Modifiedfrom:ForestryforEnvirothoners,TennesseeOntarioEnvirothonForestryStudyGuide,ForestsOntarioGeorgiaEnvirothonForestryStudyGuide

Forestry Study Guide

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Learning Objectives Physiology of Trees Forest Ecology

1. Know the typical forest structure: canopy, understory and ground layers and crown classes 2. Understand forest ecology concepts and factors affecting them, including the relationship

between soil and forest types, tree communities, regeneration, competition, and primary and secondary succession.

3. Identify the abiotic and biotic factors in a forest ecosystem, and understand how these factors affect tree growth and forest development. Consider factors such as climate, insects, microorganisms, and wildlife.

Sustainable Forest Management 1. Understand the term silviculture, and be able to explain the uses of the following

silviculture techniques: thinning, prescribed burning, single tree and group tree selection, shelterwood method, clear-cutting with and without seed trees, and coppice management.

2. Explain the following silviculture systems: clear-cutting, seed tree method, even-aged management, uneven-aged management, shelterwood and selection.

3. Understand the methodology and uses of the following silviculture treatments: Planting, weeding, pre-commercial thinning (PCT), commercial thinning and harvesting.

4. Know how to use forestry tools and equipment in order to measure tree diameter, height and basal area.

5. Understand how the following issues are affected by forest health and management: biodiversity, forest fragmentation, forest health, air quality, aesthetics, fire, global warming and recreation.

6. Understand how forestry management practices and policy affect sustainability. 7. Understand how economic, social and ecological factors influence forest management

decisions. 8. Learn how science and technology are being utilized in all aspects of forest management.

Trees as an Important Renewable Resource 1. Understand the importance and value of trees in urban and community settings, and know the

factors affecting their health and survival. 2. Understand the economic value of forests and know many of the products they provide to

people and society 3. Explain the “Ecosystem Services” provided by trees, and understand why trees and forests

are important to human health, recreation, wildlife, and watershed quality.

Introduction In preparing for the Oklahoma Envirothon you may want to reach out to the Oklahoma Forestry Service and the Oklahoma Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry for additional information and assistance. The information contained within this study guide is intended to provide a preview of basic information for the competition. Numerous resources are available from a variety of sources online.

Types of Forests Forest occupy about one-third of Earth’s land area and plan an important role in Earth’s processes. There are different types of forest biomes around the planet that are characterized by numerous factors with seasonality being the most widely used. The forest biomes of the world are broken down into tropical, temperate, and boreal (taiga).

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Tropical Forests Tropical forest are often referred to as rain forests. They have a vast great diversity of plant and animal species. They occur near the equator and have only two seasons: rainy and dry. Temperatures, on average are 20-25oC and vary little throughout the year. Precipitation is usually distributed throughout the year with annual rainfalls of over 200 cm. Soil is nutrient poor and acidic, but decomposition of organic matter is fast providing nutrients for plant life. Temperate Forests Temperate forests are found in North America, Asia, and Europe. They are characterized by well-defined seasons with distinct winters and moderate climates and a growing season of 140-200 days during the frost free months. Temperatures will vary from -30oC to 30oC and precipitation takes the form of rain or snow and can be 75-100 cm annually. Soil is fertile and enriched with decaying litter. Flora and fauna is diverse. Temperature forest are often subdivided by the types of trees most prevalent to the forest including deciduous and coniferous. Boreal (Taiga) Forests Boreal forest are the northern most type of forest and are found in Alaska, Canada, Northern Asia, Siberia, and Scandinavia and represent the largest terrestrial biome. Seasons are divided into short, moist moderately warm summers and long, cold, dry winters. Boreal forest receive little precipitation, 40 to 100 cm and the growing season is only 130 days. The soil is thin and nutrient poor as decomposition is very slow due to cold temperatures. Most tree species are cold-tolerant evergreens with needle-like leaves such as pine, fir, and spruce. Regions of the world have been classified into ecoregions. Each region shares similar ecology and geography. They cover relatively large areas of land or water and contain characteristics and geographically distinct natural communities and species. The biodiversity of plant and animal species tends to be distinct from other ecoregions. Forest biomes are found within these ecoregions.

