Francis Cecil SumnerFrancis Cecil Sumner1895-19541895-1954

Overview of PresentationOverview of Presentation

• Background InformationBackground Information• Historical AntecedentsHistorical Antecedents• ZeitgeistZeitgeist• Professional Obstacles and StrugglesProfessional Obstacles and Struggles• Experiments, Research, and Clinical Data Supporting Experiments, Research, and Clinical Data Supporting

his Theory and Ideashis Theory and Ideas• Strengths and Weaknesses of his Theory and IdeasStrengths and Weaknesses of his Theory and Ideas• Influence on Events and Ideas in his Time and on Influence on Events and Ideas in his Time and on

Later Events and Ideas in PsychologyLater Events and Ideas in Psychology

Background InformationBackground Information

Francis Cecil Sumner was born in Pine Bluff, Francis Cecil Sumner was born in Pine Bluff, Arkansas on December 7, 1895. Arkansas on December 7, 1895.

His elementary education was through school His elementary education was through school systems in Virginia and New Jersey. systems in Virginia and New Jersey.

His secondary education was self-taught with the His secondary education was self-taught with the help of his parents. help of his parents.

In 1911, when he was 15 years old, he submitted a In 1911, when he was 15 years old, he submitted a written examination and was permitted to enroll at written examination and was permitted to enroll at Lincoln University. Lincoln University.

He graduated magna cum laude in 1915.He graduated magna cum laude in 1915.

Background InformationBackground Information

Sumner was accepted into Clark University Sumner was accepted into Clark University through the help of his good friend G. Stanley through the help of his good friend G. Stanley Hall. Hall.

In 1916, he graduated valedictorian of his class In 1916, he graduated valedictorian of his class with a Bachelor’s Degree in English. with a Bachelor’s Degree in English.

He then returned to Lincoln University as a He then returned to Lincoln University as a graduate student and professor of German and graduate student and professor of German and psychology. psychology.

He received his Master’s Degree in 1917. He received his Master’s Degree in 1917.

Background InformationBackground Information

Soon after graduation, he received word that Soon after graduation, he received word that he had been accepted to Clark University with he had been accepted to Clark University with a senior scholarship in psychology. a senior scholarship in psychology.

Sumner put his education on hold in 1917 and Sumner put his education on hold in 1917 and 1918 to serve in the United States military in 1918 to serve in the United States military in World War I. World War I.

He returned to Clark University in 1919. He returned to Clark University in 1919. On June 14, 1920, he became the first African On June 14, 1920, he became the first African

American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology.American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology.

Background InformationBackground Information

Sumner taught at Wilberforce Southern Sumner taught at Wilberforce Southern University and West Virginia Collegiate University and West Virginia Collegiate Institute before becoming chairman of the Institute before becoming chairman of the psychology department at Howard University. psychology department at Howard University.

Howard University gained a reputation for Howard University gained a reputation for providing African Americans with the highest providing African Americans with the highest quality of education in psychology. quality of education in psychology.

In fact, it became known as the Black Harvard. In fact, it became known as the Black Harvard.

Background InformationBackground Information

Sumner married twice, but did not have Sumner married twice, but did not have children. children.

On January 12, 1954, he died of a heart attack On January 12, 1954, he died of a heart attack while shoveling snow. while shoveling snow.

He is known as the Father of Black American He is known as the Father of Black American Psychology.Psychology.

Historical AntecedentsHistorical Antecedents

William Edward Burghardt DuBois challenged William Edward Burghardt DuBois challenged the views of Booker T. Washington.the views of Booker T. Washington. He believed that “education among Blacks must He believed that “education among Blacks must

first focus upon educating the best of the race [who first focus upon educating the best of the race [who would then] be in a position to begin to uplift the would then] be in a position to begin to uplift the masses.”masses.”

Inspired a “Negro Renaissance”Inspired a “Negro Renaissance” Intellectuals, novelists, and poets built racial pride Intellectuals, novelists, and poets built racial pride

and hope through writing.and hope through writing.

Historical AntecedentsHistorical Antecedents

African American historians criticized African American historians criticized Caucasian historians for presenting a biased Caucasian historians for presenting a biased view of history by omitting the contributions view of history by omitting the contributions of African Americans.of African Americans.

G. Stanley Hall advocated for the inclusion of G. Stanley Hall advocated for the inclusion of minorities and women in Clark University.minorities and women in Clark University.

