foreignization and domestication through … · 2019. 6. 21. · the translator of para priyayi,...

FOREIGNIZATION AND DOMESTICATION THROUGH

POSTCOLONIAL TRANSLATION PERSPECTIVE:

ZHUKOV'S STRATEGIES OF TRANSLATING JAVANESE

CULTURE-SPECIFIC ITEMS IN PARA PRIYAYI

A Thesis

Presented to the Graduate Program in English Language Studies

in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

Magister Humaniora (M.Hum)

in

English Language Studies

by

Elizabeth Ratri Dian Jati

166332026

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA

2019

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

i

FOREIGNIZATION AND DOMESTICATION THROUGH

POSTCOLONIAL TRANSLATION PERSPECTIVE:

ZHUKOV'S STRATEGIES OF TRANSLATING JAVANESE

CULTURE-SPECIFIC ITEMS IN PARA PRIYAYI

A Thesis

Presented to the Graduate Program in English Language Studies

in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

Magister Humaniora (M.Hum)

in

English Language Studies

by

Elizabeth Ratri Dian Jati

166332026

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA

2019


vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank God for his countless blessing and for always answering my

prayer. He grants me power mentally and physically to pass all of the difficulties

during my thesis writing process. Surely, my effort means nothing without His

hands. He helps me directly through the kind hands of my thesis supervisor, Dr.

Emanuel Sunarto, M. Hum., who introduced me to foreignization and

domestication and their relation to culture and national identity in translation

class. His explanation inspired me to develop knowledge. I also thank him for his

assistance and patience in every thesis consultation. Without his advice and

suggestion during the process of writing my thesis, I would not be able to write

down my idea. I also would like to express my gratitude to Paulus Sarwoto, Ph.D.

for his time and kindness in helping me to understand the postcolonial concept

that never crossed my mind until I was in my third semester. His guidance made

me be able to understand the postcolonial concept so that I could continue to write

my thesis. I also thank Scolastica Wedhowerti, S. Pd, M. Hum. She kindly opened

her arms and spared her time to help me understanding postcolonial translation. I

really appreciate her advice. I also thank Dr. Gregorius Budi Subanar, S.J. and

Prof. Dr. Pranowo, M. Pd., for helping me to validate my data that loaded of

Javanese culture. They also help me reconnecting with Javanese culture and old

traditions. I also send my special thanks to Dra. Novita Dewi M.S., M.A. (Hons.),

Ph.D., for the inspiration and her advice during the thesis review. I also thank F.X.

Mukarto, Ph. D. and Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. for the inspiration and support

so that I was able to finish my thesis.


vii

I also thank Georgius Benardi, Yohanes Marino, and Anna Elfira

Prabandari Assa for all academic discussions and long talks in burjonan and

Whatsapp that gave me insight into the concept and application of postcolonial

theory. I thank them for replying my message that randomly came in. They helped

me to encounter my limitation in understanding postcolonialism and my

uncertainty about my thesis.

My thesis writing process did not only involved lectures and friends, but

also Wikan Satriati from Lontar Publisher. I thank her for her cooperation to

introduce me to Vladislav Zhukov. I send my appreciation to Vladislav Zhukov,

the translator of Para Priyayi, for his willingness to answer the interview

questions that gave a big impact on my analysis. His answer helps me interpreting

the ideology behind the translation strategies. I also thank Sisilia Novena for

inheriting her Javanese Gentry book to me, therefore, I got access to conduct the

research.

My supervisor and coworkers also took parts in the process of finishing

my thesis. I give my special thanks to Dr. B. Ria Lestari, M. Sc. the chairperson of

LISDU and Maria Ananta, S.S, M. Ed., the head of Asian language center, for

granting me the opportunity to take my time and space to finish my study. I would

not have enough time and energy to complete my study without their support and

understanding. I also thank the awesome ILCIC teachers: Mbak Atta, Mbak

Aning, Rosendi, Mbak Friska, Thomas, Emma, Mbak Esti, Tiyar, Mbak Ajeng,

Nano and Mbak Kitin for the support and togetherness that warm my heart and

ease my stress. Especially, I thank Mas Fendi, for his understanding and


viii

willingness to manage the teaching schedule so I had my time to finish my study

while I was working.

My deepest gratitude goes to the love of my life, my Mamah, M. M. Lies

Supriyantini and Papah, A. W. Topo Aji, for always putting my name in their

prayer. I am forever grateful for their endless support, love, tears, blood, and

sacrifices that made me who I am and put me here today. I am eternally in debt to

them. There are no words and actions that are comparable and enough to give

back what they had for me. I also thank my brothers Mas Enggar and Dek Bayong

for their support.

I send my appreciation to a man whose name is not written here but

always dearly by my heart. I thank him for always taking such good care of me

even though we are miles apart. He provided food supplement, the large size of

French fries, cups of gelato, and jacket, for me. I really appreciate his effort to

keep me smiling and make my thesis writing time was easier and bearable.

My special thanks go to my best friends Ria, Rinda, Bang Willy, Yona,

and Rio for sincere friendship and endless support. I also thank the Avengers:

Mbak Tusty, Vero, Mas Yos, and Mas Rifki. Their support made me not feel so

alone during the thesis writing process. They made thesis defense feasible and

graduate from ELS is possible. I also thank Resya, James, Detha, and Mas Ceper.

I appreciate all the discussions, help, support, laugh, and kindness.


ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ......................................................................................................... i

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ................................................................... iv

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH

UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS ............................................................... v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................... vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................... ix

LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................. xii

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................... xiii

LIST OF CHARTS ............................................................................................ xiv

LIST OF APPENDICES..................................................................................... xv

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................ xvi

ABSTRAK ........................................................................................................... xvii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................... 1

1.1 Research Background .................................................................................. 1

1.2 Research Questions ..................................................................................... 3

1.3 Research Objectives .................................................................................... 3

1.4 Research Benefits ........................................................................................ 4

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .................................. 5

2.1 Review of Related Theories ........................................................................ 5

2.1.1 Culture-Specific Items ....................................................................... 5

2.1.2 Translation Techniques ...................................................................... 9

2.1.3 Ideology in Translating .................................................................... 14

2.1.4 Language and Culture Relativity in translation practice.................. 23


x

2.1.5 Postcolonialism Translation and the Key Concepts......................... 24

2.1.6 Review of Para Priyayi ................................................................... 32

2.2 Review of Related Studies ........................................................................ 34

2.3 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................. 36

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY ...................................................................... 37

3.1 Type of Study ............................................................................................ 37

3.2 Research Data ............................................................................................ 38

3.3 Data Collection .......................................................................................... 38

3.4 Data Analysis ............................................................................................ 41

3.5 Data Presentation ....................................................................................... 43

CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ................................................ 45

4.1 Translation Techniques in Translating Javanese CSIs in PP .................... 45

4.1.2 Borrowing ........................................................................................ 53

4.1.3 Calque .............................................................................................. 54

4.1.4 Literal Translation ............................................................................ 56

4.1.5 Adaptation ........................................................................................ 57

4.1.6 Description ....................................................................................... 61

4.1.7 Established Equivalent ..................................................................... 64

4.1.8 Generalization .................................................................................. 66

4.1.9 Linguistic Amplification .................................................................. 67

4.1.10 Modulation ..................................................................................... 69

4.1.11 Transposition .................................................................................. 69

4.1.12 Variation ......................................................................................... 70

4.1.13 Compensation ................................................................................. 72


xi

4.1.14 Omission ......................................................................................... 74

4.2 Ideology behind Zhukov’s Translation Strategies in Translating Javanese

Culture-Specific Items in Javanese Gentry ............................................... 75

4.2.1 Foreignization Strategy as a Resistance ........................................... 77

4.2.2 Foreignization Strategy as Medium of Exoticization and

Resistance ........................................................................................ 89

4.2.3 Foreignization as Operator of Exoticization, Ethnocentrism, and

Orientalism Attitude ........................................................................ 98

4.2.4 Domestication Strategy as a Bridge of Cultural Differences ......... 104

4.2.5 Orientalist Attitude, Ethnocentrism, and Colonial Ideology

in Domestication Strategy .............................................................. 108

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION ..................................... 116

5.1 Conclusion ............................................................................................... 116

5.2 Suggestion ............................................................................................... 117

REFERENCES .................................................................................................. 119

APPENDICES ................................................................................................... 126


xii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Summary of CSI domain......................................................................... 9

Table 2.2 Adoption of Translation Procedure Taxonomies Related to

Domestication and Foreignization Strategies ....................................... 22

Table 3.1 Blue Print of Data Collection Table ...................................................... 38

Table 3.2 Example of Data Distribution in Social Cultue .................................... 40

Table 3.3 Example of Data Analysis in Social Culture ........................................ 42

Table 3.4 The Blue Print of Analysis Result Table .............................................. 44

Table 4.1 Javanese Cultural Specific Items in Para Priyayi/Javanese Gentry..... 45

Table 4.2 Translation Techniques of Javanese Cultural Specific Items in Para

Priyayi/Javanese Gentry....................................................................... 47


xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................ 36


xiv

LIST OF CHARTS

Chart 4.1 Percentage of Translation Technique of CSI in JG ............................... 48


xv

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1. Amplification.................................................................................. 127

Appendix 2. Borrowing ....................................................................................... 132

Appendix 3. Calque ............................................................................................. 135

Appendix 4. Literal Translation .......................................................................... 136

Appendix 5. Adaptation ...................................................................................... 136

Appendix 6. Description ..................................................................................... 137

Appendix 7. Established Equivalence ................................................................. 143

Appendix 8. Generalization ................................................................................ 145

Appendix 9. Linguistic Amplification ................................................................ 146

Appendix 10. Modulation ................................................................................... 148

Appendix 11. Transposition ................................................................................ 149

Appendix 12. Variation ....................................................................................... 150

Appendix 13. Compensation ............................................................................... 151

Appendix 14. Ommission.................................................................................... 153

Appendix 15. Translation Technique .................................................................. 154

Appendix 16. Translation Strategies ................................................................... 155


xvi

ABSTRACT

Elizabeth Ratri Dian Jati. 2019. Foreignization and Domestication through

Postcolonial Translation Perspective: Zhukov's Strategies of Translating

Javanese Culture-Specific Items in Para Priyayi. Yogyakarta: English Language

Studies. Graduate Program. Sanata Dharma University.

Translators do not merely transfer source language to target language in

translation practice. They have to be able to bring the cultural baggage embedded

in source text (ST) into target text (TT). In process of translating, translators also

deal with ideology in ST, ideology of authors, publishers, society of target

language speakers, even their own ideology. Those beliefs may influence

translators’ translation strategy options in translating ST and create complication

in translation practice, especially in text with lot of culture-specific items (CSIs)

such as Para Priyayi (PP). For this reason, this research is targeted to scrutinize

translation techniques, strategies, and ideology of translating applied in rendering

CSIs in PP to Javanese Gentry (JG).

This research is classified into Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) that

applied qualitative approach. The data were elicited using document analysis

technique by scrutinizing PP and JG thoroughly. Moreover, the translator was

also interviewed through email to gain knowledge related to translator’s

background and motivation in choosing such translation techniques.

This research discovered fourteen types of translation technique applied in

401 CSIs from Javanese language. There were amplification, borrowing, calque,

literal translation, adaptation, description, establish equivalence, generalization,

linguistics amplification, modulation, transposition, variation, compensation, and

omission. Those translation techniques were applied in translating twelve domains

of CSIs that consist of ecology, material culture, social culture, organization-

custom-activities-procedure-social conception, gesture and habit, measurement

system, dates, anthroponym, dialect, fictional character, idiom, and metaphor.

Furthermore, this translation study found two strategies of translating, namely:

foreignization and domestication. The translation strategies were examined using

postcolonial theory then compared to translator’s interview answers. The result

suggested that resistance towards target culture domination, exoticization,

orientalist attitude, ethnocentrism, and colonial attitude were reflected in

foreignization and domestication practise.

This study suggests future researchers to conduct rigorous research in

postcolonial translation because postcolonial translation research in Indonesian

context is still limited and still dominated by Arab and Hindi scholars and context.

Development of postcolonial translation studies is also expected to build

translators’ awareness about their role as agents of preserving and presenting local

culture to international audiences

Keywords: CSI, idelogy of translating, foreignization, domestication,

postcolonial translation, Javanese culture


xvii

ABSTRAK

Elizabeth Ratri Dian Jati. 2019. Foreignization and Domestication through

Postcolonial Translation Perspective: Zhukov's Strategies of Translating

Javanese Culture-Specific Items in Para Priyayi. Yogyakarta: Kajian Bahasa

Inggris. Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Dalam menerjemahkan teks, penerjemah tidak hanya sekedar

menerjemahkan bahasa asal ke bahasa target tapi mereka juga harus mampu

membawa budaya yang tertanam di dalam teks asal ke dalam teks target. Dalam

penerjemahan, penerjemah juga menghadapi ideologi dalam teks asal, penulis,

penerbit, masyarakat penutur bahasa target, bahkan ideology penerjemah itu

sendiri. Hal ini menyebabkan kerumitan dalam proses menerjemahkan khususnya

untuk teks yang memiliki banyak istilah budaya yang spesifik, contohnya Para

Priyayi. Karena itu, penelitian ini ditujukan untuk meneliti teknik dan strategi

penerjemahan dan ideology yang ada dalam penerjemahan Para Priyayi (PP) ke

Javanese Gentry (JG) dengan cermat.

Penelitian ini termasuk dalam studi penerjemahan deskriptif yang

mengimplementasikan pendekatan kualitatif. Data-data penelitian ini

dikumpulkan melalui teknik analisis dokumen dengan cara mencermati PP and

JG secara keseluruhan. Selain itu, wawancara melalui surel juga dilakukan untuk

mengumpulkan informasi yang berhubungan latar belakang penerjemah dan

motivasinya dalam memilih teknik-teknik penerjemahnya.

Penelitian ini menemukan empat belas tipe teknik penerjemahan yang

digunakan untuk menerjemahkan 401 istilah budaya Jawa. Teknik penerjemahan

yang dipakai adalah amplifikasi, penyerapan, calque, terjemahan langsung,

adaptasi, deskripsi, pembentukan kesepadanan, generalisasi, amplifikasi

linguistic, modulasi, transposisi, perubahan variasi bahasa, kompensasi, dan

penghilangan. Teknik-teknik tersebut digunakan untuk menerjemahkan istilah

budaya Jawa berasal dari kategori lingkungan hidup, materil, sosial, organisasi,

kebiasaan, aktivitas, konsep sosial, gestur dan kebiasaan, sistem pengukuran,

penanggalan, anthroponim, dialek, karakter cerita fiksi, idiom, dan metafora.

Penelitian ini juga menemukan dua strategi penerjemahan, yaitu: foreignisasi dan

domestikasi. Ideologi yang dibahas melalui sudut pandang pascakolonialisme dan

hasil wawancara dengan penjemah menujukan bahwa ada resistensi terhadap

dominasi dari budaya target, pengeksotisan, sikap orientalis, sikap kolonialis, dan

etnosentrisme.

Penelitian ini menganjurkan para peneliti di masa depan untuk melakukan

banyak penelitian tentang penerjemahan pascakolonialisme dalam konteks

Indonesia karena penelitian tersebut masih terbatas dan didominasi oleh peneliti

dan konteks dari Arab dan India. Perkembangan studi penerjemahan

pascakolonialisme juga diharapkan bisa menumbuhkan kesadaran penerjemah

akan perannya menjaga dan mempresentasikan budaya lokal kepada pembaca

internasional.

Kata kunci: istilah bermuatan budaya, idelogi dalam penerjemahan, foreignisasi,

domestikasi, penerjemahan pascacolonial, budaya jawa.


1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The first chapter is divided into four sections. The first section conveys the

research background. It discusses the overview of translating culture-specific

items (CSIs), the relation among language, culture and translation, and preserving

identity in translation products. It also gives brief explanation about this research.

The second section delivers the research questions. The third section explains the

objectives of the research. The fourth part discusses the theoretical and practical

contribution of this research.

1.1 Research Background

Language is a method of human communication. It is used for connecting

each individual thus they are able to convey their ideas to other people around

them. Since humans live geographically separated, they develop different

languages to communicate with people inside the group. However, world

development urges each group to have contact with people outside. People learn

foreign languages or they use translation to maintain contact with the outside

world. Thus, the ability to use a foreign language and translation become a

necessity for the society to understand ideas in other languages that are presented

in news, articles, speech, film, literary work and so forth. In addition, for those

who do not have the opportunity to learn other languages and are required to read

literary works need translation works. Therefore, translators, translation, and

translating hold an important role in developing literacy and understanding other

people ideas from other culture.


