recent tests done by contractors have shown the feasibility of the
tapestry design. Samples show that complex artistry is feasible and permits visibility for
the Department of Education. Indeed the subject, an Abilene landscape, is appropriate
considering Eisenhower’s background and the significance of landscape to American art.
108 Dhiru Thadani, “A misshapen memorial to President Eisenhower,” New Urban Network.
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4. Gehry is too controversial an architect for a presidential memorial
Counter-argument: Controversy surrounding monuments in Washington is nothing
new. John Russell Pope, the designer of the Jefferson Memorial, was criticized for his
classical design which was considered dull and stale, not fitting of our modern age. It is
normal for disagreements to arise during the process of creating monuments. Even the
celebrated Pierre L’Enfant had critics. He ultimately lost his job as the planner of
Washington and died in obscurity. Regardless of what one thinks of Frank Gehry’s
architectural resume, it is evident that he takes his job seriously and wants the monument
to have gravitas, capturing the essence of Eisenhower’s life and celebrating his
accomplishments.
5. The design is not fitting for Eisenhower’s humility and personality
Counter-argument: This is always a concern when building memorials to presidents.
The Lincoln and Jefferson Memorials were both considered too grandiose for presidents
of rural backgrounds. Likewise, conflicts emerged over the FDR memorial. Roosevelt
himself declared, “If they are to put up any memorial to me, I should like it to be placed
in the center of that green plot in front of the Archives Building. I should like it to consist
of a block about the size [of this desk].” But, despite the professed humility of
presidents, Americans have seen fit to memorialize great presidents. The proposed
memorial to Eisenhower celebrates the man’s life, while emphasizing his values and
origins. No togate colossal statue will dominate the public space. Instead, the colonnade
and tapestry will democratically create a park with images from the “heart of America,”
bringing a hero and statesman from Abilene to the nation’s capital.
6. Money should not be used for a memorial in Washington. There are already too
many.
Counter-argument: This criticism has been brought up before. In the 1960s, one critic
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of the planned FDR memorial declared that the city was “becoming a free-for-all for
memorials.”109 To be sure, we need to show restraint when we construct memorials, but
this will only be the seventh national presidential memorial in Washington. Its size and
cost are appropriate for a great American who destroyed Hitler and won eight years of
peace and prosperity for his country. The new memorial will revitalize space in the SW
quadrant of D.C. and will bring tourists to explore more of the city.
7. Money should not be used for a memorial. The federal government has enough on
its hands.
Counter-argument: In times of economic difficulty, restraint and prudence are needed.
At the same time, it is important to commit ourselves to celebrating our nation’s history
and honoring great Americans. Historically, crises have not prevented this. The capitol
dome was constructed in the Civil War and the Jefferson Memorial was begun during the
Great Depression and completed during World War II. The Eisenhower Memorial is
only asking for 80 percent government funding (the rest private), where many past
memorials have gotten 100 percent. Even as our government faces debts and deficits, it
is still important to commemorate Eisenhower’s far-reaching legacy.
109 Creighton, The Architecture of Monuments, 40.
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Appendix C: The Overlord Embroidery
The Overlord Embroidery has a special significance for Eisenhower. Not only does he
appear on it, but he organized and commanded the invasion. In light of this special connection,
as well as the Eisenhower Memorial Commission’s proposed “tapestry,” the Overlord
Embroidery deserves separate consideration.
In 1968, Lord Dulverton commissioned the embroidery to serve as “a tribute to the part
played by our country and countrymen in defeating a great evil that sprang upon the Western
World.” In many ways “the modern day counterpart” of the eleventh-century Bayeux Tapestry,
the Overlord Embroidery tells the story of the June 6, 1944 invasion of Normandy. The aim of
the tapestry is to “bring home to succeeding generations the message of sacrifice and selflessness
displayed by those who took part in Overlord.”
The embroidery is currently displayed in the D-Day Museum in Portsmouth, England. At
272 feet, it is one of the longest wall hangings of its type. The 34 panels trace the story of the
invasion from the start of the war to the defeat of the Germans in France. In many ways, this
tapestry provides a “broader view of war and its effects” than the Bayeux Tapestry, for the
Overlord Embroidery incorporates scenes from not just military but also civilian life. Mindful of
the contributions made by private citizens, the makers of the tapestry depict industry and
agriculture, as well as the hardships brought on by the war. Lord Dulverton wrote that the
tapestry was never meant to be “a tribute to war, but to our people in whom it brought out in
adversity so much that is good in determination, ingenuity, fortitude and sacrifice.”