ZeitgeistZeitgeist

African Americans considered inferior in African Americans considered inferior in intelligence and moralityintelligence and morality Misuse of intelligence tests to prove the inferiority Misuse of intelligence tests to prove the inferiority

of racial and ethnic minoritiesof racial and ethnic minorities In 1921, United States president Warren Harding In 1921, United States president Warren Harding

said that social equality between African said that social equality between African Americans and Caucasians would never be Americans and Caucasians would never be possible due to “fundamental, inescapable, and possible due to “fundamental, inescapable, and eternal differences of race.”eternal differences of race.”

ZeitgeistZeitgeist

SegregationSegregation Sumner had a separate table in the dining hall of Sumner had a separate table in the dining hall of

Clark University. Clark University. African Americans were excluded from African Americans were excluded from

educational, occupational, and military educational, occupational, and military opportunities.opportunities.

They were restricted to agricultural and vocational They were restricted to agricultural and vocational trades.trades.

Admission to SchoolsAdmission to Schools

American University and the University of American University and the University of Illinois denied him admission to graduate Illinois denied him admission to graduate school.school.

Instead, he attended Lincoln University and Instead, he attended Lincoln University and Clark University.Clark University.

World War IWorld War I

Drafted as an infantry sergeantDrafted as an infantry sergeant Proficient in foreign language and could have Proficient in foreign language and could have

been a valuable translator or code breakerbeen a valuable translator or code breaker Instead, he constructed railroads in the 808 Instead, he constructed railroads in the 808

Pioneer Infantry.Pioneer Infantry.

ControversiesControversies

Sumner wrote two controversial letters to the Sumner wrote two controversial letters to the Worcester GazetteWorcester Gazette.. Discussed the oppression of African AmericansDiscussed the oppression of African Americans Criticized how the United States viewed Germany Criticized how the United States viewed Germany

after World War Iafter World War I Advocated for school segregation on the basis Advocated for school segregation on the basis

of the inferiority of African Americansof the inferiority of African Americans Conducted controversial research on racial Conducted controversial research on racial

issuesissues

ResearchResearch

Racial equalityRacial equality Attitudes regarding justice for African Attitudes regarding justice for African

AmericansAmericans Goal was for justice to be administered more Goal was for justice to be administered more

democraticallydemocratically

Sumner and Sumner (1931)Sumner and Sumner (1931)

Impact of race on mental healthImpact of race on mental health ParticipantsParticipants

593 college students593 college students 400 Caucasian400 Caucasian 193 African American193 African American

70 psychoneurotic people70 psychoneurotic people

MeasuresMeasures

The Mental Hygiene InventoryThe Mental Hygiene Inventory 170 questions 170 questions Psychoneurotic symptomsPsychoneurotic symptoms Childhood Childhood AdulthoodAdulthood

ResultsResults

Caucasians and African Americans had an Caucasians and African Americans had an approximately equal amount of psychoneurotic approximately equal amount of psychoneurotic symptoms in childhood and adulthood.symptoms in childhood and adulthood.

For most psychoneurotic symptoms, the For most psychoneurotic symptoms, the African Americans resembled the Caucasians African Americans resembled the Caucasians more than the psychoneurotic people.more than the psychoneurotic people.

Sumner and Campbell (1939)Sumner and Campbell (1939)

Attitudes regarding justice for African Attitudes regarding justice for African AmericansAmericans

ParticipantsParticipants

431 employed adults431 employed adults 215 Caucasian 215 Caucasian 216 African American216 African American

1,082 college students1,082 college students 443 Caucasian 443 Caucasian 639 African American639 African American

MeasuresMeasures

QuestionnaireQuestionnaire 118 statements pertaining to courts, judges, jurors, 118 statements pertaining to courts, judges, jurors,

defendants, plaintiffs, lawyers, justice, etc.defendants, plaintiffs, lawyers, justice, etc. Taken from newspapers, books, and conversationsTaken from newspapers, books, and conversations Rated on a five-point scale, ranging from Rated on a five-point scale, ranging from

absolutely true to absolutely falseabsolutely true to absolutely false

ResultsResults

For 24 of the statements, at least 67% of the For 24 of the statements, at least 67% of the participants were in agreement about whether participants were in agreement about whether it was true or false.it was true or false.

The participants were not in favor of the The participants were not in favor of the judicial system being abolished.judicial system being abolished.

However, they wanted it to be modified so that However, they wanted it to be modified so that it was fairer. it was fairer.

