1

Five central issuesFive central issuesFossilization:Fossilization:

ZhaoHong HanZhaoHong HanTeachers College, Columbia Teachers College, Columbia

UniversityUniversityHan@tc.columbia.edu

SLRF 2002, Toronto, CanadaSLRF 2002, Toronto, Canada

2

The ultimate goal of second The ultimate goal of second language acquisition research is language acquisition research is to come to an understanding of to come to an understanding of what is acquired what is acquired

and and the mechanisms that bring second the mechanisms that bring second language knowledge about.language knowledge about.

_ ___________________ __________________(and what is not acquired)(and what is not acquired)

(Gass, 1988:198; emphasis added)(Gass, 1988:198; emphasis added)

3

1. Background1. Background2. Definitions and putative causal variables2. Definitions and putative causal variables3. Conceptual issues3. Conceptual issues4. Major methodological approaches and 4. Major methodological approaches and

issuesissues5. Some concluding thoughts5. Some concluding thoughts

4

Background

5

Chien-Shiung WuChien-Shiung Wu19421942 19901990

speaking idiosyncratic speaking idiosyncratic EnglishEnglishwith her early with her early

difficulties with difficulties with English still English still evidentevident

6

One of the most enduring and fascinating One of the most enduring and fascinating problems confronting researchers of problems confronting researchers of second language acquisition (SLA) issecond language acquisition (SLA) is

whether adults can ever whether adults can ever acquire native-like acquire native-like competence in a second competence in a second language (L2),language (L2),

7

One of the most enduring and fascinating One of the most enduring and fascinating problems confronting researchers of problems confronting researchers of second language acquisition (SLA) issecond language acquisition (SLA) is

whether this is an whether this is an accomplishment accomplishment reserved for children reserved for children who start learning at a who start learning at a relatively early age relatively early age

(Kellerman, 1995: 219)

8

For most of us the acquisition of second language is less spectacular. If we are past the age of around 7-10 years the acquisition of an L2, in marked contrast to the way we acquired our first language (L1), can turn out to be rather slow, laborious and, even in talented L2 learners, tends to stop short of native-like proficiency.

9

This "stopping short" has been referred to as fossilization (Selinker, 1972) or incompleteness (Schachter, 1990). It is one of the noticeable characteristics of second language acquisition.

(Towell & Hawkins, 1994:2)

This "stopping short" has been referred to as fossilization (Selinker, 1972) or incompleteness (Schachter, 1990). It is one of the noticeable characteristics of second language acquisition.

10

DefinitionsDefinitions

11

SelinkerSelinker(1972)(1972) Fossilization, a mechanism …

underlies surface linguistic material which speakers will tend to keep in their IL productive performance,

no matter what the age of the learner or the amount of instruction he receives in the TL. (Selinker 1972: 229)

Fossilization, a mechanism … underlies surface linguistic material which speakers will tend to keep in their IL productive performance,

12

SelinkerSelinker(1972)(1972)[F]ossilizable linguistic phenomena are linguistic items, rules, and sub-systems which speakers of a particular L1 tend to keep in their IL relative to a particular TL,

no matter what the age of the learner or amount of explanation and instruction he receives in the TL....

(Selinker, 1972: 215)

13

SelinkerSelinker(1978)(1978) … a permanent cessation of IL

learning before the learner has attained TL norms at all levels of linguistic structure and in all discourse domains

in spite of the learner’s positive ability, opportunity, and motivation to learn and acculturate into target society. (Selinker & Lamendella, 1978: 187)

… a permanent cessation of IL learning before the learner has attained TL norms at all levels of linguistic structure and in all discourse domains

14

SelinkerSelinker(1996)(1996)[F]ossilization is the process whereby the learner creates a cessation of interlanguage learning, thus stopping the interlanguage from developing, it is hypothesized, in a permanent way …. The argument is that no adult can hope to ever speak a second language in such a way that s/he is indistinguishable from native speakers of that language. (Selinker, 1996)

[F]ossilization is the process whereby the learner creates a cessation of interlanguage learning, thus stopping the interlanguage from developing, it is hypothesized, in a permanent way ….

15

Fossilization, as presented in much of the literature, is understood to be the of a person to attain nativelike ability in the target language. (Lowther, 1983: 127; emphasis added)

inability

LowtherLowther

16

EllisEllis

Fossilized structures can be realized as errors or as correct target language forms.

(1985: 48)(1985: 48)

Fossilized structures can be realized as errors or as correct target language forms.

17

EllisEllis (1985: 48)(1985: 48)

If, when fossilization occurs, the learner has reached a stage of development in which feature x in his interlanguage has assumed the same form as in the target language, then fossilization of the correct form will occur.

Fossilized structures can be realized as errors or as correct target language forms.

18

EllisEllis (1985: 48)(1985: 48)

Fossilized structures can be realized as errors or as correct target language forms. If, however, the learner has reached a stage in

which feature y still does not have the same form as the target language, the fossilization will manifest itself as error.

19

Vigil & OllerVigil & Oller[W]e will extend the notion of fossilization

to any case where grammatical rules, construed in the broadest sense, become relatively permanently incorporated into a psychologically real grammar….