http://www.glec.com/capabilities/technical_services/gis_mapping/casestudy.php

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Oklahoma Forests Oklahoma falls into the Southern Plains ecoregion and contains 10 distinct ecological regions, more per square mile and any other state. Forest cover 24 percent of the state covering 12 million acres and are mostly temperate deciduous forests.

http://www.forestry.ok.gov/Websites/forestry/Images/Ecoregions.pdf

Oklahoma’s 12 million acres of forests provide important public benefits, including plentiful supplies of clean water, wildlife habitat diversity, scenic beauty and recreational opportunities. Our forest products industry annually contributes an estimated $4.5 billion in direct and indirect value to the state’s economy, and employs more than 18,000 people with $738 million in wages and salaries. Commercially, the majority of valuable wood is generated from the oak and southern pine forest of the Ouachita Mountains located in the far southeastern corner of Oklahoma on more than five million acres. As the population of Oklahoma and the region grows and becomes more urbanized, our forestlands can expect greater scrutiny as a source for additional supplies of clean water. All forestland owners and users have an obligation to protect the quality and sustainability of water resources from Oklahoma’s forestlands.

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http://www.forestry.ok.gov/Websites/forestry/images/Forest%20Economics/Economic%20impact.pdf

Forest Products and Services There are over 5,000 products that are produces from trees, many of which are not often associated with forestry or wood. Timber Products

• Pulpwood/chipwood- used for paper production • Sawtimber- used for lumber, poles, and veneer logs

Non-Timber Production

• Pine Straw • Christmas Tress • Firewod • Fat lighter wood (fire starters, decorative mantle and hearth) • Food (fruit, nuts) • Floral greenery (Holley berries and leaves, magnolia leaves) • Medicine (sassafras, witch hazel, palmetto berries, willow bark) • Pine cones • Pine tree gum • Landscape trees

Ecosystem services are the processes and outputs of nature that are direct benefits to humans. Forests, in general, provide vital ecosystem services including:

• Provide wood for building shelters, furniture, paper, and other goods • Provide places for recreation

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• Contribute to gas and climate regulation through regulating carbon • Capture, store, and filter water • Forest vegetation stabilizes soil and prevents erosion • Provides habitat for important pollinator species • Provides habitat for wildlife • Provide aesthetic value

Trees of Oklahoma

• Green Ash, Fraxinus pennsylvanica • Bald Cypress, Taxodium distichum • Black Walnut, Juglans nigra • Chinese Pistache, Pistacia chinensis • Cottonwood • Flowering dogwood, Cornus florida • Rough-leaf Dogwood, Cornus

drummondii • Eastern Red Cedar, Juniperus virginiana • American Elm, Ulmus americana • Lacebark Elm, Ulmus parvifolia • Hackberry, Celtis occidentalis • Black Hickory, Carya texana

• Kentucky coffeetree, Gymnocladus dioicus

• Bur Oak. Quercus macrocarpa • Shumard Oak, Quercus shumardii • Post Oak, Quercus stellate • Red Oak, uercus rubra • White Oak, Quercus alba • Black Jack Oak, Quercus marilandica • Pecan, Carya illinoinensis • Loblolly or Southern Pine, Pinus taeda • Pinyon Pine, Pinus cembroides • Redbud, Cercis canadensis • Western Soapberry, Sapindus drummondii • Juniper, Juniperus

Insects and Disease in Forestry

Insects

• Emerald ash borer • Asian long-horned beetle • Bag worms • Web worms • Japanese Beetles

Diseases

• Anthracnose

• Sudden Oak Death • Thousand Cankers Diseases • Pecan Scab • Dothistroma Needle Blight • Diplodia Tip Blight • Needle Casts • Phomopsis Blight • Cedar Apple Rust • Pinewood Nematode Disease • Oak Canker

Physiology of Tree Growth An old tree can tell you what the weather was like in the spring of 1904 and how big it was when your grandparents were children. It can even tell you about forest fires or outbreaks of forest pests that occurred in its life. It can do this because each tree carries inside it a detailed history of its growth. In temperate climates tree grows in girth each year by building up a new layer of wood from a thin layer of cells called the cambium. The cambium is located just beneath the bark. Each spring, the cells of the cambium divide rapidly and produce a layer of large, thin-walled cells that make up the springwood. As the year progresses, the cells divide and grow more slowly, and the wood tissue produced over the summer is made up of smaller, thicker walled, tightly packed cells. These form the summerwood. By early winter, cell growth stops altogether. When growth resumes the next