Sumner and Lee (1941)Sumner and Lee (1941)

Similarities between African American dyadsSimilarities between African American dyads ParticipantsParticipants

110 African American college students110 African American college students 15 pairs of male-male friends15 pairs of male-male friends 15 pairs of female-female friends15 pairs of female-female friends 15 male-female couples15 male-female couples

MeasuresMeasures

IntelligenceIntelligence Otis Self-Administering Test of Mental Ability, Otis Self-Administering Test of Mental Ability,

Higher FormHigher Form Socioeconomic statusSocioeconomic status

Simms Score CardSimms Score Card Interest-attitudeInterest-attitude

Pressey Interest-Attitude TestPressey Interest-Attitude Test

MeasuresMeasures

Personality traitsPersonality traits Bernreuter Personality InventoryBernreuter Personality Inventory

Skin colorSkin color Color chartColor chart

Nine equally spaced shadesNine equally spaced shades Ranged from white to blackRanged from white to black

ResultsResults

African American college students who are African American college students who are male choose friends who are similar in male choose friends who are similar in interest-attitude and skin color.interest-attitude and skin color.

African American college students choose African American college students choose partners who are similar in socioeconomic partners who are similar in socioeconomic status, skin color, and age.status, skin color, and age.

Sumner and Shaed (1945)Sumner and Shaed (1945)

Attitudes regarding justice for African Attitudes regarding justice for African AmericansAmericans

ParticipantsParticipants

906 college students906 college students 246 Caucasian246 Caucasian 660 African American660 African American

193 adults193 adults 42 Caucasian42 Caucasian 151 African American151 African American

MeasuresMeasures

QuestionnaireQuestionnaire 56 statements pertaining to courts, judges, jurors, 56 statements pertaining to courts, judges, jurors,

defendants, plaintiffs, lawyers, justice, etc. defendants, plaintiffs, lawyers, justice, etc. Taken from the conversations of African Taken from the conversations of African

AmericansAmericans Rated on a five-point scale, ranging from Rated on a five-point scale, ranging from

absolutely true to absolutely falseabsolutely true to absolutely false

ResultsResults

The correlation of responses between the The correlation of responses between the Caucasian and African American college Caucasian and African American college students was .78. students was .78.

The correlation of responses between the The correlation of responses between the Caucasian and African Americans adults Caucasian and African Americans adults was .60. was .60.

Sumner and Clark (1945)Sumner and Clark (1945)

Estimates of the intelligence and Estimates of the intelligence and wholesomeness of personality of African wholesomeness of personality of African AmericansAmericans

ParticipantsParticipants

SubjectsSubjects 7 African American college students7 African American college students

2 male2 male 5 female5 female Varied in skin colorVaried in skin color

JudgesJudges 52 African American adults52 African American adults

10 male10 male 42 female42 female

MeasuresMeasures

IntelligenceIntelligence Otis Higher Examination From DOtis Higher Examination From D Otis Higher Examination From BOtis Higher Examination From B Army Alpha Form 9Army Alpha Form 9 The subjects were ranked according to their The subjects were ranked according to their

intelligence.intelligence. Personality traitsPersonality traits

Bernreuter Personality InventoryBernreuter Personality Inventory

ProcedureProcedure

NameName Rankings of intelligence and wholesomeness Rankings of intelligence and wholesomeness

of personalityof personality 10 minute interview10 minute interview Rankings of intelligence and wholesomeness Rankings of intelligence and wholesomeness

of personalityof personality

ResultsResults

Before the interview, intelligence rankings Before the interview, intelligence rankings were correlated with:were correlated with: Looks .61Looks .61 Skin color - .32Skin color - .32

After the interview, intelligence rankings were After the interview, intelligence rankings were correlated with:correlated with: Self-sufficiency .82Self-sufficiency .82 Skin color .00Skin color .00

ResultsResults

Before the interview, wholesomeness of Before the interview, wholesomeness of personality rankings were correlated with:personality rankings were correlated with: Looks .57Looks .57 Skin color - .18Skin color - .18

After the interview, wholesomeness of After the interview, wholesomeness of personality rankings were correlated with:personality rankings were correlated with: Self-sufficiency .68Self-sufficiency .68 Skin color - .25Skin color - .25

ResultsResults

The judges could not accurately estimate the The judges could not accurately estimate the intelligence of the subjects before or after the intelligence of the subjects before or after the interview.interview.

Estimates of intelligence and wholesomeness Estimates of intelligence and wholesomeness of personality were influenced negatively or of personality were influenced negatively or not at all by skin color.not at all by skin color.