2

In presenting someone’s idea from other languages, the translator does not

only translate the language. Translation also involves the culture within the source

language (SL) and target language (TL). It is in line with Triverdi in his article

entitled Translating Culture vs Cultural Translation stating that the translation

process of literary work does not only engage SL and TL but also a complex

negotiation between source culture and target culture. It is supported by

Tymoczko (2002, p.23) who states that in the literary translation, the translator

concerns with distinctions not only in language but also cultural factors embedded

in the SL thus the people from a different culture are able to comprehend the

culture from their outside society. She adds that the translator encounters a

definite text including SL cultural and linguistic aspects and it causes constraints

in translating both the language and culture. Therefore, it challenges the translator

to bridge the difference through translation. However, translations are not merely

the process of transferring language, code-switching or negotiation between the

source and target culture because the process is governed by the specific

objectives and translators’ ideology that later leads to the translation technique

choice (Chung-ling, 2010). Translation involves ideology as well, both the

ideology of ST writer or beliefs of the translator. Thus, language, translation,

culture, and ideology cannot be discrete. Moreover, in translating process, where

language contact happens, there is a battle in which the languages struggle for the

survival of themselves also the ethnic and cultural memory attached within

depending (Apter, 2006 as cited in Gentzler, 2013).

The fact that language, culture, and ideology are inseparable in translation

raises the complication in rendering culture-specific items (CSI) within the source


3

text. Furthermore, it builds questions of what translators’ ideology presented in

the methods of translating CSI and how preserving the identity of SL users that is

reflected in CSIs. Therefore, it encourages research in translating CSIs contained

in literary work where CSIs becomes prominent because it has a role as an

identity marker of the characters of the story, SL, and source culture. Correspond

to the relation of between translations and culture there with the complication,

scrutinizing ideology of translating CSI and how it preserves SL culture still needs

to be conducted now, especially in translating literary works that are full of

cultural content. Thus, the issues presented in a novel Para Priyayi written by

Kayam and its translation Javanese Gentries translated by Zhukov are possible to

be studied; because CSIs are applied in it intensively by the author to narrate a

family life of Javanese nobleman. CSIs also applied to build the cultural and

historical setting of Javanese people life during Dutch and Japanese colonialism

era.

1.2 Research Questions

This study proposes two questions.

1. What translation techniques are applied in translating CSIs in Kayam’s

Para Priyayi reflected in Zhukov's Javanese Gentry?

2. What ideology is presented in the translation strategies applied to render

CSIs in Zhukov's Javanese Gentry?

1.3 Research Objectives

This research is targeted to discover the translation techniques applied to

translate CSIs. It is also aimed to discover the ideology reflected in Zhukov's


4

translation strategies in translating Javanese culture-specific items in Javanese

Gentry through postcolonialism translation point of view.

1.4 Research Benefits

This research is expected to be beneficial empirically and practically for

translators, translation scholars, and the targeted readers who might read the

translated literary works. Empirically, this study benefits translators and

translation scholars by providing a broad view of encountering texts with cultural

loads. It may contribute to give in-depth and breadth elaboration of theories in

translating culture in literary works. In addition, it may provide sufficient

discussion in encountering CSIs and methods to translate them. Practically, this

study may increase readers’ awareness of an ideology or hidden agenda within

translated literary works. Thus, readers can be more critical in reading a

translated text and always refer to the source text or other texts in order to gain

more information. Moreover, it gives an overview to the reader that translation

can be one of the means to convey ideology or hegemony.


5

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Chapter two is divided into three parts, namely: reviews of related studies,

reviews of related literature, and theoretical framework. The first part presents

reviews of related studies. In the review of related studies, the writer will review

several studies related to the translation of CSI, ideology in translating, and

translation techniques conducted by other researchers. The second part contains

reviews of related literature. It gives a review of theories that is related to the

studies and employed to analyze the data. The third part of chapter two is the

theoretical framework. This section presents the theories which help to conduct

the study and to answer the research questions.

2.1 Review of Related Theories

Review related theories section discusses theories that are significant and

related to the study of translation techniques, and ideology of translating. It will

review and elaborate theories about translation and culture, culture-specific items,

translation techniques, the ideology of translating, postcolonial translation and its

key concepts. It also provides reviews of Para Priyayi as the source text.

2.1.1 Culture-Specific Items

Culture is defined as a concept, belief, point of view, and way of life of a

group of people dwelling in a certain place together. It presents the identity of a

particular society. According to Kluckhohn (as cited in Geertz: 1973) culture is

defined as “the total way of life of people”; the social legacy individually acquired

from his group; how people think, feel, and believe; “an abstraction from

behavior; how people in fact act; a “storehouse of poled learning”; “learned


6

behavior”; a system for normative rule of act; a system to adapt external

environment and to other people; and “a precipitate of history”. Kluckhohn’s

definition is in line Davies (2003, p. 68) who proposes that culture is defined as a

set of complicated beliefs, attitude, values, and rules that are practiced or shared,

and inherited by a school of people. The practice is presented in folk culture,

business culture, cuisine, and so forth, moreover, it includes human community

life characteristics reflected in the patterns of religion, “custom, objects,

institution, technique and language” (Hu, Wenzhong, 1994 as cited by Wang,

2014,p. 2423). Therefore, culture is reflected in many aspects of people’s life. It

can be perceived through several angles of human’s aspect that is manifested in

daily life, for instance, the language applied by society.

Language denotes the way of life and an environment that is unusual to the

native people dwelling in a particular region (Newmark, 2010, p. 173). Since

language is affected by culture and geographical matters, the words in language

articulate the concept and the idea owned by the people. This causes culture

discrepancies because each society encounters and perceive different things on a

daily basis that are portrayed in terms of cultural value words. For the reason,

each society and each language possess their very own terms that may not present

in others. Therefore, it causes complication in the process of rendering words

with a cultural bound.

According to Lefevere (1992), language expresses culture and acts as a

repository of culture. It means that words within the language refer to reality and

related to culture. Therefore, there are terms containing cultural concepts or values

in every language. According to Brasiene (2013), Davies (2003) identifies the


7

terms as Culture-Specific Items (CSI), Baker (1992) recognizes it as cultural

words, and Gambier (2004) labels the terms as culture-specific references.

Meanwhile, Florin (1993), Robinson (1997), Schäffner & Wiesemann (2001) and

Mikutytė (2005) identify them as realia (as cited by Janaviciene, 2016: 4834).

Although there are several different terms, they still share a similar definition.

CSIs are defined as a part of a text that is related to particular concepts from

a foreign culture, in instances history, art, and literature which might be

unfamiliar for the target text readers (Aixela, 1996 as cited in Shekoufeh

Daghough & Mahmood Hashemia, 2016). It is in line with Florin (1993: 123)

who states that words and sentences indicate object, way of life, culture, also

social and historical development of a certain nation and it is uncommon to

another (as cited Janaviciene, 2016).

Culture-Specific Items are usually presented in several realms. According to

Newmark (1988), CSIs are discovered in the words that are used for articulating

ideas corresponds to (1) ecology, (2) material culture, (3) social culture, (4)

organisations, customs, ideas, activities, procedures, concepts, and (5) gestures

and habit. Based on Newmark (1988), CSI is discovered in the words related to

ecology or words that present natural landscape, in instances: animals, plants,

winds, lands, fields, and so forth. He also proposes that material cultures, such as

food, houses and towns, clothes, and transportation. Besides material culture,

words articulating social culture also categorized as CSI. Social culture is

exemplified by works and leisure. Furthermore, culture terms can be discovered in

topics that discuss organization, customs, activities, procedure, and concepts.


8

Those topics usually refer to words that are related to political administrative,

religious, and artistic realms. Then, the last CSI denotes to gestures and habit.

Espindola and Vasconcellos (2006) classify CSI into 12 domains. They

propose the cultural bound terms are taken from words that refer to toponyms

(names related to places, parts of earth surface, and earth’s natural or artificial

features), means of transportation, food and drink, forms of entertainment, legal

system (rules to conduct human’s life), local institution (health, education, work,

political, administrative, religious, or artistic organization), scholastic reference

(school and educational system), religious celebration, measurement system,

anthroponym, fictional character (name of characters from prominent literary

works, films, and myth), dialect (speech marker ), date, and idiom. Toponyms

domain refers to features. The classification proposed by Newmark (1988) shares

similarities to Espindola & Vasconcellos (2006). However, the latter is more

detailed and some new domains are added. Espindola & Vasconcellos (2006)

proposes a measurement system, anthroponym, dialect, and fictional character as

CSIs. The aforementioned classifications are supported by Zare-Behtash and

Friroozkoohi (2009). They applied the classifications in their research entitled A

Diachronic Study of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies of Culture-

Specific Items: in English-Persian Translations of Six of Hemingway’s Works.

However, they add two additional domains in CSIs, namely date, and idioms.

According to the preliminary study towards CSIs within the Para Priyayi

and Javanese Gentry, theories related to cultural domains are synthesized.

Therefore they can accommodate the data selection and elicitation. Table 2.1

presents the synthesized culture domain.


9

Table 2.1 Summary of CSI domain

No Newmark (1988)

1 Ecology (animal, plants, winds, lands)

2 material culture (architecture, food, and drinks, clothes and costumes,

transportation)

3 social culture (works, leisure, forms of entertainment)

4 Organizations, customs, activities, procedures, concepts (local institution, the

legal system, local institutions, Scholastic reference, and religious)

5 gestures and habit

Espindola and Vasconcellos (2006)

6 Measurement system

7 Anthroponym

8 Fictional character

9 Dialect

Zare-Behtash and Firoozkoohi (2009)

10 Date

11 Idioms

Additional

12 Metaphor

2.1.2 Translation Techniques

Translation technique is a set of techniques applied to transfer SL to TL.

Translation technique is a particular technique to materialize comprehended ideas,

established conceptual relation, and reformulated TL to translate SL (Molina and

Albir, 2002). Molina and Albir (2002) propose eighteen translation techniques

that are developed from critics and reformulation of translation procedure, the

result of developing translation technique from Vinay and Darblenet (1958), Nida

(1964), Ayora (1977), Delisle (1993), and Newmark (1998). Therefore, based on

the reformulation, they propose adaptation, amplification, borrowing, calque,

compensation, description, discursive creation, established equivalent,

generalization, linguistics amplification, linguistics compression, literal

translation, modulation, particularization, reduction, substitution, transposition,

and variation as translation techniques. The techniques are elaborated as follows.


10

Adaptation translation technique can be applied in translating CSIs. In the

adaptation technique, SL cultural aspects are changed into TL’s. This is in line

with Molina and Albir (2002) proposing that cultural elements in TL replaced SL.

Adaptation may be selected because particular SL culture is not practiced in TL

context. Moreover, there is culture commonly practiced by SL speakers but it is

uncommon and strange when it is practiced in TL. Therefore, adaptation

establishes situational equivalent which helps the TL readers to understand the TT

(Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958 as cited in Venuti 2002). It is applied in translating

poker in English into gapleh, a game card that is common and familiar in

Indonesia.

In the amplification technique, translators attach further information related

to the term. Amplification assists the target reader to understand cultural terms

that are unfamiliar in the target language. As stated by Molina & Albir (2002),

amplification refers to a process of rendering texts by providing additional

information in TL to make the term comprehensible in TL. It is presented in

Javanese – English translation of Malam 1 Suro into “Malam 1 Suro, Javanese

new year eve”.

When there is no equivalent term in TL, SL term may be borrowed to TL

with very limited adjustment. Therefore, in borrowing a word or expression are

taken directly from SL to TL (Molina & Albir, 2002). The adjustment towards

terms that undergo borrowing can happen in the phonological level. Thus, the

orthographic of words adapted in TL comply how SL terms are pronounced.

Borrowing is aimed to introduce SL cultural nuance through TT (Vinay &

Darblenet, 1958). It is exemplified by borrowing “tempeh” to render tempe.


11

There is another type of borrowing in translation technique named calque.

Calque involves the process of borrowing and translating SL words or expression

into TL directly (Molina&Albir, 2002). The translation process occurs in lexical

and structural level. The application of calque technique is exemplified in

translating “kindergarten” into Taman Kanak-Kanak.

Compensation technique is introduced by applying an aspect of information

and stylistic effect of SL in a different part of TT. Molina &Albir (2002) proclaim

compensation happens because TT cannot be presented in the same position as in

the original works. Therefore, the translator embeds TL words as part of the

writing style. An instance of compensation is presented in the utterance “Pak,

boleh saya bicara dengan jenengan sebentar?” that is translated into “He speaks

in very polite Javanese: Pardon me, Sir. May I talk to you for a while, please?”

The description refers to a technique in which SL words are described

according to their characteristics and function. The words are described in TL.

Thus TL readers are able to understand the translated terms easily. It is

exemplified in describing kendhit into “piece of very long cloth to tie sarong”.

According to Deslile (1993), discursive creation “is an operation in the

cognitive process of translating by which a non-lexical equivalence is established

that only works in context” (as cited by Molina & Albir, 2002: 505). It employs

that this technique translates SL into in-equivalent TL. However, TL creates a

discourse that is related to the SL. It is exemplified by translating “Soekarno: An

autobiography” into Soekarno Penyambung Lidah Rakyat.

The established equivalent is a translation technique that uses recognized

terms or expression in TL (Molina&Albir, 2002). The terms exist and can be


12

discovered in a dictionary or common language in use. Thus, established

equivalent means that the existed and familiar terms in TL are applied to replace

SL even though the literal meaning is not equivalent. However, the terms usually

appear in the same situation both in SL and TL. It is presented in the translation of

proverbs buah jatuh tak jauh dari pohonnya into “like father, like son”.

Generalization is a process of translating by replacing specific words in SL

with more general terms in TL (Molina & Albir, 2002). SL specific terms are

usually generalized because there are no equivalent terms in TL. This technique

causes a loss in terms of specification characteristics or function. It exemplified

by generalizing padi into rice in English.

Particularization is the opposite form of generalization (Molina &Albir,

2002). In particularization, SL word is translated into more specific terms in TL. It

is exemplified by specifying rice into nasi in translating English to Indonesia.

Linguistic amplification is a technique of translating by adding linguistics

component in TL (Molina &Albir, 2002). The additional linguistic aspect creates

a natural expression that is commonly used in TL. This translation technique is

applied in interpreting or subtitling. Application of linguistics amplification is

presented in translation “How did it happen?” into “kok bisa?”

Vice versa, linguistics compression is a technique of translating SL by

compressing it in TL. The linguistics aspect of SL is synthesized in TT (Molina &

Albir, 2002). Therefore, the discourse becomes brief. It is exemplified in

translating “So, what’s the problem?” into Javanese utterance “njuk?”.

Literal Translation is a translation practiced of word per word directly from

SL to TL (Molina & Albir, 2002). Each element of SL is translated one by one


13

grammatically and idiomatically in the target text. According to Vinay &

Darblenet (1958), this technique tends to be applied in translating language from

the same family (as cited in Venuti 2002). However, it can be applied to create

foreignness. In an instance, “you reap what you sow” is translated per word into

“kamu menuai apa yang kamu tabur”.

Modulation refers to translation technique that changes the point of view.

According to Molina & Albir (2002), the alteration of focus occurs in the level of

lexical. Vinay & Darblenet (1958) as cited in Venuti (2002) state that modulation

is still possible to be practiced even though it produces grammatically correct

translation result but it is considered unsuitable or awkward in TL. It is

exemplified by an expression “you will be an uncle” into “kamu akan punya

keponakan”.

The reduction is in contrast to amplification. It is a process of translation

technique that applies the deletion of additional SL in TL is named as a reduction

(Molina & Albir, 2002). It is presented in translation “night of Suro 1st, Javanese

new year” into Malam 1 suro.

Changing of linguistics or paralinguistics aspect defines substitution

techniques of translation (Molina & Albir, 2002). In this technique, particular

utterances are changed into a gesture that indicates the same meaning or vice

versa, such as translating “good” into thumbs-up gesture. This technique is

usually practiced in an interpreting situation. Therefore, it was not discovered and

applied in textual translation.

Transposition is almost similar to modulation. However, change happens at

the grammatical level (Molina & Albir, 2002). It is presented by the change part


14

of speech or language structure, in instances: the alteration from a verb into a

noun or active sentence form into the passive voiced structure. Transposition is

applied in translating, “after my father went home” into “setelah kepulangan

bapakku”.

Variation almost shares similarity to substitution techniques. However, the

alteration is not limited in changing linguistics into para linguistics elements.

According to Molina & Albir (2002), in variation technique, alteration happens in

terms of intonation, gestures, and language level. Therefore, it gives impact to

linguistics variation result in TL. Variation technique is applied in translating

“how are you, grandpa?” into ceremonial Javanese “pripun kabare panjenengan,

Mbah?” because the interlocutor was a senior citizen.