(1976:282)(1976:282)

20

Vigil & OllerVigil & Oller[A]n adequate explanation must account for

the incorporation of rules into developing grammars in relatively permanent form regardless of whether those rules conform or do not conform to the norms of the language which is being learned.

(1976:282)(1976:282)

21

Vigil & OllerVigil & OllerIt is not only the fossilization of so-called

'errors' that must be explained, but also the fossilization of correct forms that conform to the target language norms.

(1976:282)(1976:282)

It is not only the fossilization of so-called 'errors' that must be explained, but also the fossilization of correct forms that conform to the target language norms.

It is not only the fossilization of so-called 'errors' that must be explained, but also the fossilization of correct forms that conform to the target language norms.

22

HyltenstamHyltenstamFossilization -- according to observations -- is a

process that may occur in the second language acquisition context as opposed to first language acquisition.

(1988:68)(1988:68)

Fossilization -- according to observations -- is a process that may occur in the second language acquisition context as opposed to first language acquisition.

23

HyltenstamHyltenstamIt covers features of the second language learner’s

interlanguage that deviate from the native speaker norm and are not developing any further, or deviant features which - although seemingly left behind -- re-emerge in the learner’s speech under certain conditions.

(1988:68)(1988:68)

24

HyltenstamHyltenstamThus, the learner has stopped learning or has

reverted to earlier stages of acquisition.

(1988:68)(1988:68)

25

Bley-VromanBley-VromanIt has long been noted that foreign language

learners reach a certain stage of learning - a stage short of success - and that learners then permanently stabilize at this stage.

(1989:47-49)(1989:47-49)

It has long been noted that foreign language learners reach a certain stage of learning - a stage short of success - and that learners then permanently stabilize at this stage.

26

Bley-VromanBley-VromanDevelopment ceases, and even serious

conscious efforts to change are often fruitless. Brief changes are sometimes observed, but they do not 'take'. The learner backslides to the stable state.

(1989:47-49)(1989:47-49)

27

TaroneTarone A central characteristic of any

interlanguage is that it fossilizes -- that is, it ceases to develop at some point short of full identity with the target language.

(1994:1715)(1994:1715)

28

HanHan COGNITIVE LEVEL:

(1998:50)(1998:50)

EMPIRICAL LEVEL:

COGNITIVE LEVEL: Fossilization involves those cognitive processes,

or underlying mechanisms that produce permanently stabilized IL forms.

EMPIRICAL LEVEL: Fossilization involves those stabilized

interlanguage forms that remain in learner speech or writing over time, no matter what the input or what the learner does.

29

Putative causal variables

30

Issue 1: Globalo

rlocal fossilization?

31

Issue 2:L2 ultimate attainment and

fossilization

32

General failure Differential success/failure

33

Bley-VromanBley-Vroman [T]hey achieve very different degrees of language mastery.

(1989:8)(1989:8)

Few, it seems, achieve native-like proficiency. Some stop (or, to use Selinker’s 1972 term, ‘fossilize’) at a very elementary level.

Others come between the two extremes.

34

Hyltenstam and AbrahamssonHyltenstam and Abrahamsson

The ultimate attainment of individual L2 learners varies enormously in its approximation to nativelike proficiency, although some individuals may reach very high levels of proficiency and in some cases even pass as native speakers.

(2002:164(2002:164))

35

Three facets of L2 ultimate attainmentThree facets of L2 ultimate attainment

Cross-learner general failure (general) Cross-learner general failure (general) Inter-learner differential success/failure Inter-learner differential success/failure

(general) (general) Intra-learner differential success/failure Intra-learner differential success/failure

(local) (local)

36

Issue 3:Fossilization as productorprocess

37

Issue 4: fossilizati

on? orStabilizat

ion

38

Major empirical approaches

39

• longitudinal • typical-error • advanced-learner • corrective-feedback • length-of-residence

(LoR)

40

Issue 5:

years or years?5 10

41

Larsen-FreemanLarsen-Freeman (1997:159)(1997:159)

While interlanguages of speakers of various first language learning English as a foreign language have much in common,

Thus, the English pronunciation of a native speaker of Spanish will differ from that of a native speaker of Chinese.

they also are distinctive, each constrained by the strange attractors of their L1s, which may be greater than the force of the strange attractor of English.

42

Larsen-FreemanLarsen-FreemanMany other fundamental differences mark the

challenges present for learners from one native language background as for another. Besides the obvious linguistically-based differences are the learner's cultural backgrounds and reasons for learning (not learning) a second or foreign language in the first place.

(1997:159)(1997:159)

Many other fundamental differences mark the challenges present for learners from one native language background as for another. Besides the obvious linguistically-based differences are the learner's cultural backgrounds and reasons for learning (not learning) a second or foreign language in the first place.

Many other fundamental differences mark the challenges present for learners from one native language background as for another. Besides the obvious linguistically-based differences are the learner's cultural backgrounds and reasons for learning (not learning) a second or foreign language in the first place.

Many other fundamental differences mark the challenges present for learners from one native language background as for another. Besides the obvious linguistically-based differences are the learner's cultural backgrounds and reasons for learning (not learning) a second or foreign language in the first place.

43

Some concluding thoughts