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spring, a clear boundary line separates the old and new growth. The springwood and summerwood together, sandwiched between boundary lines, represent one year’s growth, or an annual ring. A look at the cross section of a mature tree trunk reveals not only the annual rings, but five different layers between the center and the outside. The center of the trunk, called the heartwood, is made up of the older, inactive cells that give the trunk its strength. Surrounding the heartwood is a band of younger cells that make up the sapwood. It is through these tissues that water is conducted from the roots up the trunk to the branches and leaves. As the older sapwood cells die and become part of the heartwood, more sapwood is produced by the cambium. Besides producing sapwood cells to the inside, the cambium also gives rise to the layer around it called the inner bark. This region is made up of phloem cells, which carry food made in the leaves to the rest of the living tissue in the tree. The layer around the outside of the trunk is the outer bark. This protective layer is made up of old phloem tissue from the inner bark. As the tree trunk expands, the outer bark splits and cracks, but is constantly replaced by more tissue pushed out from the inner bark.

The annual rings and the different layers can be clearly seen in a cross –section of the trunk or stump after a tree is cut down. A slice of wood taken from across the trunk of a tree is called a tree disc or a tree cookie. The study of tree rings in order to learn about the past history of the tree is called dendrochronology. The number of rings tells the age of the tree. The thickness of the rings tells how much growth took place in a given season. Wider rings means more growth. A good dendrochronologist can interpret many stories in the patterns of rings. A series of several narrows rings together, for example, indicates several successive years with little growth. This may have been the result of a severe drought that lowered the water table, an infestation by insect pests, and suppression by shade or crowding from surrounding trees. The actual years in which the poor growth occurred can be discovered simply by counting the number of rings. This tells us how many years ago the growth of the narrow rings took place. By looking at weather records for those years or data on level of pest infestations, the poor growth may be correlated with one of these causes. Other changes in ring pattern are caused by fire, which leaves blackened scar tissue. Prevailing winds or a fallen neighboring tree may cause uneven growth, which produces rings that are wider on the side of the tree opposite to the source of pressure. Growth ring analysis is not only useful for reading the past. It is also a valuable tool for monitoring the growth rate of trees and predicting the future size of trees.

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http://mff.dsisd.net/Environment/TreePhys.htm

In order to determine the age and historic growing conditions of a tree without cutting down the tree can be done by taking a cross-section of the tree using an increment borer. This tool drills a small hole into the living tree and is able to remove a small section of wood tissue with minimal damage to the tree.

Populating the Forest Reproduction is key to the survival of any species in nature. Trees rely on seeds in order to propagate the species. However, getting a seed established isn’t always easy. Many plant species have evolved special mechanisms to ensure that their seeds are able to have a good chance at setting and growing. Trees need room to grow and access to water, nutrients, and sunlight. It is therefore beneficial for their seeds to travel some distance away from the parent. Seeds can travel away from the parent by wind, water, or animal transportation. Tree seeds spread by wind have some special adaptations. For example the Birch tree produces huge numbers of lightweight seeds that have two tiny wings that help them float on the air. Birch trees are pioneer species or ones that colonize a bare site quickly and in large numbers, though not all survive. Other seeds such as the willow use downey hairs as a mechanism of flight. Members