This study does not only apply translation techniques proposed by Molina &

Albir. The omission was added into translation technique theory applied in this

study to follow the nature of the data delete some SL words in TT. The omission

is practiced by eliminating and reducing part of the text (Bastin, 1998). It is

exemplified by deleting text or terms that are considered insignificant.

2.1.3 Ideology in Translating

In translating a text, translators consciously or unconsciously bring their

ideology. Any translation processes reflect a particular ideology to manipulate

literature in the targeted community in a given method (Venuti, 1995). According

to Hatim and Mason (1997, p. 144), ideology is defined as e ‘the tacit

assumptions, beliefs and value systems which are shared collectively by social

groups’ (as cited in Hatim and Munday, 2009 p. 102). It is in line with Lefevere

(1998) stating that ideology is a conceptual motive consisting of perspectives and


15

attitudes that are considered acceptable in a particular society, time, readers and

translators to approach texts (as cited in Baker and Saldana, 2009). It means that

ideology is perspective and belief that live in and society. Ideology influences

how people and translators respond and encounter texts. It affects translators in

deciding what translation technique applied to translate culture or certain ideology

in the text.

In translation studies, Hatim and Mason (1997) cited in Hatim and Munday

(2009) distinguish ideology into two concepts, namely: ‘the translation of

ideology’ and ‘the ideology of translating’. They define the first type as an

approach to examine the mediation chosen by the translator in rendering sensitive

text. The translation of ideology discusses the approach employed to translate

political texts. It studies how political content text is rendered and adjust in TL

and. Moreover, it scrutinizes about translators’ intervention towards political texts

and how their knowledge and beliefs affect the translated text (Hatim & Mason,

1997, as cited in Hatim & Munday, 2009). The translation of ideology is instanced

by the phenomenon of how feminist translators render a text indicating patriarchal

ideology or how conservative translators overcome vulgar text that is not

congenial to their norm. Meanwhile, according to Hatim & Mason (1997)

ideology of translating is an orientation in approaching source texts that are

applied by the translator in the social or cultural setting (as cited by Hatim &

Munday, 2009). They state that the choice of orientation is exemplified by

application of Venuti’s domesticating and foreignizing translation strategy. Thus,

the ideology of translating focuses on translators’ orientation in terms of choosing

translation techniques in rendering a text related to culture. Therefore, the


16

ideology of translating that is directly related to translation orientation influences

the application of translation strategies. The ideology that is transferred to the TL

is reflected through applied translation strategies.

Translation practice that involves techniques and strategies is not separated

from other factors. According to Venuti (2001), language strategies that are

affected by the cultural, economy, and political factors may comply to target

culture domination, the use of conservative and assimilationist approach to

encounter SL, the support of domestic canon, publishing trends, and political

alignment. Moreover, Venuti (2001) adds that translation strategy may correspond

to the method of resistance, way of revising the dominant by depicting the

marginal, approach of reconstructing foreign texts apart from domestic canons,

restoring outstanding values from archaic texts and translation method then plant

and emerge the values.

The ideology of translating that is related to foreignization and

domestication strategies is developed based on Schleiermacher’s view about

“verfremdende” (foreignizing) and “einbürgernde” (domesticating), (Myskja,

2013). Frederich Schleiermacher, a lecturer of the Berlin Academy of Sciences,

who is in line with Wilhelm von Humboldt, proclaims that translation can be

treated as an effort of applying certain translation strategies (foreignizing

strategies) that might affect cultural and social function, language development,

literature, and nation (Venuti 2000). Schleiermacher imagines that foreignization

can be a tool to dispel French colonialism towards German literary works. Later,

Schleiermacher’s idea becomes a vantage point for the twentieth-century scholars


17

to conduct an experiment about culture revitalization through the literary form

(Venuti, 2000). It also becomes base to develop modern translation study.

Venuti (1995) develops Schleiermacher’s idea into foreignization and

domestication. Foreignization is a strategy of translating that brings TT readers

closer to ST by maintaining the originality of source culture and source text in TT.

Thus, the source culture is more presentable to the TT reader in spite of its

difficulties to be understood by TT readers. Foreignization method emphasizes on

ethnodeviant value to reveal cultural and linguistic distinctions or foreign text

(Venuti, 1995; Zare-Behtash and Firoozkoohi, 2009). The method delivers target

readers to the original place of source texts. Bernofsky (1997) states that

foreignization allows source language elements to influence the target language.

Foreignization attaches SL in TT in order to indicate the distinction of the foreign

text (Venuti, 1995 as cited in Myskja, 2013). The language employed in the target

text is disrupted in order to mark the otherness by the mean of foreignization

(Myska, 2013). It implies that foreignization maintain the non-dominant culture

thus the SL culture is distinctive. The strangeness in the form of syntax, cultural

terms, and writing style appearing in the identity of the source text is let to sit in

the translated text.

Foreignization is an agent of resistance in maintaining cultural identity

embedded in source language because it does not cover SL culture. Foreignizing

act gives chances to the less dominant culture or what is called as peripheral

culture by Ozbot (2016) to present their cultural identity to the TL readers.

Venuti (2010) claims that foreignization may resist the oppression towards

minority culture in form of ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism, and


18

imperialism. It implies that culture domination and power imbalance between SL

and TL in TT can be obstructed through foreignization translation approach. It is a

strategic intervention against the hegemonic English-language nations and cultural

exchanges that are not equal (Venuti, 1993). The resistant presents in the

perseverance of “the other’s” culture by maintaining SL words that indicate the

specified culture when they engage in the global context.

Vice versa, domestication is one of the strategies of translating that moves

ST closer to TT readers. The strategy adopts the transparent and fluent style to

minimize the foreignness of SL for the TL readers thus the foreign culture is

moved closer to the target audiences by making it recognizable and familiar

(Zare-Behtash & Firoozkoohi, 2009). This strategy domesticates foreign terms to

make the readers comprehend the text easily. According to Venuti (1995, p.20),

domestication is “an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target cultural

values that brings the author back to the TL” (as cited in Zhang, Feng, Wang,

2018, p. 22). It implies that domestication balances the cultural value so that the

translated text does not maintain ethnocentrism towards SL culture. However,

domestication also can be a method that supports ethnocentrism towards TL

culture. It is because according to Venuti (1993), domestication performs

ethnocentric violence rested on a dual fidelity between the SL text and TL culture.

He adds that it is impossible and deceitful because domesticating SL and its

culture causes a loss in foreign text and culture. Therefore, domestication erases

the SL foreignness and its culture but make it acceptable in TL situation

Domesticating the foreign terms is aimed to present SL in TT in a style that

is natural for TL. It is in line with Myska (2013) stating that domestication


19

emphasizes the naturalness and fluency of target text. It minimizes the foreignness

of ST for TT readers by assimilating SL according to the target language and its

cultural values (Venuti, 1995; Ajtony, 2017). The text assimilation in

domestication can be practiced through several domestication strategies enlisted

by Ajtony (2017) namely: the texts which are going to be translated using

domestication should be selected carefully; adopting natural TL writing style that

presents fluency; obeying target discourse rules to adapt the TT; the insertion of

explanatory material; deleting SL elements; harmonize TT with TT assumption

and choice. However, insertion explanatory material can be classified into

foreignization because the practice maintains the foreignness of SL. Moreover,

adding an explanation about SL that can be practiced by attaching glossary or

amplification translation technique is classified into foreignization by Zare-

Behtash and Firoozkoohi (2009).

Domestication does not merely create fluency and harmonization in TT. It

also has been enlisted in the service of the specific domestic agendas, such as

imperialism, evangelical, and professional that serves cultural and political agenda

(Venuti, 2001, p. 241). It is considered as imperialist and containing political

agenda because it strengthens TL domination by covering SL culture which is

unfamiliar to TL culture. Domestication prevents TL readers to know SL culture

that is contained in the culture-specific items. Therefore, target readers only know

SL culture reality according to their point of view.

The role of foreignization as colonial resistance and domestication that

serves colonial depends on the context of the SL and TL and the aim of translation

practice. Foreignization translating may act as imperialism material or


20

imperialism hegemony. Domesticating translation may serve as resistance to the

TL culture domination. Therefore, Venuti’s notion about foreignization,

domestication, and imperialism may work differently. The inverse of Venuti’s

notion is practiced in translating Old Irish epics. Tymockzo (1999) states that

domestication was applied to support the decolonization of Ireland in order to

raise Irish epic heroes through the central literary medium to improve Irish culture

(as cited in Golluch, 2013). In addition, foreignizing practice by rebuilding the

strangeness of Irish epic might strengthen the grip of British colonialism in

Ireland (Tymockzo, 1999 cited by Golluch 2013). Therefore, the context of the

relationship between the ideology of translating and imperialism needs to be

observed. In this study, the notion of foreignization and domestication developed

by Venuti may work accordingly or it may imply other meaning because based on

Tymockzo and Gentzler (2002) translation strategy could not be rigidly connected

with oppression or resistance.

In another situation, foreignization strategy may present exoticism. Myskja

(2017) gives her criticism towards Venuti through Tarek Sharma’s findings in

Translation and the Manipulation of Difference (2009), which scrutinizes the

domestication and foreignization of 19th-century translation from Arabic into

English. Sharma (2009) claims that foreignizing would be prone to substantiate

English prejudices towards source culture (as cited in Myskja, 2017). In his

analysis of Arabian Nights translated by Edward Burton, he founds that Burton’s

translation strategy indicates exoticism by over-emphasizing on the culturally

foreign phenomena, introducing the customs although they are not present in the

source text (cited in Myskja, 2017). In addition, Sharma discovers that Burton


21

gives more emphasis on the details of the bloodcurdling violence and sexual (as

Myskja, 2017). Sharma’s findings and Myskja critic towards Venuti indicate

foreignization is fluid in terms of its context and translation purpose.

Albeit foreignization and domestication have been defined by Venuti (1995)

and explained by Bernofsky (2014), Myska (2013), Zhang, Feng, Wang (2018),

and Ajtony (2017) there is still a problem in defining those approach in detail.

Tymockzo (2000) criticizes that Venuti’s concept of foreignization and

domestication are not strictly defined and the absolute criteria are never developed

(as cited in Myska, 2013). However, it opened an opportunity for translators or

scholars to create their own stance and criteria. As stated by Venuti (1991)

foreignization and domestication are heuristics concepts which means promote

thinking and research (as discussed in Munday, 2009 and cited in Myskja, 2017).

Since the proposed foreignization and domestication strategy encourage

independence discovery, scholars may use their own freedom to classify

translation techniques into foreignization and domestication strategies according

to the definition of foreignization and domestication and translation techniques.

Zare-Behtash & Sepideh (2009) summarize theories of taxonomies of translation

procedures in corresponding to domestication and foreignization translating

strategies. Their taxonomies are adopted from Bastin (1998), Laviosa-Braithwaite

(1998), and Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) that is cited in Munday (2001).

According to the aforementioned definition of foreignization, domestication, and

translation techniques, this study adopts the taxonomy of techniques that is

initiated by Molina & Albir (2002). The taxonomy of domestication and

foreignization strategies from Zaree-Behtash and Sepideh, 2009 is juxtaposed to


22

the translation techniques proposed by Molina& Albir (2002). The substance

presents in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Adoption of Translation Procedure Taxonomies Related to

Domestication and Foreignization Strategies

Foreignization Domestication

Bastin (1998)

Transcription of the original

Expansion

Omission

Exoticism

Updating situational equivalence

Proposed by Laviosa-Braithwaite (1998)

Simplification

Avoidance of repetition

Explication

Normalization

Discourse transfer

Distinctive distribution of lexical items

Proposed by Vinay & Darblenet (1995) as cited in Munday (2001)

Borrowing

Calque

Literal Translation

Transposition

Modulation

Equivalence

Adaptation

Proposed by Molina & Albir (2002)

Borrowing

calque

literal translation

amplification

Transposition

modulation

established equivalent

adaptation

description

generalization

particularization

compensation

reduction

omission

variation

linguistics amplification

Translation techniques are classified into foreignization and domestication

strategies according to the basic goal of each strategy and effect that are caused by

the application of those techniques. Translation techniques preserving source

text’s characteristics, source culture, and SL foreignness in target text are

classified into foreignization strategy. Then, other techniques that focus on TL

fluency and naturalness of TT are grouped as domestication strategy. Application


23

of translation strategies and techniques correspond to the translation orientation.

The orientation may carry ideology of translators and their patron behind the

application of translation strategies.

2.1.4 Language and Culture Relativity in translation practice

Culture relativity perceives all languages and culture are equal. There is no

standard that determines that particular culture is better than others or a particular

culture is more civilized than others. “The contemporary relativistic view is that

language and culture only differ from one another and implies a realization that

there are no universal yards stick against which all could be measured and ranked”

(Edwards, 2009, p. 49). The view respects differences within each culture.

The relativity occurs because each society encounters, witnesses and

experiences different daily reality. The differences are affected by nature,

geographic and social condition. They give impacts to the culture and to the

languages. As stated by Lucy (1997), language represents how society interprets

reality. It is exemplified by the Javanese language which is used by Javanese

people who live agrarian culture. Javanese people plant rice and eat rice as their

staple food and encounter the cultivation process and the preparation process until

it is ready to be consumed. Thus, it gives an impact to Javanese language in terms

of specific vocabularies related to rice. In instances, the language has damen (the

rice plant stalk), pari (rice seeds that are still adhered to the plants), gabah (rice

seeds that have just harvested and unattached to its stalk, beras (raw rice), and so

forth. However, in English, there are no specific terms to denote every stage and

part of rice because English people do not grow rice and rarely consume rice.

Therefore, the difference in portraying reality presents in the terminologies.


24

Because all language and culture are equal, they have rights to exist and be

represented. Therefore, translation practice is expected to support languages and

cultural representation in the world. It is in line with the ethics of translation

which is proposed by Antoine Berman. Berman claims that translation is not

merely the transmission of meaning because the extract of translation is to respect

others however it opens, performs dialogue and cross-breeding, and decenters

ethnocentric view that may be affected by translation (cited in Kristal, 2014, p.

36). Translation ethics is supported by a postcolonial translation that is expected

to encounter linguistic asymmetry that cannot be encountered by a declaration

stating all language are equal (Baer, 2014, p. 237). It implies that tangible action

through translation can be taken to present equality position of all languages and

culture.

2.1.5 Postcolonialism Translation and the Key Concepts

Postcolonialism emerged as the effect of colonialism. Colonialism is a

practice involving “territorial, economic, political and cultural

subjugation, appropriation, and exploitation of another country and people,

with the aim of establishing one's dominance in the world” (Wolf, 2000, p. 127).

The colonial annexed other countries’ territory to attain an economic advantage.

Exploitation practice influences the politics and culture of the dominated country.

It also makes the colonized country suffer from oppression from the colonizer.

The distress of being colonized brings postcolonialism idea to against colonialism

practice.

According to Ashcroft, Griffith, and Tiffin (1998), post-colonialism is

related to the impact of colonization on culture and societies. It attempts to


25

identify the changes of way of life and views as the effect of colonialism practice.

The postcolonialism studies scrutinize cultural gap, national identity, the relation

between colonizers and colonized, and the oppression of the colonized nation by

the colonizers. It is in line with Quayson (2012) stating that postcolonial studies

focus on the cultural distinction, marginalization, and exclusion. Postcolonial also

search for identity (Dewi, 2016). In addition, postcolonial attempts to discover

power imbalance between the colonizer and colonized. Post colonialism tries to

make sense the practices that captivated the native inhabitants and the settlers

from other places into the most complicated and traumatic events in the history;

tries to reason the processes of un-structuring or re-structuring the existed

community in which the attempts involved trade, pillage annexation, war, and

massacre (Loomba, 2005). Postcolonialism dismantles and challenges colonialism

and its hegemony. It helps the victim of colonialism to be subversive towards the

power imbalance.

Translation and colonialism practices are inseparable. It is in line with

Bassnet and Triverdi stating that translation and colonialism walk hand in hand, it

is an act that facilitates colonization by “grammartizing, domesticating, and

appropriating colonizer’s language and culture” (as cited in Baer, 2014, p.233).

According to Bassnet and Triverdi, translation is defined as a one-way process for

most of the translation processes are conducted for European consumption, rather

than the mutual process of language and cultural exchange. It is in par with Hatim

& Munday (2004) who claims “translation depends on the western philosophical

notions of reality, representation, and knowledge (Hatim and Munday, 2004: 108).