Eisenhower also understood the sweeping effects of war. He said, “I hate war as only a
soldier who has lived it can, only as one who has seen its brutality, its futility, its stupidity.” Far
from glorifying war, Eisenhower understood the importance of sacrifice and the call of duty. In
his role as Supreme Allied Commander, he led the invasion of Normandy and the subsequent
“Crusade in Europe.” For his central role in the invasion, Eisenhower appears in three different
panels:
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The Overlord Embroidery, with its explicit relationship to the Bayeux Tapestry, is a
magnificent testament to the achievements of the allies in World War II. The Eisenhower
Memorial’s tapestry continues this tradition and adapts it to an American context. Suspended
from 80-foot columns, the monumental tapestry will feature the Abilene landscape, calling to
mind Eisenhower’s small town roots and juxtaposing those with his achievements in war and
peace. Indeed, Eisenhower’s story is that of the quintessential American. Like Washington, he
left his home to serve the state in war and, having secured peace, returned to private life. With
reluctance, he returned to public service as president, leading with vision and unswerving
integrity. Ike’s far-reaching legacy as a soldier and statesman deserves a splendid memorial,
steeped in tradition and powerful in meaning.
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Appendix D: Tapestry and the Eisenhower Memorial – A Commentary
The task of building a memorial to President and General Eisenhower is a daunting one, filled
with important new challenges. Perhaps the largest problem facing the Eisenhower Memorial
Commission is that Eisenhower was a complex man, a soldier, a statesman, and a citizen. In
many ways his life is made up of paradoxes. He was the last president born in the 19th century,
a man principled and devoted to tradition, yet he was a modern leader, receptive to change and
open to new ideas. He was a Kansan who left his home to serve his country. He was a general
who hated battle. Few men knew war better than he and fewer did more to prevent it.
A fitting memorial for Eisenhower must express Eisenhower’s strongest convictions, his
monumental achievements, and his modest background. This general and president was a man
from middle-America, upon whose heart was inscribed the value of “Duty, Honor, Country.”
The values embodied in the Kansas landscape would serve as the background for the overall
canvas on which Eisenhower’s life played out. His is the story of “a barefoot boy” who left his
home to serve his country. With unswerving integrity, he led an army of allies to total victory
and continued serving his country until retiring to private life. “Called to a higher duty” he
returned to the service of his country as the first NATO commander. He then became president
and presciently led the United States to eight years of peace and prosperity.
The Eisenhower Memorial Commission selected a design by world-renowned architect Frank O.
Gehry. The design features ten monumental 80-foot columns supporting a metal “tapestry” with
scenes from Abilene, Kansas, Eisenhower’s boyhood home. The core memorial area will have
statuary of Eisenhower as a boy, as a general, and as a president. Stones inscribed with
quotations will articulate Eisenhower’s views on peace, democracy, and freedom. This design –
especially the tapestry – is uniquely appropriate to memorialize Eisenhower:
Tapestry’s lengthy history testifies to its survivability, longevity, and continued
relevance. The art of weaving dates to prehistory, and tapestry is over 5,000 years old.
It has remained an important element of Western culture in our history, literature, and art.
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Ancient and medieval tapestries have survived for hundreds – even thousands – of years,
often retaining much of their vivid color. Currently, Gehry Partners is planning for a
lifespan of at least two-hundred years for the stainless steel tapestry. This long-term
vision for the memorial is appropriate considering tapestry’s timelessness and remarkable
survivability.
Tapestry resonates not merely culturally but fundamentally at a human level. Since
prehistory, people have crafted baskets, rugs, and wall hangings using weaving
techniques which are fundamentally the same as those used today. According to one
scholar, “tapestry has been especially closely bound up with the life of every time.” The
simplicity and beauty of this craft calls to mind Eisenhower’s experience in the
heartland—his boyhood in Abilene—where he learned the value of hard work,
dedication, and teamwork.