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of the daisy family such as thistles have tiny parachutes to ensure greater distances are covered. Many pine species produces winged seeds. Tree seeds that are transported by animal species rely on barbs, hooks, or similar mechanisms to move their seeds. Seeds get caught in the fur of animals, feathers of birds, or on clothing or shoes of humans and are carried away from the parent sometimes at great distances. Some seeds rely on hooves of large animals to push them into the ground. In addition to attaching to the outside of an animal, some rely on being eaten by birds or mammals for transportation. Trees produce berries or fruits attract animals that eat the fruit. These seeds are actually designed to need the digestive acids of the animal or bird’s digestive system to start breaking down the seed coat to allow germination to occur once it has found a suitable environment. Other tree species rely on animals like squirrels and birds to take and bury their seeds such as Oak’s that produce acorns. In addition to the issue of dispersal of the seed, timing of dispersal and germination is also important. Some seeds require long periods of cold temperatures in order to germinate (vernilization) such as apple trees. Apple trees drop their fruit in the fall but environmental conditions would not be suitable for a new tree to start growing as winter quickly sets in. So instead, the seeds have developed the need for cold winter temperatures to initiate germination in the spring when the environment is more suitable for survival. Other seeds like some pine species require a period of intense heat, fire, to break dormancy. This is a mechanism that aids in successful propagation as most other vegetation has been killed by the fire and there is less competition for resources. Tree growth and health In order for successful tree growth, whether planted by man or grown from seed in nature, there are environmental conditions that must be met. If these are not met, the tree is stressed which limit growth and can lead to death if severe enough. Natural factors include in order of importance: water availability, soil drainage, soil aeration, available sunlight, temperature, nutrient levels, and pH. Other factors include soil compaction, injury to the tree, competition from other plants, soil health, chemical injury, salts in the soil, pests, structural load changes, and neglect. Forest Structure Forest structure describes the physical components and layers of a forest. Forests can have a complex structure with trees of all ages and sizes. Below are various structural components you may find in an old growth forest. Many of these components you may also find in other types of forests.

1. Supercanopy Trees – tall trees that poke through the canopy; important resting and nesting sites for birds

2. Canopy Trees – mature trees that form a continuous layer that shades layers below 3. Understory Trees – small trees beneath the canopy; growth rate limited by lack of sunlight 4. Shrubs and Saplings – grow in the shade of canopy trees and in open areas 5. Decaying Wood – decaying trees and branches provide habitat for small mammals, fungi,

invertebrates and vegetation; as wood decays it returns nutrients back to the forest soil 6. Ground Cover – covering the forest floor are fungi, mosses, bacteria, ferns, shrubs and tree

seedlings 7. Organic Litter – leaves, dead wood and small branches decompose to return nutrients to

the soil; helps retain soil moisture

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8. Cavity Trees - living or dead trees with holes that mammals and birds using for nesting or denning, feeding and escaping; includes primary (make cavities) and secondary (use already made cavities) cavity users

9. Snags – standing dead trees used for habitat 10. Pits and Mounds – formed when large trees are uprooted; roots and soil are pulled from

the ground and provide conditions for some tree species to regenerate

Forest Succession

Fire, along with disease, insect infestation, and weather (i.e. snow, ice, wind, lightning), are major environmental disturbances that alter existing ecosystems. Destructive as they may seem, they leave in their wake space for new plants to grow. A gradual and complex series of changes (both biotic and abiotic) called succession must occur to re-establish the forest.

Succession is the directional change in vegetation resulting from the interactions between the living and the non-living factors of the environment. New plants germinate, grow, and reproduce to successfully inhabit the vacant ecological niche. As the plants increase in size and in number, competition and environmental change begin to change the ecosystem. A new series of plants germinate, grow, and reproduce to repeat the cycle of change. The rate of change becomes more gradual with time until the system stabilizes. This is the final stage of succession in the ecosystem and is called the climax. However, it must be emphasized that forests are complex, dynamic communities that are continually evolving at varying rates. Even a climax community is constantly undergoing changes. At any time in the series of changes from the beginning to the climax, a new disturbance may interrupt the series and create a new beginning.

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Stages of succession (Focus on Forests, 1987)

There are two major forms of succession: primary succession and secondary succession.

• Primary succession begins on bare areas that did not previously support vegetative growth. These may be areas of water, sand, or rock. Primary succession begins with soil building. Soils develop from primitive plants called colonizers reacting with the rock over long periods of time to eventually provide bits of soil that in time will support larger vegetation. With the accumulation of soil, new plants germinate, grow, and reproduce to begin the stages of a new succession.

• Secondary succession occurs in areas in which vegetation does grow, but which have been altered by such external forces as fire, logging, and land clearing. New plants germinate, grow, and reproduce to begin the cycle to the forest stage.