Therefore, translation inclines to the west both in terms of the aims of translating


26

certain text to west languages and the strategy of translating that is selected

according to west’s knowledge and belief towards reality. The tendency raises

power imbalance between SL that comes from the east or peripheral culture and

TL that comes from the west or center culture.

The inequality and un-reciprocal relationship in translation indicate

colonialism practice, which is called by Niranjana (1992) as the relationship of

unequal languages (cited in Baer, 2014, p. 234). Niranjana also states that

translation is never practiced in neutral places that apply absolute equality (as

cited by Merrill, 2013). According to Merrill (2013), the statement of Niranjana

applies to the relationship between European language, such as English and Latin,

and colonizer or colonized exchange.

The inequality in translation practice can be dismantled through

postcolonialism. Niranjana (1992) proposes that postcolonial attempts to discover

colonized past and histories constituting colonial discourse in the translation

works (1992, p.43). It destabilizes colonized culture that is constructed in

translation. Moreover, it also gives colonized culture and language changes to

introduce and be introduced thus the colonized is not perceived as an exotic other.

In addition, it prevents imperial practice through translation.

Postcolonialism in translation scrutinizes intercultural challenges in context

indicated by power relation imbalance and the issue of “identity representation

and difference central to any cultural central to any cultural framework of

translation” (Shamma, 2009, p. 185). Postcolonial study in translation attempts to

dismantle that western translation expands colonial expansion. It reveals how the

“orient” language and culture are colonized and suppressed by western language


27

and culture through translation practices. According to Bandia (2009),

postcolonial translation studies specifically focus on scrutinizing the effect of

translation practice on the source culture of the colonized country; it also attempts

to investigate impacts of homogenizing and colonizing language culture. It may

assist to find the implication of translation study that is based on linguistics

approach. Thus, the study is not limited to a description of linguistics data or

discussion of equivalence and translation technique itself. However, it helps to see

the linguistics data beyond. This is in line with Bandia proclaims that postcolonial

study “makes it possible to transcend the limitations of a purely linguistic

approach to translation studies, and allows us to have a broader view of language

in use as well as to account for linguistic variation within the postcolonial text ”

(2009, p. 129-130).

Colonialism practice may be recognized through linguistic inequality and

forestalled by linguistics resistance. Approaches to encounter colonialism in the

translation are proposed Gupta (1998). According to Gupta (1998), there are three

kinds of linguistics inequality, namely political inequality, surface inequality, and

deep inequality. Political inequality is power imbalance that is established through

the economic power of the target language. The power arises from the economic

power of British and USA. Surface inequality is imbalance power that is

presented by the range of vocabulary, grammar, syntax, and phonology. The

domination through the size of language may influence the word choices in

translation. It may enhance the more application of TL to domesticate ST.

Therefore, the SL meaning can be expressed with various nuances of TL. TT with

bigger language size also may dominate the SL, which is from third world


28

country, by economizing the original. Deep inequality refers to the mode of

intentions that try to be conveyed through translation text.

To encounter those inequalities, resistance may be practiced in translation.

Gupta (1998) also introduces three tiers of resistance in translation, namely:

political resistance, surface resistance, and deep resistance. Political resistance is

related to what text is translated, translator identity, and for whom the translation

is aimed. Surface and deep resistance which are classified into linguistic

resistance try to resist colonialism by applying certain words and stylistic.

Resistance towards inequality of linguistics may be done by disrupting

domestication culture living in translation. Steiner (1992) states domestication

tends to be practiced when the more remote linguistics-cultural source is applied

(as cited by Gupta, 1998). The disruption of domestication can be practiced

through foreignization. It is in line to Gupta (1998) states one way of resisting

domestication is by avoiding the use of easily recognizable codes and foreignizing

the code in an innovative way.

Besides discussing imbalances in translation, postcolonialism also discusses

orientalism that is proposed by Edward Said. Postcolonialism resists and averts

orientalism. Orientalism describes and emphasizes the distinction of the east as

the Orient and the west as the occident (Said, 1978). Orientalism is also a concept

that is applied by the occident to encounter the orient, in terms of creating a

remark about the Orient, authorizing picture about it, describing it by instilling the

idea, arrange it, and govern over it (Said, 1978). It implies that orientalism that

emerges in Europe made statements about the characteristics and culture of Asia,


29

the Middle East, and Africa dwellers. Then, they justify the idea by spreading it

and colonized the orient.

The occident establishes and manipulates the imagery of the orient

characteristics. The occident portrays the Orient as “irrational, depraved (fallen),

childlike, different” vice versa, the occident is “rational, virtuous, mature, normal”

(Said, 1978: 40). The self-claim also states that the west is biologically superior to

the east; therefore, the west perceived that they developed faster and be able to

create sophisticated civilization than others. In addition, Said (1978) states that the

occident justified the orient as lazy, lustful, irrational, and violent but also exotic

and mysterious.

Orientalist perceives that the Orient is an object that needs to be freed from

their belief through the occident’s religion. It is the object of redemption and

missionary work (Hart, 2004). The Orient was also considered as an ignorant and

superstitious believer by the occident missionaries, therefore, they really need

Christian conversion (Weir, 2011).

The occident’s claim of its superiority towards the east also brings the idea

that the occident is been able to understand the orient better than the orient itself

(Said, 1978). Therefore, it argues that the Orient is innocent and pure and justify

the west to control and help it, for its own sake. This conception puts west in the

level which is higher than east and leads to the acts that may oppress the east. This

is in line to Said’s (1978/ 1995) statement that orientalism helped in the

emergence of imperialist, racist, and ethnocentric mindset when they encounter

other culture (Said, 1978/ 1995: 204, as cited by Hatim and Munday, 2004: 108).


30

Orientalism is reflected in writing, ideology, and study that is Orientalized

by dominating them with imperatives, perspectives, and ideological biases of the

orients (Said, 1979). Therefore, Orientalism as one of the colonial acts can be

traced in the works of occident’s that are related to orients, such as literary work,

paintings, and translation works. It interprets orients civilization, people and its

vicinity through the occident’s point of view. Since translation is a practice of

colonialism discursive from west to colonize the east, orientalism interpretation

can be reflected in translation work in which the SL is originated from the

language of the east. Example of the orientalism in translation practice has

happened in Indian texts translated by Europeans (Niranjana, 1990).

Ethnocentrism is also one of the key notions that are discussed in

postcolonialism translation. Ethnocentrisms “implies a set of

structures that position one’s own culture as a center for the production and

distribution of knowledge of other culture, which are to various degrees

peripheral to it” (Benson, 2001, p. 4). It means that ethnocentrism sets a standard

of judgment about other culture. It is formed according to the assumption towards

other culture developed by one culture’s language, behavior, custom, beliefs, and

religion. Ethnocentrism may lead to racism and oppression to other cultures that

are subjugated by the dominator.

Ethnocentrism may be reflected in translation work. It is presented in the

application of foreignization and domestication. According to Berman (1992),

ethnocentrism is covered by transmissibility and it serves a systematic negation of

foreignness of the foreign works (as cited by Asadzadeh and Abbasi, 2012). It

implies that ethnocentrism is hidden in the notion of fluency in conveying SL and


31

it presents disagreement in maintaining the original terms. Another notion that is

important to be observed in searching ethnocentrism within translation works is

by considering non-ethnocentric translation criteria. Asadzadeh & Abbasi (2012)

propose three requirements that do not reflect ethnocentric ideas. Firstly, it does

not present an imbalance application between foreignization and domestication.

Secondly, translation work must maintain foreign terms and meaning correctly.

Thirdly, the translation work changes a peripheral culture that is not presented in

foreign work correctly and undermined the domestic constituencies other than the

one that is dominated.

Postcolonialism study also tries to dismantle exoticization, the attempts of

the west to create the image of the east that has different culture as exotic. The

culture is perceived as something that is exciting and unusual just because it

comes from the other part of the world, especially outside the west. Therefore,

east culture can be a commodity to be enjoyed by the west. Exoticism loves

remote culture for the remoteness (Tadarov as cited in Hugan, 1994). Colmeiro

defines exoticism as “signifying an exoticness essential to radical otherness” and

“the process whereby such radical otherness is either experienced by a traveler or

translated, transported, represented for consumption at home” (2002, p. 4).

Said proposes that exoticism is a part of orientalism discourse that is a

western way to dominate, restructure, and have authority over the Orient (cited by

Colmeiro, 2002). The Orient is “exoticized” by the occident. The exoticism

restructures the orient through fantasy; an imagination built by enjoyable self-

reassurance also expansionism towards others through the apparently innocuous

exploitation covered as it is playful and delirious (Savigliano, 1995 cited in Shay


32

and Sellers-Young, 2003). Exoticism is practiced by representing the other’s

identities in frivolously; powering over the other; practicing

“indiscriminately combining fragments, crumbs of knowledge and fantasy in

disrespectful, sweeping gestures justified by harmless banality” (Savigliano, 1995,

p. 189 in Shay and Sellers-Young, 2003). It implies that exoticism is an image of

the orient built from the imagination of the occident. The occident creates

exoticism by creating the representation of others according to what is on the

orient’s daydreaming. In translating, exoticism is practiced by substituting SL

slang, dialect, and insignificant words using TL rough equivalents (Bastin, 1998).

2.1.6 Review of Para Priyayi

Para Priyayi is an Indonesian literary work written by Umar Khayam. It

was published in 1992. The novel presents about the daily life of Sastrodarsono’s

family, Javanese gentries living in Wanagalih, a small regency in East Java, the

Indonesian war of Independence era, Gestapu, the old order and new order of

Indonesia.

Para Priyayi involves Sastrodarsono and Lantip as the main characters of

the novel. Sastrodarsono was a Javanese peasant’s son who was able to achieve a

higher social level because of the support from wealthy gentry from Kedungsimo

named Ndoro Seten. Sastrodarsono attained higher education and became a

teacher. Then, he became a priyayi baru or a gentry’s status that was received not

according to descendant but educational experience. Sastrodarsono and his family

lived a typical life of Javanese noblemen. They lived comfortably and had good

access to education and culture.


33

One day, The Sastrodarsonos decided to foster Wage a fatherless son of

poor tempeh seller from Wanalawas so that Wage would have an opportunity for

a better life. Then, Sastrodarsono gave Wage a new name, Lantip, and decided to

send him to school. Lantip was an intelligent and kind-hearted boy. He served and

helped Sastrodarsono’s family very well as his gratitude.

The life of Sastrodarsono, as a Javanese gentry, and Lantip represents the

life of traditional Javanese gentries and peasants in the rural area of East Java

during the Dutch Colonialism until the new order era. Their lifestyle in the novel

reveals the daily life culture of Javanese people. Therefore, the novel contains rich

Javanese cultural loaded terms.

Para Priyayi (PP) was translated into English in 2013. The novel was

rendered into Javanese Gentry (JG) to introduce Indonesian culture and literature

under Lontar Publisher, an independent and non-profit organization based in

Jakarta, Indonesia. The translation of PP made the novel accessible to

international readers. They can obtain JG by buying it through websites, such as

the official website of Lontar publisher or amazon.com. The book also can be

purchased in Periplus bookstore.

PP was translated by Vladislav Zhukov. He is an Australian with Ukraine

descendant. He was a rifleman-interpreter with the Australian Army in South

Vietnam. Then, he began learning the Indonesian language with the New Zealand

army when he was posted in South East Asia. Zhukov has a degree in languages

and Asian Studies and a master degree in defense strategy. He also studied in

Gadjah Mada University in 1992, the year of PP publication and when Umar

Kayam was a literature lecturer there. Zhukov did not only translate PP, but also


34

translate Vietnamese literature entitled The Kim Van Kieu of Nguyen Du, Italian

novel entitled Pescara Tales (1902): Spirit and Flesh: Images of Abruzzo, and

Russian literary work Old Hunting Grounds and Other Stories: Volume One and

Volume Two.

2.2 Review of Related Studies

The significance of the review of related study is aimed to see what aspects

that had been elaborated by other researchers and parts that need to be scrutinized.

In the review of related studies section, four studies related to the translation

ideology and translating culture-specific bound.

A translation study about translating culture-specific items has been

conducted previously by Brasiene, a Lithuania scholar in 2013. In her study, she

scrutinizes the translation procedures practiced in a literary work entitled Down

and Out in Paris and London translated by Orwell. Her study focuses on the

translation procedures applied in translating cultural bound terms. She employs a

theory about translation procedures proposed by Davies (2003) that classifies the

procedures into 7 types. After analyzing the procedures, Brasiene groups the

translation strategies into foreignization and domestication. Her study discovers

that the translator retains French culture. It is indicated through the foreignization

strategy that is more prevailed than domestication. According to Brasiene (2013),

the French CSIs from the novel are translated using preservation, localization, and

addition strategies.

A similar study about cultural specific items in translation is also conducted

by Nurhantoro (2013). He analyzes words with Javanese cultural concept in

Indonesian novel Mangunwijaya’s Durga Umayi that is translated into English.


35

The culturally loaded words are analyzed using translation techniques proposed

by Molina and Albir (2002). Then, he analyzes the dominant ideology of

translation using foreignization and domestication theory proposed by Venuti’s

(2009). His study discovers that domestication is outnumbered foreignization in

the English translation of Durga Umayi.

Translation study related to cultural specific bound is also conducted by

Fitriyani. The study describes foreignization and domestication also meaning

equivalence in translating culturally bound expressions in Para Priyayi and

Javanese Gentry. The result indicates that foreignization is prevalent in the study.

Moreover, according to the discovery, the meaning of culturally bound

expressions in the object of the study is highly transferred.

Previously, in 2009, two Iranian scholars, Zare-Behtash and Firoozkoohi

also conduct a translation study in transferring cultural specific items in translated

Ernest Hemingway’s works from 1950 until 2000 diachronically. The result of

their study indicates that domestication is the major translation strategy implied to

translate CSI. The result indicates that domestication is highly applied.

Although the aforementioned studies above indicate that translation study

about CSIs, foreignization, and domestication, and Javanese cultural terms have

been conducted, there is another part of translating CSIs in Para Priyayi (PP) and

Javanese Gentry that still can be scrutinized, in an instances the ideology behind

the application of translation strategies through postcolonial translation point of

view. Therefore, the difference of this study is that it scrutinizes translation

techniques and ideology behind translation strategy through postcolonial study.


36

2.3 Theoretical Framework

Theoretical framework section provides an overview of the logic flow

implemented in this study. It presents the application of theories that are written in

the review of related theories to answer the proposed research questions. Theory

about culture-specific items was applied in eliciting Javanese culture-specific

words and phrases. Theory related to translation techniques was employed to

discover applied translation techniques in rendering Javanese CSIs in Para

Priyayi and Javanese Gentry. Then, the theory about domestication and

foreignization and postcolonialism was used to scrutinize the ideology if

translating employed in rendering Javanese CSIs. The flow of thought is presented

in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 Theoretical Framework

PP

JG

CSI Translation

Techniques

Translation

Strategy

Domestication

Foreignization

Postcolonial Translation

Orientalist

Attitude

Ethnocentricsm

Exoticism


37

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

Chapter three discusses the methodology applied in conducting this

research. It consists of a type of study, research data, data collection, and data

analysis. The first section explains the type of study and the analysis approach.

The second part is about the research data that were analyzed in this study. The

third part is about the step of collecting the data. The fourth section is about the

elaboration about data presentation in the study.

3.1 Type of Study

The type of this study is descriptive translation study (DTS) proposed by

Toury (1995) because this study tries to describe, explain and predict phenomena

happens in the translation work as the object of study. It elaborates the translation

technique and strategies in PP and JG by comparing them. Then, the study

explains the phenomena in the techniques and strategies of translation. Moreover,

it predicts the colonial discourse and traces within the translation works. Then,

this study describes and explains colonial phenomena occur in the translation of

PP and JG. Therefore, it is in line to Cheung’s (2013) statement declaring that

DTS searches the established probable outcome of translation behavior by

controlling translation practice as an empirical discipline with a hierarchical

organization and a structured research program” (as cited in Castello, 2014). It is

also in line with Toury (1995) proposing that DTS is a translation study approach

involving “the empirical, non-prescriptive analysis of STs and TTs“ to identify

characteristics and laws of translation” (as cited by Hatim and Munday, 2004, p.

338).


38

3.2 Research Data

In order to discover the findings in this study, the writer chose Para Priyayi

as the source of ST and its English translation work entitled Javanese Gentry as

the TT. The ST was written by Umar Kayam. The TT was translated by Vladislav

Zhukov. The book was chosen because it provides a rich source of culture-

specific items. There were 401 culture-specific items presented in the ST that

were scrutinized. In addition, this study also used the interview with translator

result to find colonial ideology behind the applied translation techniques and

strategies.

