fractures “cracks along which cohesion of the material has been lost” - planes of...
TRANSCRIPT
Fractures
“cracks along which cohesion of the material has been lost”- planes of discontinuity…most common type of geologic structure
Two types of fractures:
(1) Faults: surface across which the rock has been displaced in a direction that is generally parallel to the fracture
(2) Joints: a fracture with NO displacement parallel to the fracture plane…displacement is perpendicular to the fracture…will look at in more detail in subsequent lecture
Very commonly filled with mineralization…
Fissure: special class of joints that have dilation >20 cm
Why study fractures?
EngineeringFluid flowEarthquake hazardsStress-strain significance
1. Engineering
QuickTime™ and aTIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
QuickTime™ and aTIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
2. Fractures can control subsurface fluid flow
paths
Courtesy of Zion National Park
3. Siesmic hazards
Freeway Damage from 1994Northridge Earthquake
4. Stress-strain signficance
Fractures record tectonism
Joints due to:1. Faulting2. Mechanical
Stratigraphy3. Fold Shape
Describing Faults
Faults: a fracture surface across which the rock has been displaced in a direction that is generally parallel to the surface itself.
Classification of faults:- each type of fault forms under different
geologic conditions- so, if we can characterize the nature of the
fault, we can conclude something about the geologic history...
Fault classifications are based on two basic observations:
(1) orientation of the fault surface
(2) nature of the displacement or offset across the fault
Also: to a lesser extent(3) Character of the fault surface
(This comes into recognizing the faults…we’ll look at this later)
Fault Classification
Orientation of fault surfaces:
Strike
Dip
strik
e
dip
Note: for mechanical reasons fault planes are seldom planar over long distances…thus, must take MANY strike and dip along a fault
Basic Fault Terminology (more to come later):Footwall – block sitting below the fault surface
Hanging wall – “ “ “ “ above the fault surface
NormalFault
Foot
wal
l
Han
ging
wal
l
Footwall
Hangin
g wal
l
Thrust/ReverseFault
Strike-SlipFault
Nature of slip along Faults
Nature of Fault Surfaces
Discrete fracture or fault zone
Nature of Fault Surfaces
SlickensidesStriationsGrooves
Reidel shears (photo by M.Miller)
Nature of Fault Surfaces
Joints and MicrofaultsFault brecciaVein FillingFault GougePseudotachylite
Nature of Fault Surfaces
Deformation BandsCataclastic rocks
and myloniteDuctile shear zones
Adirondacks Jay, NY
Nature of Fault Shapes
Faults are not infinite
Wytch Farm Oil Field, southern England (taken from Kttenhorn & Pollard, AAPG Bull, 2001)
Terminology of Slip
Slip: actual relative displacement on a fault. Orientation of the slip line Magnitude of displacement Relative displacement
Drag folds as slip indicators
Distortion of layers consistent with sense of shear
Reverse drag
Recognition of faults
1. Truncation and offset of rock units
2. Inconsistent stratigraphic relationships
Recognition of faults
3. Fault Scarps4. Fault Line Scarps
Photos by M. Miller
Recognition of faults
5. Triangular facets6. Erosional traces
Death Valley (photo by M. Miller)
Recognition of faults
7. Topographic irregularities Tectonic
geomorphology
http://www.intermargins.org/tsunami1.html#a2
Recognition of faults
8. Geophysics
From the University of Leeds, UK
From the University of Leeds, UK