StrengthsStrengths

Suggested better higher educational facilities Suggested better higher educational facilities for African Americansfor African Americans

Challenged his students to work hardChallenged his students to work hard

WeaknessesWeaknesses

““Philosophy of Negro education” Philosophy of Negro education” Condoned Booker T. Washington’s sentiment that Condoned Booker T. Washington’s sentiment that

higher education for African Americans should be higher education for African Americans should be limited to agricultural and vocational traininglimited to agricultural and vocational training

Agreed with G. V. Cools that education for Agreed with G. V. Cools that education for African Americans should include character African Americans should include character buildingbuilding

WeaknessesWeaknesses

““Morale and the Negro college” Morale and the Negro college” Stated that only a very small fraction of African Stated that only a very small fraction of African

Americans should receive higher educationAmericans should receive higher education Suggested that they attend schools specifically for Suggested that they attend schools specifically for

African AmericansAfrican Americans

InfluenceInfluence

Kenneth ClarkKenneth Clark Sumner’s most famous former studentSumner’s most famous former student Planned to attend medical school after Planned to attend medical school after

graduating from Howard Universitygraduating from Howard University Changed his mind after taking an introductory Changed his mind after taking an introductory

psychology class with Sumnerpsychology class with Sumner ““To hell with medical school. [Psychology] is the To hell with medical school. [Psychology] is the

discipline for me.”discipline for me.”

Kenneth ClarkKenneth Clark

““Professor Sumner had rigorous standards for his Professor Sumner had rigorous standards for his students. And he didn't just teach psychology. He students. And he didn't just teach psychology. He taught integrity. And although he led the way for other taught integrity. And although he led the way for other Blacks in psychology, Sumner would permit no Blacks in psychology, Sumner would permit no nonsense about there being anything like a ‘Black nonsense about there being anything like a ‘Black psychology,’ any more than he would have allowed any psychology,’ any more than he would have allowed any nonsense about a ‘Black astronomy.’ In this and in nonsense about a ‘Black astronomy.’ In this and in many other ways, Sumner was a model for me. In fact, many other ways, Sumner was a model for me. In fact, he has always been my standard when I evaluate he has always been my standard when I evaluate myself.”myself.”

Kenneth ClarkKenneth Clark

Wrote and edited books on racial issuesWrote and edited books on racial issues Prejudice and Your Child (1955)Prejudice and Your Child (1955) Dark Ghetto: Dilemmas of Social Power (1965)Dark Ghetto: Dilemmas of Social Power (1965) Relevant War Against Poverty (1968)Relevant War Against Poverty (1968) Negro American (1968)Negro American (1968) Pathos of Power (1974)Pathos of Power (1974)

First African American president of the American First African American president of the American Psychological Association (1970-1971)Psychological Association (1970-1971)

President of the Psychological Study of Social IssuesPresident of the Psychological Study of Social Issues

Kenneth ClarkKenneth Clark Clark and his wife researched the effects of prejudice, Clark and his wife researched the effects of prejudice,

discrimination, and segregation on the developing discrimination, and segregation on the developing child.child.

Their work was cited in the 1954 Supreme Court case Their work was cited in the 1954 Supreme Court case that ended school segregation, that ended school segregation, Brown v. Board of Brown v. Board of EducationEducation. .

Sumner died before the ruling. Sumner died before the ruling. However, he was said to have been proud that one of However, he was said to have been proud that one of

his students played such a significant role in what is his students played such a significant role in what is considered by many to be the most important considered by many to be the most important Supreme Court decision of the twentieth century.Supreme Court decision of the twentieth century.

InfluenceInfluence

Sawyer (2000)Sawyer (2000) Sumner had a hidden agenda in advocating for Sumner had a hidden agenda in advocating for

school segregation on the basis of the school segregation on the basis of the inferiority of African Americans.inferiority of African Americans. Recognized the futility of arguing for equal, Recognized the futility of arguing for equal,

integrated educationintegrated education Placated Caucasians to receive economic and Placated Caucasians to receive economic and

political support for African American educationpolitical support for African American education

Summary of PresentationSummary of Presentation

First African American to earn a Ph.D. in First African American to earn a Ph.D. in psychologypsychology

Known as the Father of Black American Known as the Father of Black American PsychologyPsychology

Encountered prejudice and discrimination at a Encountered prejudice and discrimination at a time when African Americans were punished time when African Americans were punished for speaking outfor speaking out

Summary of PresentationSummary of Presentation

Established an independent psychology Established an independent psychology department at Howard University, where he department at Howard University, where he was an influential teacherwas an influential teacher

Advocated for school segregation, but his Advocated for school segregation, but his intent was to provide higher quality education intent was to provide higher quality education for African Americansfor African Americans

Conducted research on racial issues, including Conducted research on racial issues, including the administration of justicethe administration of justice