3.3 Data Collection

In the process of collecting the data, the writer applied document analysis

technique. According to Leedy and Ormrood (2005), document analysis is a

detailed and systematic process to examine the contents of books, newspaper film,

video, and so forth. In collecting the data, firstly, the writer read the ST and TT

thoroughly to discover the CSIs. Secondly, the writer selected sentences

containing CSIs from ST. Thirdly; all of the selected data were distributed into the

table. Table 3.1 presents the model of data distribution in the table.

Table 3.1 Blue Print of Data Collection Table

Material Culture

No Data

code

ST

ST

sentence

Data

code

TT

TT Strategies


B P R LT C A Ad EE G LD V Co DC LA LC M S

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Table Information

Translation Procedures

B : borrowing G : generalization

P : particularization LD : literal domestication

R : reduction V : variation


39

Firstly, data inform of culture-specific terms were selected from ST.

Secondly, data were coded according to the chapter, page, and line. Code C

presents the chapter, P presents the line, and numbers indicate the number of the

line where the data were found.

It is exemplified by ST/C1/P10 which means that the data was taken from

the source text chapter 1 page 10. Third, the ST sentence column was filled by

distributing selected CSI from Para Priyayi. Fourth, the translated CSIs were

selected from Javanese Gentry, then, they were coded according to the chapter,

page, line where they were discovered. The process is exemplified by TT/C1/P

10/13. The code indicates that the datum was discovered in the target text, chapter

one, page ten, and line thirteen.

Every selected item form ST and TT was distributed into twelve data

collection tables. The classification of the table is according to the twelve domains

of CSI. Therefore, in this process the data were distributed into several tables

based on the topic, in an instance, CSIs related to entertainment activity were

distribute to the data collection table for social culture. The whole process of data

collection and the process of table entry are exemplified by Table 3.2.

LT : literal translation Co : compensation

C : calque DC : discursive creation

A : amplification LA : linguistic amplification

Ad : adaptation LC : linguistics compression

EE : established equivalent M :modulation

S : substitution


40

Table 3.2 Example of Data Distribution in Social Cultue

Social Culture

No Data

code

ST

ST sentence Data

code

TT

TT Strategies



1 C1/p1

0/20

Sesungguhnya

permainan kartu

yang disebut kesukan oleh para

priyayi itu bukanlah

perjudian dalam arti

besar-besaran

C1/P

15/7

Not that the teacher

was addicted to the

serious gambling, not at all, cards being

merely one of the

habitual minor

pleasures indulged

in by the lower

gentry of his circle,

a past time

institutionalized in

the word kesukan,

or simply diversion.

2

Table Information

Translation Procedures

B : borrowing G : generalization

P : particularization LD : literal domestication R : reduction V : variation

LT : literal translation Co : compensation

C : calque DC : discursive creation



EE : established equivalent M :modulation

S : substitution


41

In the example above, the boldly written word kesukan was selected to be CSI.

The word was taken from chapter one of the ST, page ten, line twenty. Thus,

kesukan was coded ST/C1/P10/20. After the data from ST was selected, the

translation of the selected CSI was chosen form TT. The translated CSI was

founded in the TT chapter one, page fifteen, and line seven. In TT kesukan is

translated into kesukan, or simply diversion.

Data elicitation was not only conducted by collecting CSIs from both PP

and JG but also by conducting an interview via email with the translator. The

interview is defined as a one-way information exchange by which the interviewer

extract essential information from the interviewee (Edley and Litosseliti, 2010).

Interviewed can open access to the information that cannot be obtained by

observing the object of study directly (Patton, 1980 in Litosseloti, 2010). Since

direct observation towards the translation techniques and strategies in the object

of study was not enough to retrieve the ideology behind the translation of CSIs in

PP and JG, the interview was necessary to be conducted to discover the ideology

of translating. Therefore, during the interview, the questions given were about the

translator’s background and his reasons to practice such translation technique in

encountering and bridging the cultural difference. The question lists can be

referred to in Appendix 17.

3.4 Data Analysis

After eliciting and putting the data accordingly, the data were analyzed by

comparing CSI in ST and TT and scrutinized according to translation techniques.

The example of data analysis is presented in Table 3.3.


42

Table 3.3 Example of Data Analysis in Social Culture

Material Culture

No Data

code

ST

ST sentence Data

code

TT

TT Strategies



1 C1/p1

0/20

Sesungguhnya

permainan kartu

yang disebut kesukan oleh para

priyayi itu bukanlah

perjudian dalam arti

besar-besaran

C1/P

15/7

Not that the teacher

was addicted to the

serious gambling, not at all, cards being

merely one of the

habitual minor

pleasures indulged

in by the lower

gentry of his circle,

a past time

institutionalized in

the word kesukan,

or simply diversion.

1

2

Table Information

Translation Procedures B : borrowing G : generalization

P : particularization LD : literal domestication

R : reduction V : variation

LT : literal translation Co : compensation C : calque DC : discursive creation



EE : established equivalent M :modulation S : substitution


43

Then, according to the translation techniques, they were classified into

foreignization and domestication. In addition, the translation techniques and

strategies were juxtaposed with the interview result. The process was continued

by analyzing them through a postcolonial point of view.

3.5 Data Presentation

In this research, the data are presented in tables and sets of code related to

the CSI classifications, and translation technique and translation strategy. Table

3.3 presents the domain of CSI and translation techniques discovered in the

objects of the study. The total occurrences of translation technique and translation

strategies in every domain are written in Table 3.4. Then the result interview is

presented in the appendix 17.


44

Table 3.4 The Blue Print of Analysis Result Table

No Domain

Domestication Foreignization TO

TA

L

Br LT Cal Amp Prt Rdc Adp Eq Gen LD Var Com DC LA LC Mod Sub Desc omit trans

Ecology

material culture

social culture

Organization,

Custom, Activities,

Procedure, social

conception

Gesture and habit

Measurement

system

Anthrophonym

Dialect

fictional Character

Date

Idiom

Metaphor

Translation

technique Total

Ideology of

translation total


45

CHAPTER 4

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

Chapter IV discusses the analysis result of the study. It elaborates the

translation techniques applied in translating culture-specific items in ST: Para

Priyayi and TT: Javanese Gentry. It also presents the ideology of translating in

the object of the study.

4.1 Translation Techniques in Translating Javanese CSIs in PP

Before analyzing the translation techniques, the selected CSIs are classified

into twelve culture domains. There are 401 CSIs classified into ecology, material

culture, social culture, organization, custom, activities, procedure, social

conception, gesture and habit, measurement system, anthroponym, dialect,

fictional character, date, idiom, and metaphor. The detailed of Javanese CSIs in

Javanese Gentry culture domain classification is presented in table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Javanese Cultural Specific Items in Para Priyayi/Javanese Gentry

No Domain Numbers of

Data

Percentage

1. Anthroponym 92 23%

2. Material Culture 65 16%

3. Organization, Custom, Activities,

Procedure, social conception

49 12%

4. Social Culture 40 10%

5. Gesture and Habit 40 10%

6. Dialect 40 10%

7. Fictional Character 35 9%

8. Metaphor 14 3%

9. Idiom 11 3%

10. Ecology 5 1%

11. Date 4 1%

12. Measurement System 3 1%

Total 401 100%


46

According to Table 4.1, there are 5 words about ecology. The words refer to

flora, fauna, and earth typology. In this study, ecology domain is exemplified by

macan gembong, padi gogo ranca, and tegalan. Then, there are 53 words related

to material culture denoting foods, beverages, mean of transportation, building,

clothes, and tools, such as tumpeng, kebaya, gerobak, and pendopo. This study

also discovers 52 words about social cultures, such as a form of entertainment and

occupations. Social culture is exemplified by kesukan and mantri pocokan and

tayuban. In this study, there are also found 49 words about the organization,

custom, activities, procedure, and social conception. Those domains are presented

by selametan, tepa selira marang sapada-pada, saru, and so forth. There are 40

words related to gesture and habit (e.g.: keropok and metingkrang), then, 3

occurrences of measurement systems (e.g.: bau). There are 92 words related to

kinship, a royal title, and name of a person, name of places that are classified into

anthroponym, such as genduk, tole, kanjeng gusti, and so forth. In this research,

40 discourse markers that indicate Javanese dialect are discovered. The Javanese

dialect is marked by the use of niku, dalem, kowe, and so forth. Then, there are 35

words about a fictional character from prominent literary works. The fictional

character is exemplified by Prabu Angling Dharma, Anggang, etc. This study

also discovered four words related to Javanese date (e.g. Selasa Kliwon), eleven

Javanese idioms (e.g. merak ati), thirteen metaphors (kencono wingko)

corresponding to Javanese culture.

After classifying the selected CSIs into cultural domains, they are analyzed

and classified according to their translation techniques. According to the analyses,


47

there are fifteen types of translation technique applied in Zhukov’s Javanese

Gentries. The distribution of the translation techniques is presented in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Translation Techniques of Javanese Cultural Specific Items in Para

Priyayi/Javanese Gentry

No Translation Techniques Occurrences Precentage

1. Description 93 24%

2. Borrowing 82 21%

3. Amplification 51 14%

4. Generalization 49 12%

5. Compensation 30 7%

6. Established equivalent 26 6%

7. Adaptation 22 5%

8. Literal translation 15 4%

9. Omission 13 3%

10. Calque 7 2%

11. Linguistic Amplification 6 1%

12. Modulation 3 1%

13. Variation 3 1%

14. Transposition 1 0%

Total 401 100%

The research discovers description as the most applied translation technique.

It is applied 93 times in translating CSIs in PP. Then, the highest number is

followed by borrowing translation techniques. There are 88 occurrences of

borrowing. The third most employed translation technique is amplification. The

translator translates 50 CSIs using amplification. The lowest frequency of

translation technique applied in JG is transposition, which is only applied one

time. According to the study, there are five translation techniques that are not

discovered in this case, namely discursive creation, linguistics compression,

particularization, reduction, and substitution.


48

This study found that 21% of the Javanese CSI is described in TL Then, it is

followed by borrowing translation technique. According to this study, 20% of the

data are translated by borrowing CSI SL into TL.

Chart 4.1 Percentage of Translation Technique of CSI in JG

4.1.1 Amplification

This research discovers that amplification occurs 51 times out of 401 CSIs

found in ST. It is applied to translate words from the domain of ecology, material

culture, social culture, organization, custom, activities, procedure, social

conception, anthroponomy, fictional character and dialect, and gesture and habit.


49

Appendix 1 presents amplification that is applied in translating CSIs in Para

Priyayi/ Javanese Gentry.

There is one occurrence of amplification in the domain related to ecology.

The application of amplification technique in ecology domain is exemplified by

example (1).

(1) ST Ini yang disebut candikala, Le. (SL/ C2/ P16 /1)

TT We call it candikala, dear, when the sunlight comes

together like that in sheaves. It just happens just before

dark. (TL/ C2/ P22/ 12)

According to Purwadi (2005), candikala refers to “red stroke of red sunlight in the

twilight”. The translator attaches additional information in order to assist the TT

reader understanding towards candikala. The term of candikala in ST is not

translated to another term that equivalence to TL. The Javanese term is maintained

and its description in English is embedded.

The amplification process is also discovered in translating material culture

related terms. There are twelve occurrences of the amplification process in

translating terms about architecture and food. The application of amplification in

translating food is exemplified by rendering process of pendopo Prangwedanan in

example (2).

(2) ST Saya diperintahkan untuk sowan menghadap pendopo

Prangwedanan, istana kecil di timur istana pusat

Mangkunegaran (SL/ C5/ P157/3)

TT The Prangwedana pendopo, the gathering place of

military stuff in past days. (TL/C5/P191/18)

The chunk of the TT indicates the amplification techniques applied in

translating pendopo Prangwedanan. Additional description “the gathering place

of military stuff in past days” is attached beside the untranslated terms to assist the

TT reader to understand the term.


50

Amplification also can be one of the translation techniques in encountering

fictional characters from Javanese epoch that is near to Javanese culture. Javanese

people take moral value from Ramayana and Mahabharata epoch and make them

as role models in living their life. They also adopt the characters’ name to give

their children a name. The story becomes one of the essential aspects of Javanese

people life. However, those epochs do not exist in TL culture. Therefore, the

problem in presenting the well-known fictional character in TT is to introduce the

description of the characters related to the words are embedded next to the terms.

Amplification in translating fictional characters terms is exemplified by the

translation process of Rahwana in (3).

(3) ST Saya kira karena keberaniannya beperang melawan

Rahwana hingga dia gugur. Kemudian Karna diambil

sebagai contoh karena dia berani memilih berpihak pada

para Kurawa yang jahat (SL/ C6/ P186/23)

TT And if His Highness Mangkunegaran IV also chose him as

an example, and the first of the three at that, it was probably

for Sumantri’s heroic, hopeless fight against the giant

Rahwana to fulfill his ultimate service to his king. And to

set beside Sumantri’s late-found notion of noble

responsibility, next His Highness selected Karna for his

resolve to side with the evil Kurawa brothers

(TL/C6/P226/28)

Rahwana is the king of Alengka Kingdom who has giant like physical features.

He kidnapped Shinta, the very beautiful wife of Rama. The word Rahwana in this

part of the text is important because this part talks about Ramayana epoch that is a

part of Javanese literary culture. Therefore, Rahwana should be maintained in TT.

However, it does not exist in TL culture and TT readers do not recognize

Rahwana. To assist the TL readers understanding regarding Rahwana, the


51

translator add “the giant” words before the word Rahwana in order to give

information about physical appearance of Rahwana.

Amplification also helps to translate Javanese people beliefs in myth,

deities, and mythology creatures attached in PP. The technique is applied in

translating Kanjeng Ratu Kidul (the queen who dwells and conquers the south

sea), ghost, monsters, genies, and so forth within PP. It is exemplified in

translating Ratu Kidul, the queen of the south sea in example (4).

(4) ST Terutama Hari dan Lantip yang kenyang diceritai tentang

lakon-lakon ketoprak. Tentang Prabu Anglingdarma yang

sakti dan ajaib itu, tentang Raden, Ronggo, putra

Panembahan Senapati dengan Ratu Kidul yang gagah,

tetapi juga terlalu sakti dan berbahaya, tentang Anggang-

Anggang Siluman yang menyeramkan. (SL/ C5/ P175/29)

TL Stories about royal Anglingdarma and his miraculous

powers; about Prince Ronggo, the valorous son of glorious

Senapati who founded the Mataram dynasty, the lad

Ronggo begotten by Senapati from Ratu Kidul, the

Empress of the South Sea; about the horrible spider

Siluman defeated by Prince Ronggo: all told with ardour

and spellbinding histrionics. (TL/C5/P213/11)

Ratu Kidul or Kanjeng Ratu Kidul is a guardian goddess of the south sea

which is a part of Indian Ocean. Javanese people believe that she is a spiritual

spouse to the sultans of Mataram kingdoms and all of the kings from Mataram

descendants. In several occasions, the Sultanate of Ngayogyakarta as a fraction of

Mataram kingdom and Javanese people usually make some rituals and give an

offering to Kanjeng Ratu Kidul in several beaches located in the southern part of

Java.

Since TL culture does not share the same mythology, TT readers might face

problems in understanding the text related to Javanese fictional characters in the


52

mythology. Therefore, amplification is applied to bridge cultural differences.

Additional information or description is attached near the untranslated word.

Although amplification may help the TT readers to understand the

mythology and other CSIs, it also may give wrong understanding towards the

terms by attaching improper description so that the translation becomes not

equivalence and the readers gain the wrong information. Amplification with

wrong attached description is discovered in TT once and it is exemplified by the

translation of Pasopati Arjuna in example (5).

(5) ST Dia malah gugur dipanah Pasopati Arjuna. (SL/ C6/

P187/1)

TL Yes, even so. And even though he would be killed by an

arrow launched by Pasopati Arjuna, his younger brother

and rival. (TL/C6/P227/12)

According to Soekatno (1992), pasopati arjuna is an arcane arrow with crescent

formed arrowhead that made of Batara Kala’s fangs. Soekatno states it is

bestowed to Arjuna by the deity. However, in TT, the additional description

reflects false representation. In the TT, pasopati arjuna refers to Arjuna the owner

of the arrows.

Amplification is also applied in rendering name that is including in

anthroponomy domain. It is exemplified by (6) in translating “Harimurti”, a name

given to Hardoyo’s son.