The art form’s broad cultural appeal is fitting for Eisenhower, a “citizen of the
world.” Although significant to Western cultures, tapestry is not exclusive to any one
people but is the shared treasure of all mankind. From Berlin to Beijing, from Cairo to
Kentucky, woven objects and textiles are used functionally and aesthetically.
Eisenhower’s actions, as general and president, show how earnestly he believed in trying
to forge bonds of friendship between nations. How appropriate, then, that he should be
memorialized with tapestry, an art form appealing to people of every creed and color, a
craft which calls to mind the ingenuity and thrift of hard-working Americans and people
the world over.
Tapestry has always evolved to meet new technological challenges, so a stainless
steel “tapestry” is a positive new step. What began as a “low-warp” loom, consisting
of four stakes stuck in the ground to support the warp threads, eventually became a
complex machine allowing for the speedy production of complex tapestries incorporating
cotton, wool, silk, metal, and other materials. The challenges confronted by the makers
of the Eisenhower Memorial’s tapestries are another chapter in the art form’s story of
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technological innovation. This is an apt approach for a memorial to Eisenhower, a
modern president who was receptive to change.
Historically, tapestry has been used to depict a wide variety of themes. Far from
being purely decorative, tapestries are used to tell stories and to inform. Mythological,
biblical, and historical scenes were popular in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. The
Eisenhower Memorial will tell the story of Ike’s small town roots and juxtapose those
with a physical representation of the magnitude of his accomplishments in war and peace,
as a five-star general and as president of the United States.
Integrated with text, tapestry can be a powerful communicator. The Bayeux
Tapestry, described by one scholar as “one of the most powerful pieces of visual
propaganda ever produced,” uses Latin captions to narrate the story being played out in
the art. Likewise, the Eisenhower Memorial will use quotations by Eisenhower to give
context to the tapestry of the Abilene Landscape, the background for the overall canvas
upon which Ike’s life played out.
The use of columns to delineate an outdoor space for the public to view art is an
established classical paradigm. The Stoa Poikile, Forum Augustum, Templum Pacis,
and Canopus at Hadrian’s Villa all use columns to define outdoor space and facilitate the
enjoyment of art. In a similar way, the Eisenhower Memorial harmonizes artwork – the
tapestry – with a colonnade and, in doing so, creates an outdoor public space in which
people can engage with the life story and values of Eisenhower. Using this classical
paradigm to celebrate Eisenhower in a modern setting is particularily fitting to honor the
last president born in the 19th century, a man who laid the foundation for successful
transition to the 21st century.
• The synthesis of architecture and a stainless steel tapestry allows the viewing public
to experience this significant art form. Gehry’s design overcomes the traditional limits
on tapestry and makes it something public, for all to see. No longer confined to cramped
rooms in dusty museums and castles, tapestry can now move into a centralized outdoor
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space. This egalitarian shift is fitting for Eisenhower, a man dedicated to the values of
equality and democracy. It is appropriate that it is designed by Frank Gehry, who has
shared art forms with people throughout the world.
The integration in the Eisehower Memorial of tapestry, landscape, and statuary for
memorialization is unique and unprecedented. American monumental architecture has
always creatively adapted existing styles and art-forms into new designs. Even the
Lincoln Memorial, a seemingly conservative monument, deviates from the traditional
alignment and proportion of a Doric temple in order to create a uniquely American
monument. The Jefferson Memorial, although based on the Pantheon, is actually quite
unique in terms of material and layout. Likewise, the WWII, Vietnam, and Korean War
Memorials have no equals in design. The Eisenhower Memorial's unprecedented
integration of diverse elements - tapestry, landscape, and statuary - will make it a
memorable Washington site with deep connections to Eisenhower.
Frank Gehry’s design is fitting for Eisenhower’s memorialization. It is a difficult task to reflect
in brick and mortar a legacy as complex and multifaceted as Eisenhower’s. The achievements
and character of the general and president deserve a timeless and powerful monument which
embodies his values. Tapestry, spanning time as an art and craft, resonates fundamentally at a
human level. By combining it with columns, Gehry has given tapestry the gravitas and scale
fitting of a presidential memorial. In fact, the meaning caught up in tapestry – its association
with military victory and its shift from the private sphere to the public square – makes the design
uniquely appropriate for Ike.