Exam QuestionsExam Questions

Which two colleges denied Sumner admission? Which two colleges denied Sumner admission? (a). American University and the University of (a). American University and the University of IllinoisIllinois(b). Lincoln University and the University of Illinois(b). Lincoln University and the University of Illinois(c). American University and West Virginia (c). American University and West Virginia Collegiate InstituteCollegiate Institute(d). The University of Oklahoma and Auburn (d). The University of Oklahoma and Auburn UniversityUniversity(e). Clark University and Howard University (e). Clark University and Howard University

Exam QuestionsExam Questions

In his articles “Philosophy of Negro education” and In his articles “Philosophy of Negro education” and ““Morale and the Negro college,” Sumner stated that:Morale and the Negro college,” Sumner stated that:(a). African Americans are inferior to Caucasians.(a). African Americans are inferior to Caucasians.(b). Education for African Americans should include (b). Education for African Americans should include character building. character building. (c). Higher education should be offered to a very (c). Higher education should be offered to a very small fraction of African Americans.small fraction of African Americans.(d). School segregation should continue.(d). School segregation should continue.(e). All of the above (e). All of the above

Exam QuestionsExam Questions

Sumner’s most famous former student is: Sumner’s most famous former student is:

(a). Frederick Payne Watts(a). Frederick Payne Watts

(b). Kenneth Bancroff Clark(b). Kenneth Bancroff Clark

(c). Horace Mann Bond(c). Horace Mann Bond

(d). Charles Henry Turner(d). Charles Henry Turner

(e). Angie King(e). Angie King

ReferencesReferences Guthrie, R. V. (2004). Guthrie, R. V. (2004). Even the rat was white: A historical Even the rat was white: A historical

view of psychology view of psychology (2nd ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.(2nd ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. Sawyer, T. F. (2000). Francis Cecil Sumner: His views and Sawyer, T. F. (2000). Francis Cecil Sumner: His views and

influence on African American higher education. influence on African American higher education. History of History of Psychology, 3Psychology, 3, 122-141., 122-141.

Schultz, D. P. & Schultz, S. E. (2004). Schultz, D. P. & Schultz, S. E. (2004). A history of modern A history of modern psychologypsychology (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Sumner, F. C. & Campbell, A. S. (1939). Attitudes toward the Sumner, F. C. & Campbell, A. S. (1939). Attitudes toward the administration of justice. administration of justice. Journal of Psychology: Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 8Interdisciplinary and Applied, 8, 23-52., 23-52.

Sumner, F. C. & Clark, K. B. (1945). Some factors influencing Sumner, F. C. & Clark, K. B. (1945). Some factors influencing a group of Negroes in their estimation of the intelligence and a group of Negroes in their estimation of the intelligence and personality-wholesomeness of Negro subjects. personality-wholesomeness of Negro subjects. Journal of Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 19Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 19, 75-78., 75-78.

ReferencesReferences Sumner, F. C. & Lee, J. A. (1941). Sumner, F. C. & Lee, J. A. (1941). Some resemblances Some resemblances

between friends of like sex and between friends of unlike sex between friends of like sex and between friends of unlike sex among a group of Negro college students. among a group of Negro college students. Journal of Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 12Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 12, 199-201., 199-201.

Sumner, F. C. & Shaed, D. L. (1945). Negro-white attitudes Sumner, F. C. & Shaed, D. L. (1945). Negro-white attitudes towards the administration of justice as affecting Negroes. towards the administration of justice as affecting Negroes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 29Journal of Applied Psychology, 29, 368-377., 368-377.

Sumner, F. C. & Sumner, F. H. (1931). Sumner, F. C. & Sumner, F. H. (1931). The mental health of The mental health of white and negro college students. white and negro college students. Journal of Abnormal and Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 26Social Psychology, 26, 28-36., 28-36.

http://www.arches.uga.edu/~tmoney/index.htmlhttp://www.arches.uga.edu/~tmoney/index.html http://www.arches.uga.edu/~tmoney/page2.htmlhttp://www.arches.uga.edu/~tmoney/page2.html http://www.earlham.edu/~knigher/Contributions.htmhttp://www.earlham.edu/~knigher/Contributions.htm http://www.earlham.edu/~knigher/personal%20biography.htmhttp://www.earlham.edu/~knigher/personal%20biography.htm

ReferencesReferences

http://www.earlham.edu/~knigher/Professionalhttp://www.earlham.edu/~knigher/Professional%20Biography.htm%20Biography.htm

http://www.earlham.edu/~knigher/sumner.htmhttp://www.earlham.edu/~knigher/sumner.htm