(6) ST :Kata orang bayi yang kulitnya merah mangar-mangar akan

menjadi hitam bila sudah tumbuh dewasa. Maka kami

namakan dia Harimurti, dengan harapan ia akan sehitam

Batara Kresna, titisan Wisnu itu. (SL/ C5/ P161/36)

TT We had a boy, Harimurti, We had given him a name

which translated from the Sanskrit as "Touched by the

Light of the Sun", because at birth his body was quite red ,

and wisdom had it that this was a sign he would grow up to

be swarthy. (TL/ C5/ P197/ 4)


53

4.1.2 Borrowing

There are 88 occurrences of borrowing applied in material culture, social

culture, organization, custom, activities, procedure, social conception,

anthroponomy, dialect, and fictional character domains in this research.

Borrowing is mostly applied in translating Javanese names and Javanese cultural

bound addressee terms. 41 out of 88 occurrences of borrowing are applied in

translating the proper name. Dialect becomes the second highest realm that

applied borrowing translation technique. This study discovers 6 times of

borrowing application in translating dialect. Then, material culture is the third

highest. Borrowing is applied five times in that realm. Then, the occurrence of

borrowing is followed by translating technique applied in rendering organization,

custom, activities, procedure, social conception realm (four times) and social

culture (two times). The complete information about the discovery of borrowing

technique in this study is presented in appendix 2. Borrowing application in

translating CSI is exemplified by (7). It is applied in translating phrase Embah

Kakung Sastro Darsono.

(7) ST Saya selalu heran bagaimana seorang ibu rumah tangga

yang bekerja begitu keras mendampingi seorang suami

seperti Embah Kakung Sastrodarsono yang begitu aktif

di masyarakat dan serta mengelola tegalan serta sawah

tadah hujan dan mengurus begitu banyak orang di rumah,

bisa menjaga tubuh yang sehat serta wajah yang tetap

segar dan cantik pada usia yang tujuh puluh tahun. (SL/

C8/ P234/7)

TT Until then I had been happy, happy if somewhat astonished,

that woman of seventy could go on looking so fresh and

pleasant, so healthily flushed; and that when she had so

much to do by the side of her husband, Embah Kakung

Sastrodarsono. (TL/C8/P285/6)


54

The example (7) indicates that the phrase Embah Kakung Sastrodarsono in SL,

does not change in TL. The Javanese kinship is taken the term directly.

Borrowing is also applied in translating words CSIs related material

culture. It is exemplified by the translation of keris.

(8) SL Dan yang juga menarik dari kamar itu adalah lemari kecil

tempat menyimpan keris-keris Ndoro Guru.

(SL/ C2/ P17 /31)

TL Around it was other attraction: a large and fine teak wood

wardrobe, an oval mirror hanging on the souther wall, a

small cabinet where the teacher's krisses-the

appurtenances of a priyayi -were stored, and in a corner

leant his ceremonial spears. (TL/ C2/ P24/ 25)

The TT adapts the spelling of keris into kriss. Additional information is also

added to amplify the function of kriss and its meaning for the priyayi.

4.1.3 Calque

In this study, there are 7 CSIs translated using calque. According to the

research, calque is applied once in translating a word related to the endemic

animal. The phenomena are exemplified by (9) in the translating process of macan

gembong phrases.

(9) ST Berbagai satwa masih menghuni hutan. Bahkan harimau

loreng, yang di daerah situ disebut macan gembong, yang

anggun juga galak itu, waktu itu masih berkeliaran. (SL/

C3/ P33/21)

TT At that time, about 1910 by Christian calendar, Javanese

villages were still surrounded by considerable forest, and

all sort of animal roamed in the depths: striped tigers, for

examples - handsome, dangerous beast -- and native wild

oxen as well. (TL/C3/P44/31)

Harimau loreng or macan gembong is one of the tiger species that is inhabited

specifically in-depth forests of Java Island. It is the biggest one among other

species of tigers in the world. The animal is difficult to be seen nowadays because

it is estimated to be extinct. In TL surroundings, all of the types of tigers in the


55

world is known as tiger itself. Harimau loreng or Macan gembong is borrowed

and translated literary by TL; harimau is translated into tiger and loreng is

rendered into striped.

The application of calque is also discovered in translating local

educational institution, sekolah desa that is presented in example (10). The term is

borrowed to the TL because TL language does not have the equivalent terms and

the concept of sekolah desa. Then, it is translated directly into TL.

(10) SL Kakang Atmokasan, moso borong, terserah panjenengan, ya

ini putri panjenengan yang masih bodoh. Sekolah juga

Cuma tamat sekolah desa ditambah satu tahun ngenger

Ndoro Nyonyah Administratur pabrik gula Mbalong

(SL/ C3/ P42/ 3)

TL She only managed five years at the village school and a

year with the wife of the administrateur of sugar factory

Mbalong, living in, doing chores there. (TL/ C3/ P55 /32)

Sekolah desa was an educational institution during the Dutch colonial era. At that

time, Indonesian commoners were only allowed to go to sekolah desa or village

school. In that school, the students who were from peasant family studied simple

mathematics, how to read in the alphabet, and how to write for three years. This

type of school only existed in Indonesia during the colonial time. TL readers do

not recognize this type of school. Therefore, calque was applied to help the reader

to understand the words. The word sekolah is translated into school and desa is

translated into the village.

Calque is also applied to translate CSIs from other domains such as social

culture, organization, custom, activities, procedure, social conception, dialect,

metaphor, and idiom. Other examples of calque in this research are presented in

appendix 3.


56

4.1.4 Literal Translation

This study discovers nine words translated using literal translation in this

study. The technique is applied to translate ecology, material culture, social

culture, organization, custom, activities, procedure, social conception realm,

behavior, measurement system, anthroponym, dialect, idiom, and metaphor. The

detail information of literal translation application found in this study is presented

in appendix 4.

Based on the findings, the literal translation is mostly applied in translating

metaphor. There are 5 metaphors and 1 Jarwa dhasak that are translated with

literal translation technique. In this study, Javanese jarwa dhasak is translated

word by word instead of adapting into other forms that are more familiar in TL. It

is exemplified by (11).

(11) ST Orang Jawa mengatakan istri adalah garwa, sigarane

nyawa, yang berarti belahan jiwa. (SL/ C7/ P207/3)

TT half a soul, we wives are, that's the saying

(TL/ C7/ P253/ 4)

To translate garwa, sigarane nyawa that is applied to utter Javanese belief related

to the relationship between Javanese spouses, the translator applies literal

translation. The metaphor is translated into “half a soul, we wives are, that’s the

saying”. In this case, each word is rendered into TL.

. The literal translation is also applied to render idiom in the ST. The literally

translated idiom is exemplified by example (12).

(12) SL Ya baiklah, Le. Hati-hati ikut orang. Yang rajin dan bekerja.

Juga sekolahmu yang baik, Le. Ingat janjimu kepada saya.

Mikul duwur mendem jero! (SL/ C4/ P137/ 5 )

TL And good luck to you, lad. Be good and obey those you go

to live with. Work hard and honestly at school and

everywhere. Don’t forget our little agreement, and whatever


57

you do, you know the motto: and Lift high! Dig deep! (TL/

C4/ P168/ 15)

mikul nduwur, mendhem jero which means “lift up high the good deeds or the best

side of your family and bury deep the flaws of your family”. The proverb that

becomes one of guidance for Javanese family has translated words per word

although it does not precisely convey its meaning. It is translated into “lift high,

dig deep!” Mikul which actually means to shoulder something is translated into

lift. Then, ndhuwur is translated into high. Mendhem that literally means to burry

something is rendered into to dig. Jero is translated into deep.

4.1.5 Adaptation

According to the research, adaptation occurs 22 times out of 401 words. It is

applied to translate words from the domain of ecology, material, social culture,

organization, custom, activities, procedure, social conception, gesture and habit,

measurement system, anthroponomy, dialect, fictional character, dialect, fictional

character, date, idiom, and metaphor. Appendix 5 presents the application of the

adaptation technique in the object of the study.

Words about food, clothes, musical instruments, places and buildings, and

tools, which are classified into material culture domain, is also translated using

adaptation technique. It happens to translate seven out of 65 words about material

culture discovered in this study. It is exemplified by example (13) in translating

dodol nangka. Dodol nangka refers to thick, sticky, sweet made of glutinous flour,

coconut milk, coconut sugar, and jackfruit; usually wrapped in paper or corn

leaves. And taffy is soft a sweet or candy made of brown sugar boiled until it is

very thick and given different shapes and color (Longman). Although dodol and


58

taffy differ in terms of ingredients, and color, their texture almost is similar. Thus,

dodol is adapted into taffy because it is almost equivalence to the TL.

(13) ST Kiriman oleh-oleh kami mereka balas jawab dengan oleh-

oleh balasan yang berupa mangga santok Magetan satu

keranjang dan juadah serta dodol nangka. (SL/ C3/ P68/

28)

TT They replied with warmth embracing our admirable desire

to strengthen the ties of kinship, and with their best wishes

towards that end came a basketful of Magetan mangoes,

various delicacies from sticky rice, and quantity of

jackfruit taffy. (TL/ C3/ P88/ 22)

Adaptation is also applied in translating words about a profession that are

classified into social culture. In the object of this study, there are three out of 16

words about the social culture that are translated using adaptation technique. It is

exemplified in rendering Asisten Wedana Karangelo presented in (14).

(14) ST Dalam surat lamaran itu nama Raden Harjono sudah

ditambah dengan Cokrokoesoemo, Raden Hardojo

Cokrokoesoemo, asisten wedana Karangelo (TL/ C3/ P97/

15)

TT In the letter, the young man, already distinguished by title

raden, had had the flowery “Cokrokoesoemo” added to his

namem and now we learned that Raden Harjono

Cokrokoesoemo had been raised to assistant district chief

at Karangelo (TL/ C3/ P97/ 15)

Before the independence day of Indonesia, the administrative region in Java were

divided into six levels by the Dutch, namely: provinsi, karesidenan, kotapraja and

kabupaten, kawedanan, kecamatan, and desa. The land administrative division of

Java during the Dutch colonial was distinct to the concept adopts in the TT

readers’ countries. In the TL countries, the land administration is regulated

differently. According to Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, wedana is an assistant

for a chief of kabupaten (a region that is smaller than province). However, based

on Longman district is an area which country, town or state is divided into for


59

purpose if an organization, with official boundaries. The juxtaposition between

the meanings of those two terms indicated that wedana almost equivalent to the

district. Since Java and TL country shares different land administrative division

concept, the word district is opted to attain equivalent.

Adaptation is also applied to translate CSIs that are related to organization,

custom, activities, procedure, and social conception, in translating Para Priyayi.

Four out of 49 words from that domain are rendered in adaptation. It is

exemplified by (15) in the translation of ronda tetek.

(15) ST Malam memang sudah larut, ronda tetek sudah lewat dua

kali mengingatkan orang untuk waspada terhadap maling

dan kami memang sudah mengantuk semua. (SL/ C3/ P98/

37)

TT It was indeed late, the town watch had passed our house

twice (TL/ C3/ P125/ 25)

Ronda tetek refers to a voluntary activity conducted by the community

living there to protect a neighborhood. They usually walk around to patrol in the

neighborhood and make voice by hitting a long bamboo drum in order to drive

burglars away and warn the community to stay alert. The concept of ronda tetek is

almost similar to town watch even though they are slightly different. Town watch

is a security organization managed by the community. The town watchmen are

trained, they also wear a uniform and have the equipment, such as two-way radio

to contact the police directly and weapon.

Adaptation technique is applied as well in translating anthroponomy

domain. The application of adaptation in rendering name indicating social

background was discovered six times in this study. One of the examples in

adapting SL anthroponomy into TL is presented in (16).

(16) ST Tole Darsono, ya ini adikmu Siti Aisah, (SL/ C3/ P41/ 39)


60

TT Master Darsono, you met the lass once. (TL/C3/P55/27)

Tole is an addressee for young male from the older that shows affection and

closeness between the speaker and the hearer. Commonly, it is applied by the

father or mother to call their son and grandfather or grandmother to call their

grandsons. It is also practiced by adults to call young male. Example (16) presents

that tole is translated into master. However, the translation result is not equivalent

because master is an addressee for an adult male who is respectful.

It is also applied in translating the royal title in the example (17).

(17) ST Nanti Anda saya sowan-kan kepada atasan saya, Kanjeng

Bupati Anom, mungkin juga Kanjeng Pepatih Dalem,

bahan siapa tahu Kanjeng Gusti sendiri berkenan

menerima Anda (SL/ C5/ P156/6)

TT Why don’t you come with me to Solo, Meneer Hardojo, and

I’ll introduce you to a few of my superiors. There’s the

deputy bupati, and His Excellency the chief minister, and

perhaps His Highness himself will tell you with in own

words what we have to offer. (TL/ C5/ P190/ 8)

Kanjeng Bupati Anom is a special title that is attained because of the position in

the governmental office. It is translated into the title is adapted into the deputy

referring to “a person who is the next most important person such as a leader, a

head, or a director” (Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary). Kanjeng Pepatih

Dalem is a royal position that is at the same level as a prime minister. The

position was functioned to assist the king of Ngayogyakarta or Surakarta and

bridge communication between the sultanate and the colonial authority. The

specific title was translated into a title which is familiar for the TL readers, His

Excellency. Excellency is a tittle for someone with a very important official

position. Kanjeng Gusti is a royal title specifically owned by the ruler of

Mangkunegaran and Pakualaman or by the crown prince of the sultanate


61

Ngayogyakarta or Surakarta. The title that was only used in Javanese kingdom

was translated into His Highness, a title that is usually used by the royal family

from TL.

4.1.6 Description

This research discovers 93 occurrences of description technique applied in

translating CSI in the object. It is the most applied translation technique in this

study because describing CSIs helps target readers to understand the concept

easily. Therefore, in translating CSIs in Para Priyayi, the translators applies

description translation technique to translate ecology, material culture, social

culture, gesture and habit, organization, custom, activities, procedure, social

conception, anthroponym, fictional character, date, idiom, and metaphor. More

examples of description technique are presented in Appendix 5.

Describing particular SL terms about gestures and habit in TL is possible to

be practiced to encounter cultural gap. Because there are some gestures, activities,

and habits that are unfamiliar and not practiced by the TL readers, TL does not

have the vocabularies. Moreover, it raises a problems to translate such things. The

application of description translation technique to encounter words from gesture

and habit realm is exemplified by (18).

(18) ST Dan kepala pusing-pusing, badan terasa tidak enak, yang

segera dibereskan oleh kerokan dan pijitan orang-orang

belakang, bukankan itu semua juga bumbu-bumbu

kehidupan oang tua? (SL/ C7/ P232/`15)

TL When I get dizzy and feel off color I get someone outback

who can do wonders just by drawing the edge of a coin

along the spine. And she does massages as well. Nothing

like a massage to spice up an old wife’s body

(TL/C7/P283/16)


62

The instance is presented in (18) indicates that kerokan, an old method to cure

common flu, is translated into “by drawing the edge of a coin along the spine”.

The technique applied in (18) helps the target readers to acquire the meaning of

the term by describing it. The translation only describes a part of kerokan. It only

translate the gesture of kerokan. The description does not accommodate the aim of

kerokan as a traditional healing treatment. Therefore, activity of kerokan seems

aimless in the TT.

Description translation technique is also mostly practiced to translate CSIs

about material culture terms, such as food and beverages, tools, architecture, and

costumes. There are 31 out of 65 words about material culture in this study that

are translated using description translation technique (see appendix 15). The

translation technique is target language and target readers friendly because it

depicts the terms in a way that is understandable for target readers. Although the

description technique helps the target reader to imagine and understand the

cultural concept, the technique is only able to portray the meaning partially in TT

but it still can help the readers to understand the meaning. Description in

encountering a material culture that is related to food is exemplified by example

(19).

(19) SL Waktu Embahmu putri saya bawa ke Kedungsimo, kami

dihidangkan pepes cabuk oleh embahmu buyut putri. Embahmu

putri mengira akan mendapat semacam pepes botok teri atau apa

begitu. Waktu dibuka dia kaget melihat warna hitam cabuk

wijen itu Embahmu kaget bukan main. (SL/ C7/ P245/14)

TL When I brought her home to my parents in Kedungsimo, they

served us a meal of steamed black sesame seeds and grated

coconut wrapped in banana leaf. Embah Putri had expected to

find something else altogether - steamed anchovies, perhaps-

and when she unwrapped the leaf and saw that was this mush

black sesame seed, she was revolted. (TL/C7/P297/25)


63

Pepes cabuk, special dishes from Wanagalih, is described according to its

ingredients and cooking methods. The food is described using TL into “a meal of

steamed black sesame seeds and grated coconut wrapped in banana leaf.”

Therefore, target readers are able to imagine the food. The use of description

translation technique is also practiced to translate material culture related to a

costume that is presented in example (20).