An area containing trees of the same age or close to the same age (10 to 20 years difference) is called an even-aged stand. Even-aged stands begin as a result of reforestation of a clear–cut area or an area depleted by disease, insect damage or fire. Usually, even-aged stands are dominated by a single species, although there could be other species present. As a result, they are very susceptible to attacks by insects or disease. If the area contains trees of many ages it is called an uneven–aged stand. Because of the diversity of tree species common in uneven – aged stands, a variety of other plants and animals are often present. As a result, diseases and insect pests that threaten the trees may be present but usually are not widespread.

Timber Management - Silviculture How timber is cut is crucial in determining the makeup of the future forest. The aim of silviculture is not merely to harvest timber, it is to regenerate a forest of fast-growing, well-formed trees of desired species. Timber cutting is also used to manage wildlife, water yields, and appearance. Well-managed forests generally have several common features:

• Tree species that are suited to the local climate, soils and markets • Crop Trees with adequate room to grow • Minimal numbers of damaged, diseased or insect-infested trees • Protection from fire and destructive grazing • Easy access • Best Management Practices (BMPs) to prevent soil erosion and sedimentation to protect

water quality • Boundaries and corners are clearly marked and maintained, and • A written forest resource management plan that considers all resources that govern activities.

When selecting how to manage a forest, the following must be addressed: • Objectives or goals • Financial and physical limitations • The size, condition and capabilities of the forest • The availability of technical and contractual services in your area, and expected markets.

It is best to have a forest management plan, a written document that usually covers 10 year period of time that details the plan of care for the forest. This plan should include six key steps:

1. Planning

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a. A planning team can include foresters, wildlife biologists, land use planners, and other professionals. It is important to know information about the forest such as: type of stand, species present, average age and diameter, volume of wood, and type of soil and vegetation.

2. Harvesting a. It is important to maintain a sustainable level of harvest or Available Harvest Area

(AHA) which represents that maximum area that can be harvested during the ten year period of the forest management plan. Identify the type of harvesting method that will be used and determining the area from which wood can be harvested on a regular basis. The plan should indicate the areas from which wood can be harvested and when, as well as the method used to harvest.

3. Site preparation a. After harvest the site needs to be prepared to plant seeds or seedlings to replenish the

timber that was removed. This can be the most soil disturbing activity done to a property. Best Management Practices (BMP’s) must be followed to protect water and soil quality. Steps to site preparation may include removing undesirable vegetation or preparing a seedbed. Depending on the soil type, soil moisture, geographic region and the type and density of the competing vegetation, different methods can be used to clear the site. The equipment used during harvesting may provide enough soil disturbances to stimulate growth. At other times, mechanical or chemical site preparation or prescribed burning is required to provide good seed beds or planting spots. Controlled or prescribed burns help to clear slash and other vegetation and release their nutrients into the soil as well as destroy disease or insects, and even assist the germination of some seeds.

4. Regeneration a. Forest regeneration occurs by natural or artificial regeneration. Natural regeneration may

occur from seeds or root/stump sprouting after harvest. Crop trees may be selected and maintained to help improve the success of natural regeneration. Artificial regeneration is done through planting or seeding, which accelerates the processes of nature and to control the species and quality of the trees in the new forest. The choice of regeneration will depend on species and site.

5. Tending and Protection

a. While the new forest is becoming established, some tending may be required to help ensure survival and promote good growth and form, either mechanically or by spraying herbicide. Tending activities include removing competing vegetation, thinning the trees to avoid overcrowding, herbicide spraying, and sometimes fertilizing.

b. Some practices that can be used to tend to the forest include:

i. Timber stand improvement (TSI) is a cutting or culling of undesirable species, usually in a sapling stand of less than 4 -inches in diameter. By removing undesirable species and poorly formed, diseased or insect-infested trees, the species composition and stand quality will improve. Also, TSI will increase the growth rate of the desirable trees remaining. Undesirable trees may be killed in place by herbicides, prescribed burning, or removed to use as firewood. Improvement cuttings are done in older stands to accomplish the same result, but the stems removed are sold.