(20) SL Celana kolor komprang dari kain kastup, celana

terpercaya para petani, digantung berdampingan dengan

kutang-kutang perempuan berwarna jambon dan hitam.

Sabuk otok atau ikat pinggang besar dengan dompet di

sebelah kiri dan kanan gesper, ikat pinggang terpercaya

para petani bila pergi belanja di pasar. (SL/ C1/ P1/ 14)

TL There are familiar black short trousers made of glossy

cotton fabric, tied at the waist by a drawstring (no doubt

a reassuring detail to our peasant wearers), rows of them

hang beside pink and white and black camisoles; there are

the same wide-waisted sashes on sale within which on

each side of the buckle the country people stow their

capital when coming to market. (TL/ C1/ P1/ 18)

There are two costumes that are translated using description translation technique

in example (20). In the example, the trousers and the sashes are described in TL

according to its shape, material, style, the wearer, and how to wear them.

However, the terms are translated for the readers from outside Java using

amplification technique in ST. Therefore, ST readers acquire specific terms and

their meaning. Meanwhile, the terms are described in TL without preserving the

original terms in TT. Celana komprang dari kain kastup is translated into “black

short trousers made of glossy cotton fabric, tied at the waist by a drawstring.”

Sabuk otok is translated “the same wide-waisted sashes on sale within which on

each side of the buckle the country people stow their capital when coming to

market.” However, there are differences in describing those attributes. Celana


64

komprang and sabuk otok are described as a trusted attribute for farmers. They are

depicted as something that is close to farmers’ life. However, they are described

as the costumes of peasant and country people. It indicates the low social status of

the wearer.

4.1.7 Established Equivalent

In this study, there are 26 occurrences of established equivalent (see

appendix 15). It is applied in translating six domains, namely social culture,

organization, custom, activities, procedure, social conception, dialect, metaphor,

anthroponym, and idiom. It is mostly applied to translating Javanese dialect.

There are twenty cases of Javanese dialect translated through establish equivalent

technique. It is also applied in translating a word about social culture, one item

about gesture and habit, nine items about anthroponym, four words from

metaphor, and one idiom. The examples of established equivalent discovered in

this study are presented in appendix 6.

The application of established equivalent is exemplified by (21)

(21) ST Bagaimana keadaan Jeng Sastro dan anak-anak?

(SL/C3/P55/28)

TT And how are things with your good lady and the children?

(TL/C3/ P73/5)

In example (21), Jeng Sastro was translated into your good lady. The word Jeng is

a shortening from Ajeng which is a polite addressee for a female the same age or

younger than a speaker. The term is also used for referring someone’s wife by

adding Jeng with the husband’s name. As presented in the data, Jeng Sastro refers

to Sastro’s wife who is younger than the speaker. Since in English there is no such


65

a reference, the equivalence is established by using your good lady, the term that

exists in TL and refers to Sastro’s wife.

The established equivalent is also applied in translating markers of Javanese

dialect. The phenomena are exemplified by (22).

(22) ST Wis, wis, Yem. Jangan kamu teruskan nangismu.

(SL/ C2/ P20/ 20)

TT Now, now, dear woman, don’t go crying.

(TL/ C2/ P28/ 5)

Wis, wis is a Javanese expression from Javanese ngoko language that is applied to

quieten and calm someone. The expression is translated into now, now to establish

equivalent, therefore, it becomes naturally acceptable in TL.

The application of the established equivalent technique is also presented in

the Javanese dialect that indicates politeness in term of begging to someone. It is

presented in the example (23).

(23) SL Nyuwun sewu, Bapak. Saya ingin menyampaikan pendapat

saya… Nyuwun duka, mohon jangan marah, Bapak. (SL/

C3/ P79/ 25)

TL If I may Father, could say something? Don't be annoyed,

please Father, … (TL/ C3/ P101/ 19)

Nyuwun sewu which literally means “ask for a thousand” is a polite expression to

ask for permission. Nyuwun duka which literally means “ask for anger” is a polite

expression to beg for forgiveness to the interlocutors, therefore, they will not be

angry about what it is going to be conveyed. Those expressions are applied by

Javanese language speakers before delivering ideas or opinions to someone who is

older or more respected. Since TL does not have the same expression, they are

translated into TL expression that is commonly used in the same situation.

Therefore, nyuwun sewu is translated into “if I may” and nyuwun duka is

rendered into “don’t be annoyed”.


66

4.1.8 Generalization

This study discovers 49 occurrences of generalization technique. It is

applied to translate words related to material culture, social culture, organization,

custom, activities, procedure, social conception, gesture and habit, measurement

system, anthroponym, dialect, date, and idiom. Generalization is mostly applied to

translate CSIs from the anthroponym domain. There are seventeen anthroponyms

translated using generalization technique. Then, generalization technique occurs

five times in social culture domain, four times to translate dialect, eight times to

translate material culture, and six times to translate organization, custom,

activities, procedure, social conception domain. It is also applied five times to

render words from gesture and habit domain, and two times to translate date. The

detailed distribution numbers of generalization towards cultural words are

presented in appendix 15. More examples of generalization are presented in

appendix 7.

The application of generalization techniques is exemplified by example (24)

in translating nduk and le, the Javanese specific proper name for young woman

and man.

(24) ST Tentu, Nduk, Le. (SL/ C3/ P72/ 19)

TT Certainly, Dear? (TL/ C3/ P93/11)

Nduk is a proper name applied to address a girl or a woman who is younger than

the speakers. The application of the proper name indicates affection and closeness

between the speaker and the interlocutor. It is usually applied by parents to

address their children. This is almost similar to le however le is a proper name for

a boy or man younger than the speakers. In TT, those proper names are translated

into my dear. According to the Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary, dear


67

can be used when speaking to somebody you love. It is not necessarily your son

but also close friends, spouse, and lover. In the translation result, the gender

classification, age, and familial relationship in the proper name were not specified.

Thus, TT applied generalized proper name rather than a specific proper name.

Generalization is also exemplified by the translation technique that is used

for rendering kembang setaman, one of Javanese ritual essential, in example (25)

(25) ST Saya ingat kusir dokar di Karangdompol yang tempo hari

kesurupan dan membanting tiga orang yang memegangnya

karena tidak mau memberinya kembang setaman.

(SL/ C3/ P89/ 36)

TT I recalled a gharry driver in Karangdompol some time

back. He had had fit of that kind, had demanded to be

brought a bunch of flowers to eat, and then could not held

down by three bystanders (TL/C3/P114/10)

Kembang setaman refers to several types of flower that is used for offering in

rituals. According to Robson and Wibisono (2002), kembang setaman is a

bouquet of the varied color of flower for ritual use flower. It contains

philosophical meaning and Javanese life wisdom. Offering flower symbolizes the

unity between the Javanese people and ancestral spirit (Herusatoto, 1984). The

flower offering becomes meaningful because it is taken according to wisdom.

However, in TT the specification and meaning of kembang setaman are

generalized into a bunch of flowers which can be any types of flower. The

Javanese local wisdom and mystical function of kembang setaman drift away in

TT.

4.1.9 Linguistic Amplification

This research discovers 6 occurrences of linguistics amplification out of 401

words. All of the occurrences numbers are found in the dialect domain that is


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applied in the dialogue between characters of Para Priyayi (see appendix 15). The

application of linguistics amplification is exemplified in (26) and (27).

(26) ST Apa Darsono? Kowe tertawa? (SL/ C6/ P194/35)

TT He snarled at him in low Javanese: "What now,

Darsono? Laughing, you bastard? Laughing, hey?

(TL/ C3/ P101/ 19)

(27) ST Iya. Tak jaluk patimu. Saya minta kematianmu!

(SL/ C6/ P197/17)

TT Yes, dammit! I'm telling you die! (TL/C6/P241/ 9)

SL in (26) presents Javanese ngoko language, the lowest level of Javanese.

Ngoko language is marked by the application of kowe. Literally, kowe means you.

It is used when the speakers talking to the hearers who have lower social status or

age. It also presents hostility and impoliteness when it is applied to someone who

must be respected. Therefore, to present the same SL senses in the TL, the

linguistics aspects were added to create the same senses that are naturally used in

the TL. In example (26), an invective word such as bastard and interjection hey to

express anger were applied to translate the senses built by the use of ngoko.

Example (27) also presents linguistics amplification to translate the sense

that is established by the use of Javanese ngoko language. Ngoko language is

presented by an expression tak jaluk patimu. Literally, the expression means “I

want your death”. The expression indicates hostility, anger, and disrespect

towards the hearer, Denmas Kusumo, who has high social strata. In Javanese

culture, using ngoko to someone who comes from a high social level is considered

as impolite. However, to build the same nuance created by ngoko language and

the expression tak jaluk patimu in TL, invective word dammit is added. Then, the

SL harsh request is rendered into an imperative commanding someone to die.


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4.1.10 Modulation

In this study, there are three occurrences of modulation out of 401 CSIs. It

occurred in translating social culture, fictional character, and governmental

organization domains. The detail information about modulation is presented in

appendix 10. A modulation technique is exemplified by (28).

(28) ST Mangkunegaran adalah sempalan Kerajaan Mataram yang

kecil, yang tidak mempunyai gigi , di mana di dekat

Purbayan sana gedung gupernuran tempat tuan besar

gubernur bersemayam, mengawasi dengan tajam setiap

gerak-gerik Kerajaan Mangkunegaran dan Kasunanan.

(SL/ C5/ P170/11)

TT Mangkunegaran, small and weak as it was, remained a

fragment of the once mighty kingdom of Mataram, even his

instruction to us tonight to confirm Javanese youth in the

language and culture of their forebears might be the cause

of some careful deliberation in the residence of the chief

Tuan near Purabayan. Every movement of the prince; and,

for that matter, of the sultan of Solo, the other, if less

obtrusively active, local potential successor to Mataram.

(TL/ C5/ P206/ 21)

The translator renders Kerajaan Mangkunegaran dan Kasunanan which is

literary means the kingdom of Mangkunegaran and Sultanate of Solo into the

prince and the Sultan of Solo. Thus, the translator changes the point of view. In

ST, the point of view is the whole aspects and activities of Mangkunegaran and

Sultanate of Solo that is supervised was changed into their ruler and leader.

4.1.11 Transposition

Transposition occurred 1 time. It is applied to translate words about the

traditional ceremony, tools, and proper name. The detail about transposition

technique that is discovered in this research is presented in appendix 11. The

application of the technique is indicated in example (29).

(29) ST Dan istri saya memberi contoh anak cacat lagi yang

menurut dia adalah akibat tidak di-tingkebi, tidak


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diadakan upacara selamatan tujuh bulan mengandung..

(SL/ C3/ P95/ 14)

TT She didn't have the ceremony either, didn't observe the

seventh month. (TL/ C3/ P121/ 22)

The example (29) indicates the alteration of part of speech from the verb to noun

and noun to a verb. Di-tingkebi is an action to conduct selametan of seventh-

month pregnancy. In the TL, di-tingkebi which is a verb is translated into the

ceremony. Moreover, upacara selamatan tujuh bulan mengandung which is

classified as a noun was translated and the word class is changed into an action

verb of observing the seventh month.

4.1.12 Variation

Variation is usually applied in the interpreting process. However, it is still

discovered in this research object. It is because the SL text involves dialogues

among the characters that are conducted in different levels of Javanese language.

In translating Javanese dialogue into English, the variation could be applied

because they do not share the same levels of language that are classified based on

politeness and social status.

This research discovers three occurrences of variation translation technique

in rendering Javanese dialect. All of the various techniques are applied to render

conversations that use kromo alus or the higher level of Javanese. This technique

is exemplified by (30).

Niku or this is a vocabulary that is classified into krama language.

According to Robson (1992), krama language is applied when talking to the

respected one, someone of aristocratic descendant, authorities, bureaucrats, and

elderly people. Thus, it indicates social status and politeness. Niku is applied in


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the utterances of Kang Trimo a servant in Sastrodarsono’s household when he is

talking to Lantip, a university scholar.

(30) ST Kiai Jogosimo niku sama dengan Kanjeng Nabi Suleman."

kata Kang Man, tukang menimba air di rumah yang

mendengar ceritera tentang Kiai Jogo dari embahnya. (SL/

C1 /P3/ 6)

TT Yon Kiai Jogosimo now, he and the prophet Solomon - his

name be honoured! Know what? Those two were one and

the same! True! (TL/ C1 /P4/ 3)

In the TT, niku is translated into yon. Based on Oxford Advanced Learners

Dictionary, yon is an old use for that. In this case, the translator changes the

language variation from SL that presents politeness language style into the old

language style.

The alteration in language style is also discovered in (31). It is the dialogue

uttered by Eyang Kusumo Lakubroto an old man, a boss of the ketoprak troupe

who keens on to do spiritual ritual practice, to Noegroho, Hardoyo, and Soemini,

who are younger and have a less spiritual experience. Eyang Lakubroto applied

ngoko language, the lowest level of Javanese language to his grandchildren.

(31) ST Oh wong kalian itu, meski sudah berkeluarga, beranak

pinak sesungguhnya masih anak-anak ingusan. Kalau

pakde-mu ini kungkum setiap malam anggarakasih, malam

Selasa Kliwon itu, sambil gemeletuk gigi Pakde karena

kedinginan, itu bukan karena Pakde kepingin jadi Ratu

seperti raja ketoprak itu, goblok! (SL/ C1/ P6/ 27)

TT O what a generation - look at ye now! Married, with

children, descendants - and as runny-nosed as any of 'em!

When your uncle goes 'a dipping', as you call it, Tuesday

nights - and I mean our, Javanese, Tuesday! -when his teeth

rattle in his head because of the cold, it's got nothing to do

with any ambition to become Ratu: dopes! (TL/ C1/ P9/

11)

In TT, Eyang Lakubroto’s utterance is rendered by changing his speech style.

Different speech style is presented in his pronunciation of you and them.


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According to the TT, they are pronounced into ye and ‘em. Even, the word goblok

which means really stupid was translated into dopes that is an informal style to

denote idiot. Therefore, in this case, there is language variation change in ST and

TT. The lowest level of Javanese language is rendered into an informal English

speaking style.

4.1.13 Compensation

Compensation is applied 30 times in translating PP. The application is

discovered in the process of translating words about material culture, social

culture, habit and gesture, organization, custom, activities, procedure, concepts,

ritual, profession, anthroponym, date, and idiom. The application of compensation

is mostly discovered in social culture domain. It is applied seven times to translate

the social domain. Other information related to the distribution of the

compensation process is presented in appendix 15 and the examples are presented

in appendix 13.

The use of compensation to translate social culture related to occupation is

presented in example (32).

(32) SL Calonmu itu, Le, masih sanak jauh. Itu, lho, Ngaisah,

putri pamanmu jauh Mukaram, mantri penjual candu di

Jogorogo. (SL/C3/ P37/ 12)

TL Now, the bride does live a little far from here. She's

called Ngaisah, hey? The daugther of a distant uncle of

yours, Uncle Mukaram. He supervises the sale of

opium in Jogorogo

The technique is practiced to translate mantra penjual candu. Example (32)

presents how the term is translated using description technique and distributed

into a different sentence to make it more acceptable in TL. Therefore, the

translation is written in the next sentence.


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The translating process that puts TT terms in a different position is also

exemplified by example (33). Rokok klobot is translated by attaching the

translation result in a different place in the example. The result does not translate

the terms exactly in the same position. However, it is translated by describing and

incorporating the description as the writing style in TT.

(33) ST Rokok klobot, rokok daun jagung kering, dihidangkan.

(SL/ C3/ P34/ 26)

TT Tobacco was passed around and rolled in dry corn leaves,

and while each man sucked noisily on his cigarette and sent

billows of smoke into the air, my mother occupied herself

in cutting up more squares of corn leaf. (TL/C3/P46/ 17)

Rokok klobot is a cigar that is self-rolled in a piece of a dried corn leaf. The cigar

is introduced in TL by putting the item of information in the different position of

the SL.

Another example of compensation is also presented by example (34). The

example presents the application of the compensation technique to translate

gesture and habit.

(34) SL Saya hanya menonton dan mengintil di belakang orang-

orang tua yang membawa jenazah Embah Wedok ke

kuburan desa. (SL/ C2/ P 12 /20)

TL I followed on the heels of the adults who bore the corpse

to the village cemetery and then followed them back.

(TL/C2/P17/6)

Mengintil which means to follow someone everywhere is translated through

description then it is put in the different position of sentences to fulfill TL writing

style.


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4.1.14 Omission

The omission is a technique of eliminating certain SL terms in TT. It means

that SL terms are not rendered. This process was applied 13 times in the domain

of ecology, material culture, educational institution, art, gesture, habit,

anthroponym, fictional character, and metaphor (see appendix 15). More

examples of omission are presented in appendix 14.