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ii. Prescribed Fire - This lowers the risk of wildfire, as well as the population of undesirable wood species. Many species, such as most pines, are tolerant of “cool” fires under controlled conditions. Fire can be used to eliminate buildups of leaves, needles, and other fuels that can ignite and cause a major wildfire, as well as removing less fire-tolerant tree and brush species. In addition, prescribed burning returns nutrients to the soil. An added benefit to prescribed burning is the stimulation of many herbaceous species of plants that provide food and cover for certain wildlife species.

iii. Pruning- Removing persistent low branches improves wood quality by increasing the percentage of valuable clear and knot-free wood. Pruning is best done when branches are less than 2-inches in diameter and the stem diameter is less than 4 -inches. But you should never prune higher than two -thirds of the total height of the tree.

c. Generally, after 10 to 15 years, the replanted area is free to grow, although it must constantly be protected from damage by fire, insects, and disease. Once the trees have reached maturity, they are harvested and the cycle begins again.

Harvesting Methods Several options can be used that relate to your forest regeneration planning strategy. Actual cutting of trees can be by hand or machine felling; moving (skidding) of the stems to a loading area (deck) by machine or livestock; and the loading and hauling of the cut timber to market. Timber harvesting, skidding, and hauling on forest roads and trails are potential causes of soil erosion, soil degradation and sedimentation. With the assistance of a professional forester, you can make a pre-harvest plan that will result in a good timber sale and harvest contract. Methods of Harvesting

1. Clearcutting This removes the entire marketable portion of the stand in one cutting. It is the most efficient and easiest to administer and is appropriate for mature stands or where the stand is of poor quality and even-aged regeneration is desired. While clearcutting creates a drastic landscape change that some people object to, many valuable species must have full sunlight for regeneration. In addition, it is beneficial to many wildlife species. However, it is critical that you follow the BMPs when clearcutting along stream sides.

2. Seed Tree This method also produces an even-aged forest. It is similar to clearcutting, but 4 to 20 high quality seed producing trees are left per acre to naturally re-seed the site after harvest. It is crucial to plan the timing of the harvest and to assure adequate seed will fall. Planning is also required to remove the seed trees after regeneration, since loggers are reluctant to return where there are few trees left. Risks include either not enough seeds or too many seeds, resulting in an understocked or overstocked stand.

3. Shelterwood/ understory cover removal This harvest method leaves 21 to 60 seed trees per acre, which can be described as a heavy seed tree harvest. This harvest is a preferred even-aged natural regeneration system for non-prolific seed producing species and as a visually appealing system for hardwood and conifer species. A shelterwood harvest provides an abundance of seed and shelter for seedlings, as well as residual shade to control weeds. Since there is a larger number of trees left, loggers are more willing to

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return and remove the shelter trees after regeneration is established, usually within three to five years. Shelterwood with reserves (two-aged stand): Also called deferment cuts, the shelterwood trees are left to mature until they grow larger and more valuable.

4. Selection

This system regenerates uneven-aged stands of shade tolerant tree species. Single tree selection removes scattered individual trees, while group selection removes scattered groups of trees to create openings of 1/4 to ½ acre in size. Selective harvest does not work with valuable shade intolerant or moderately shade tolerant species, including many pine and quality hardwoods. While this method removes financially mature and high risk trees, care must be taken to not remove all the biggest and best trees, leaving poor quality trees behind. This practice results in a badly degraded forest with little timber value. There are many advantages to selective harvest, including frequent income and visual attractiveness. A major disadvantage is that it requires more roads and trails, which greatly increases the potential for soil erosion and sedimentation.

Managing the Wildlife Habitat in the Forest Forest management can be tailored to benefit any wildlife species or groups of species. In general, maintaining a diverse habitat with a mix of forest, small openings and edge between them will benefit deer, rabbit, turkey, raccoon, quail, grouse and many non-game animals. But it is impossible to accommodate all species at one location. Anything done to the forest will benefit some species and inhibit others. Here are some commonly-used habitat improvement techniques:

• Create openings in the forest to provide more sunlight, which in turn produces accessible foods. Openings can include timber harvests, seeded log landings and roads, long, narrow game strips in unbroken forest, and permanent wildlife food plots (at least ¼ acre in size).

• Spread fertilizer and lime in forest openings (like harvested areas and roads) and under selected

acorn producing trees. This will increase browse growth and protein content, and increase seed and insect production for turkey, quail and other birds. Fertilizing under oaks will increase acorn production for deer, turkey and other birds and animals.

• Plant warm season and cool season forage plots. Legumes, clover and native warm season grasses

are good choices. Fescue makes poor food plots

• “Feather” forest edges (thin the forest near openings to encourage a wide brushy edge).

• Leave buffers along streams: minimum 50’ uncut buffers along each side of perennial streams, and twice that distance along trout streams and in areas managed for songbirds.

• Swamps, bogs and other wetlands demand special consideration.

• Leave 1 to 3 den trees per acre and as many large dead trees (snags) as possible to benefit

squirrels, raccoons and birds. Leave a few other trees in a clump around each den tree. Snags should be at least 12” diameter and 10’ tall. Create snags where few are present by girdling commercially undesirable trees.

• Build nest boxes for squirrel, bats, and certain birds if den trees are lacking.

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• Thin crowded stands to increase tree growth, health and mast (food) production.

• Use prescribed fire to maintain food plots and native warm season grass plantings, and to improve

habitat in pine stands (older than 10-15 years).

• Exclude livestock from the woods. They compete with wildlife for browse, compact the soil, and damage young trees.

• Make piles of limbs after timber cutting to provide cover for rabbit, quail, rodents, reptiles, and

songbirds.

• Plant blocks of evergreens to provide hiding cover and winter shelter for many wildlife species. Five acres is sufficient for deer.

• Allow brush and trees to grow along fences, and provide “headquarters areas”- dense brush

thickets - to provide cover for rabbit, quail, etc.

• Manage for oak and other hard-mast-producers by cutting other competing species around them. Conduct periodic timber harvests to regenerate oaks that are past their mast-producing prime in order to assure a future acorn supply.

• Protect endangered species. These usually occur in small, unusual habitats near water and on rock

outcrops. Timber Management Terms and Tools There are different strategies and tools used by foresters to manage a forest. Some of these are outlined below. Diameter at Breast Height A tree’s diameter is measured at a point termed as ‘breast height’ (B.H.), or ‘diameter at breast height’ (D.B.H.). The main reasons for measuring at this height are that it is accessible and easy to reach, it is consistent worldwide (mostly), and helps to avoid the swelling found at a tree’s base. This should be used when:

• the intent or objective is to obtain a fair diameter that represents the tree’s volume • the diameter at breast height includes the bark • DBH is measured 140 cm (1.4m) or 4.5 feet above the ground

One should become familiar with the point on one’s body which is 140cm high as it will make it simple to find the right level at which to make the tree diameter measurement. Several methods can be used to determine diameter of a tree.

1. Calipers Tree calipers directly measure tree diameter. Calipers are held at DBH on the uphill side of the tree. The arms of the caliper are placed on either side of the tree trunk, perpendicular to the sides of the tree, and the diameter between the two arms can be read from the scale (either in centimeters and 1/10th of centimeters, or inches and 1/10th of inches). The calipers must be held at the same angle of lean of the tree, if lean is present.

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Two measurements, at right angles to each other, should be observed on each tree. The first measurement is usually the largest diameter for non-circular trees, followed by the measurement made at right angles to the first. Average the two numbers to determine DBH.

2. Diameter Tape

The diameter tape is the more precise method over calipers or diameter curve. A diameter tape has two sides, one side measures the circumference of the tree, the other has been divided by π (pi) to give the diameter. Diameter tape is used to measure trees that are too large for the calipers.

Additional Resources for determining DBH: http://www2.ca.uky.edu/forestry/for250/measuring%20tree%20diameters.pdf Basal Area Basal area is the area of a given section that is occupied by the cross-section of tree trunks and stems at their base. Basal area is determined using a tool called a prism. If you were to add up the surface area of all of the trunks, you would get the basal area for a acre. One looks through a prism to determine if a tree is counted or not. If the offset section of the tree (seen through the prism) touches the tree sections outside the prism, then the tree is counted. Otherwise it isn’t. Basal area is closely related to volume, and helps to determine the future development of the forest.

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Additional resources for using prisms:

• https://gabrielhemery.com/2011/12/05/how-to-use-a-wedge-prism-relascope-to-measure-basal-area/

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QWuJoLqrRac Determining Tree Height Tree height is the measurement from the base of the tree to the tip of the highest branch on the tree. 1. One of the most common tools to measure height is the clinometer. The clinometer uses

distance and angles to measure the height. By looking through the clinometer, you match the measuring piece with the top of the tree. The clinometer measures the angle from the eye to the top of the tree, and then the horizontal distance to the tree at eye level using a measuring tape. If the base of the tree is below eye level, then the height of the tree below eye level is added to the height above eye level. Depending on the clinometers, the direct measurement of the height may be given, or a percentage may also be given.

How to use a clinometer: 1. Measure a distance (d) of 20 meters from the base of the tree. 2. Read the top measurement (left scale %) and note the + or – sign. (ex. +100) 3. Read the bottom measurement (left scale%) and note the + or – sign.(ex. -5) 4. Enter the numbers into the formula and calculate. Height= (Highest point- lowest point) x (distance from base x .01) h= (A-B) x (d x.01) Ex. h= (100 – (-5) x (20m x.01) h = 105 x .2 h= 21meters

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You can also determine the height of a tree using the proportional method, and this method requires only simple math and a ruler. (see image below)

• Step 1. Do an eyeball estimate first. The tree appears to be ______ meters tall. • Step 2. Have one of your friends stand at the base of the tree to be measured. • Step 3. Now walk away from the tree to a point at which a ruler (e.g. 30 cm) held at arm’s

length “fits” the tree. This means that the top and bottom of the ruler line up with the top and bottom of the tree. Before moving, look at where your friend measures up on the ruler (Students height is e.g. 5 cm).

• Step 4. To find out how tall the tree is, divide the length of your ruler (i.e. 30 cm) by the height of your friend on the ruler (e.g. 5 cm). So the calculation would look something like this: 30cm / 5cm = 6.

• Step 5. Measure your friend’s real height and multiply the partner’s height by the figure in step 4. For example, if the partner’s height was 1.5 m, then the height of the tree would be: 1.5 x 6 = 9 meters.

• Step 6. Determine the height of your tree. 2. Another method for determining tree height (and other dimensions) is the Biltmore stick. A Biltmore

stick is a versatile tool that allows one to take multiple measurements with one instrument. It should be noted that the Biltmore stick is not the most accurate method.

To determine tree height with a Biltmore stick:

1. Total tree height is measured from the ground to the top of the tree. Merchantable tree height is measured from the stump height to the point at which the tree is no longer useable.

2. Stand 100 feet from the tree you are going to measure. If the ground is not level, stand on a spot which has about the same elevation as the base of the tree.

3. Hold the stick vertical, 25" from your eye, with the “Height of Tree” side facing toward you.

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4. Align the base of the stick at the ground (or at your estimated stump height for merchantable height).

5. Without moving your head, shift your line of sight so you can read the height at the point where your line of sight and the top of the tree intersect (or merchantable height).

6. This can also be done opposite: Zero the stick at the top of the tree and check height at the ground.

Using your Biltmore Stick to determine tree volume (Board Feet= how many usable cuts of lumber can be obtained from one tree)

1. Board Feet: After determining tree diameter and height (in 16 foot lengths), use the chart on the back of the Biltmore stick to determine board feet. Using the “inches” scale along the top, find your tree diameter. Look on the table corresponding to the number of 16 foot log sections you have. The number not in parenthesis will indicate board feet. If you want to determine the volume of one cut log, use the inches scale on the back of the stick to measure the small end inside the bark. The numbers in parenthesis (below your log diameter in inches) list the board feet of one log, 8, 10, 12, 14, or 16 feet long.

2. Tons: After determining board feet, use the conversion chart on the back of the stick to determine either cubic feet or tons.

Additional Resources for using a Biltmore stick • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=myh-DuR-48g • http://pods.dasnr.okstate.edu/docushare/dsweb/Get/Version-3643/

Other Resources: Best Management Practices for Oklahoma Foresters

• http://www.forestry.ok.gov/Websites/forestry/images/documents/WaterQuality/Forestry%20BMP-3-16.pdf