The application of omission is exemplified by the translation process of

(35).

(35) ST Waktu itu saya sudah di kelas empat, jadi kurang dari

setahun lagi tamat sekolah angka loro di desa itu, kami

murid-murid kelas empat diserahi tugas untuk menyiapkan

sebuah nomor pertunjukan lengkap untuk perpisahan

dengan para murid yang bakal tamat sekolah. (SL/C2/P22/

29)

TT I was in fourth class then, and our class was set the

project of preparing some joint performance with the

pupils of the class above. (TL/C2/P31/3)

Sekolah angka loro was an educational institution that was established by the

Dutch colonial government for Indonesian people. It was cheap and convey

simple education that was adjusted for local Indonesian at that time. The

institution taught how to read, write, and simple mathematics for indigenous

people. The curriculum was different to schools were designed for Dutch and

priyayi children. Sekolah angka loro was established to prepare professional

clerks. However, a school for upper-class children taught geography, foreign

language, science, and so forth. In the TT, the specific institution term is not

translated.


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4.2 Ideology behind Zhukov’s Translation Strategies in Translating

Javanese Culture-Specific Items in Javanese Gentry

There are two strategies of translating based on Venuti (1995), namely:

foreignization and domestication. Both of the translation strategies are discovered

in this study. 61% of CSIs in this study are translated using domestication strategy

and the rest are translated using foreignization (see appendix 16). In this part, the

gap between the application of foreignization and domestication and the

implication of those practices are scrutinized through the postcolonial point of

view to dismantle power imbalance and colonialism conveyed by orientalist

attitude, exoticization, and ethnocentrism discourse. However, Venuti’s argument

of foreignization as the agent of resistance towards imperialism and domestication

as the agent that serves imperialism is not precision in line with the phenomena

within the translation of Javanese CSIs in Kayam’s PP to Zhukov’s JG.

Foreignization and domestication act differently in this study according to the

context and political position between SL and TL also Javanese and English. It is

in line with Tymockzo (2000) stating that Venuti’s dichotomy towards the

translation ideology does not notice the context of translation that depends on the

context where the translation happens and the political power (cited in Sharma,

2014). Furthermore, Venuti’s notion of foreignization as the resistance of

translation pertains in the West especially United States (Tymockzo, 2000 as cited

in Sharma, 2014). Therefore, the analysis of the ideology of translating in this

study depends on the relation between SL and TL. It also depends on the

translation purposes of the literary work and the situation when the literary work


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is translated. Those aspects influence how colonialism ideology is served in the

translation PP.

Translation of PP into JG happens in the context of transferring two minor

languages consisting of few Javanese words that convey the situation and nuance

of Javanese culture and Indonesian language as the lingua franca in Indonesia into

English the central language. In addition, PP was translated in 2013, long after the

ST was published and Dutch colonial era in Indonesia. Therefore, the translator

should bring old Javanese tradition and Indonesia’s historical event to modern

international readership through translation. In addition, the translator is detached

from the Dutch colonialism interest. It makes the context of translating PP differs

from other translation works that translated to the colonial master’s language

during the colonialism era by the member of the colonial master. Therefore the

result of scrutinizing Zhukov’s work using postcolonial perspective differs to the

result of the study about Arabian literary works translated from Arabic to English

in the nineteenth century by Edward Lane, Richard Burton, and Wilfred Blunt.

The difference among those translation works is presented in the context where

the translation happened, the purpose of translation, and the translator’s

background. Therefore the foreignizing and domesticating translation applied in

each literary work implies various result and different presentation of power

imbalance caused by colonialism.

The differences in terms of colonialism ideology presentation are also

influenced by the background of translators and the aim of translation. Para

Priyayi was translated by Vladislav Zhukov, an Australian translator in Vietnam.

He was a rifleman-interpreter with the Australian Army in South Vietnam, in


77

2013. Therefore, as a westerner, the translator has a western point of view in

depicting the east and its culture, especially Javanese culture in PP. His

perception of Javanese culture is presented in the translator’s foreword and his

works. According to his foreword, Para Priyayi is translated to provide

entertainment, possibly for enlightening read about Javanese culture (Javanese

Gentry, 2013: xi). The translator states in the foreword that translation work is

aimed to introduce Javanese culture to the target readers who are a novice to the

culture not to the expert or cultural studies scholars. Therefore, they can enjoy the

Kayam’s work in English smoothly without interruption towards aesthetic

pleasure. The purpose was confirmed through the interview to Vladislav Zhukov

on March 2nd, 2019 proclaims that “JG is not a book for specialist” but for a

general readership (see appendix 17). However, his intention presents colonialism

ideology because his translation work put the enjoyment of target readership first

and ignore cultural representation of SL although he intends to introduce

Indonesian culture to an international readership. For this reason, the study finds

foreignizing and domesticating translation in translating Javanese CSIs in PP and

JG indicate colonialism ideology. However, there is still resistance towards

colonialism in behind foreignization strategy. The details of translation strategies

and its discussion are elaborated in section 4.2.1 until 4.2.5.

4.2.1 Foreignization Strategy as a Resistance

Foreignization translation discovers in this study indicates resistance

towards TL culture. The resistance is practiced by maintaining the SL culture

related to the Javanese social strata classification. It is brought by the application


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of amplification translation techniques towards CSIs of Javanese social groups in

the TT.

The resistance is presented through amplification in the additional

information regarded priyayi in the TT even though it is not provided in the ST.

The information glosses the social status distinction between Lantip, the village

peasantry boy, and Ndoro Guru Sastrodarsosno that is not written in the SL.

However, it is added in the TT and the CSI was amplified. It was exemplified by

example (36).

(36) ST - (SL/ C2/ P9/ -)

TT I should explain that as a teacher my benefactor was of

the gentry, a priyayi, a member of a much-striated

upper class whose common feature has been

detachment from manual labor. (TL/ C2/ P14/ 12)

In the TL, priyayi is added and amplified by adding “a member of a much-striated

upper class whose common feature has been detachment from manual labor.” The

definition is added to convey more information about social classes of Java

society to the TT readers.

Foreignizing translating to maintain the Javanese social classification

through amplification is also applied in rendering santri and abangan, Javanese

social groups that are grouped depending on the Javanese people’s belief.

Foreignization that indicates resistance is exemplified by (37) and (38).

(37) ST Sri dan Darmin anak-anak dari sepupu istri saya adalah dua

bersaudara yang datang dari keluarga petani santri yang

sangat sederhana. (SL/ C3/ P70/ 27)

TT Soerdarmin and Sri were son and daughter of a cousin of

my wife and come from a village of santri peasants,

devout and adherents to Islam (TL/C3/P90/28)

(38) ST Buat kami yang dibesarkan dalam dunia petani dan priyayi

abangan, kedatangan dua bersaudara itu kami harapkan


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akan dapat memberi keseimbangan wawasan kepada anak-

anak kami. (SL/ C3/ P70/ 27)

TT Given that my wife and I came from a tradition that was

abangan, whose islam still accommodated elements of

immemorial native lore and a Javanese Hinduism, we

hoped that the arrival of those two would bring balance to

our children’s religious outlook: for the three were more

inclined to delight in wayang stories than in the scriptures,

either Koranic or of the sacred book revealed to the prophet

Jesus . (TL/C3/P90/32)

Both Javanese social classification in (37) and (38) is translated by applying

amplification technique. The word keluarga petani santri in (37) is translated into

“a village santri of peasants” then the additional phrase “devout and adherent to

Islam” is added to amplify the meaning of santri. The same thing also happens to

priyayi abangan in (38). In the TT, abangan is borrowed, however; it is amplified

by the attachment of “whose Islam still accommodated elements of immemorial

native lore and a Javanese Hinduism”.

Besides using amplification, Javanese social classification is also

maintained through applying calque. The term is translated by borrowing the SL

directly then literally translate it into TL. This kind of foreignization is

exemplified by example (39).

(39) ST Tentu saja mereka tetap ndoro dan kami tetap wong ndeso,

orang desa yang berada beberapa tingkat di bawah kami.

(SL/ C2/ P14 /33)

TT Of course we infallibly addressed them with "Ndoro" and

remained village folk beneath them, we kept a respectful

space between us and never overstepped the condition of

our visit. (TL/ C2/ P20/ 29)

Example (39) present foreignization through calque towards wong ndeso. Wong

ndeso refers to people belonging to the peasant cohort who come from villages.

Wong means people or folk and ndeso or deso means village.


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The resistance towards TL culture domination in order to maintain Javanese

culture in the TT also presents in the foreignization that is carried by borrowing

technique applied in the anthroponym, especially the cultural terms indicating

social, familial, and age relationship. This study discovers that there are 40 terms

out of 89 is translated using borrowing technique. Moreover, the explanation of

Javanese socio, familial, and age terms are also explained in the glossary.

Therefore, it supports the effort of maintaining the SL culture in terms of its

politeness that rely on the generation and family solidarity. It is in line with the

claim of Venuti (1995) stating that foreignizing is a mode of presenting source

culture in the TL. Moreover, foreignization resists the oppression of imperialism

Venuti (2010). The resistance is applied by presenting and maintaining source

culture in TT. It practices surface and deep resistance proposed by Gupta (1998).

In this case, surface resistance happens in linguistics level that is presented by the

application of foreignization that is mainly applied in translating CSIs related to

Javanese social strata. Then, deep resistance is performed through the reasons in

maintaining the foreignness. It is maintained because the social class is important

aspects of the story of PP.

Foreignization as resistance is also indicated through borrowing technique

applied to translate Javanese anthroponym. They are exemplified in the example

(40) and (41).

(40) ST Pergi, Mbok? Kita akan pergi? (SL/ C2/ P16 /20)

TT Leave, Mbok? Are we going to leave? (TL/ C2/ P23 /1)

(41) ST Tapi, Pakde! Soal beristri sampai empat itu penting, Pakde.

Terutama penting buat Mbak Nunuk. (SL/ C4/ P142/7)

TT But Pakde, the question of four wives is important

especially important for Mbak Nunuk. (TL/ C5/ P174/ 29)


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Example (40) presents foreignizing translating that was applied through

borrowing technique in translating Javanese familial terms. In the example (40),

the word mbok which is an addressee for mother and applied by people who come

from lower social strata was not translated into its equivalence in TL. However,

the term was borrowed into the TL.

It also happened in pakde and mbak in the example (41). Pakde is a

Javanese familial term to refer an older uncle. Mbak is an addressee that is

referred to a young lady who’s her age is older than the speaker. Both Javanese

familial terms in example (41) are maintained through borrowing technique. The

foreignization technique is applied to present the source culture. It becomes the

resistance towards target culture.

The resistance also presents through foreignizing translating that is

practiced through amplification of culture special terms related to the kinship. The

terms are translated by amplifying the detail of terms thus the target language

readers understand the source culture. Amplification indicating resistance is

exemplified in (42).

(42) ST Di rumah juga ada Embah Wedok, ibu dari embok saya,

yang entah sudah berapa tua umurnya. (ST/ C2/ P 11 /22)

TT Well, not really alone, there was also my grandmother,

Embah Wedok, a dowager interdeterminate but very

advance years as it then seemed to me, old and worn out;

(TT/C2/P16/22)

Embah Wedok, in the example (42), is a term referring to grandmother. The term

is usually applied by non-priyayi family. In the target text, the term is amplified

by adding “my grandmother” in the TT. The amplification maintain the source

culture contained in embah wedok however it helps to keep the foreignness of SL

and giving information to the target readers.


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Foreignization to the kinship in example (42) indicates resistance towards

the west colonialism in term of maintaining the ST foreign words, however, the

translation still indicates western centrality and its point of view about senior

citizens. In the translation work, the translator changes the mood. The TT describe

Mbah Wedok negatively as someone “old and worn out”. It indicates that the

translator assumes that elder people are unusual because of their age. Therefore, it

disrespects the senior citizens. Meanwhile, the ST describes her as someone old

whose age is unknown and there is no word with negative mood in ST. Therefore,

it still indicates respect to someone in advanced year. The translation depicts

Javanese culture as a culture that disrespect elder citizens indirectly to the target

readers.

Example (43) also presents amplification indicating foreignization and

resistance in translating Javanese kinship.

(43) ST Pusat perhatian saya tentulah saya curahkan pada calon istri

saya Dik Ngaisah itu. (SL/ C3/ P41/ 19)

TT All my thought were on "little sister" Ngaisah, Dik

Ngaisah, my candidate wife (TL/C3/P55/3)

Dik Ngaisah in the example is translated using amplification technique therefore

the Javanese kinship terms is borrowed however it is amplified by adding “little

sister Ngaisah”. The amplification in example (43) gloss the Javanese culture in

terms of addressing someone. It presents that the translation technique maintains

the Javanese culture related to kinship. It also shows the cultural differences

through the codes that are unrecognizable to the TL readers. The foreignization

practice in (43) becomes the resistance of source culture towards domination from

TL that is brought through the translation practice.


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Literal translation technique that is classified as the foreignizing translation

is also applied in translating the honorific title. In this case, foreignization also

become one of the ideologies of translating supporting resistance because it

presents the foreign code in the TT that serves Javanese culture in addressing the

king of Mangkunegaran. It is exemplified by (44).

(44) ST Lha iya. Kanjeng Gusti Mangkunegara yang kaping tujuh

ini kabarnya memang raja yang istimewa, Le. Mungkin

akan menuruti jejak eyangnya Mangkunegara kaping

empat.

(SL/ C5/ P160/61)

TT And that’s to be expected. They say this Highness

Mangkunegara number seven is something special; might

amount to someone fit to follow his grandfather,

Mangkunegara number four. (TL/ C5/ P195/ 9)

Example (44) presents literal translation in rendering Mangkunegaran kaping

empat. Instead of translating the term into Mangkunegaran IV which is more

acceptable in TL, it is translated literally. Kaping that is attached in the honorific

title of Javanese king presents the ordinal number of the kings. However, in JG,

the translator does not adapt the writing system of ordinal number in TL. The

translator translates Mangkunegaran kaping empat as Mangkunegaran number

four. This translation indicates the foreignness of the SL that resists the

domination of TL.

Foreignizing translation is not only applied to maintain the originality of the

CSIs related to Javanese social class classification and anthroponym of socio

familial, but it is also applied immensely in translating the fictional character from

Ramayana and Mahabharata epics also Javanese folklore and legend that live in

the oral tradition of Java. In JG there are 51 terms related to fictional characters

that are familiar to Javanese people. In the majority, the name of wayang and


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Javanese folklore characters is maintained using foreignizing translation. The

names are translated by borrowing technique 37 times and amplification eight

times.

This study discovers that borrowing is mainly applied to translate the

name of fictional characters in wayang stories or ancient Javanese literary works

named Serat Tripama. It is exemplified by (45).

(45) ST Alah, Nduuk, nduk. Anggepmu itu Woro Sembodro apa?

Mau dikawin Arjuno yang sudah tidak kurang apa-apa

masih mau minta gamelan surga. (SL/ C3/ P78/ 6)

TT Spare us, child! Do you think you're Wara Sembadra:

lacks of nothing but won't wed Arjuna unless she gets a

gamelan band sent down from heavens? (TL/ C3/ P100/ 3)

Example (45) presents that the names of Mahabarata epic characters were

maintained through the application borrowing technique. Woro Sembodro or

princess Sembodro, the beautiful, graceful, and calm daughter of King Basudewa,

is translated into Wara Sembadra. Then, Arjuno, the handsome, intelligent, strong,

kind-hearted, and high-minded Pandawa member, is translated into Arjuna.

Therefore, the two Mahabarata epic’s characters are maintained and introduced to

the target readers who are not familiar to Arjuno and Woro Sembodro. However,

albeit the characters’ name is maintained in the JG, the translator applied different

orthography in the TT. In the PP, the orthography of those two characters presents

the way of Javanese dialect pronouncing their name. It also indicates that

Javanese people pronounce syllables with /ᶺ/ or /ᵃ/ as /ᵒ/ Moreover, the

orthography in PP indicates the dialogue and spoken situation among the

characters. In the JG, the orthographic indicating the Javanese dialect is not fully

taken but it is adapted into written form. Thus, the /ᵒ/ syllable is translated and

written as /ᵃ/.


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The orthographic in TT does not change the meaning of the terms at all but

it does not render the Javanese accent and the pronunciation of Arjuna and

Warasembadra. Not fully translating the accent creates friendlier environment for

the target readers to encounter the characters of wayang story. Although the TT is

not faithful to the ST orthography for fictional characters, it still presents the

Javanese fictional characters. In other words, the TT presents the importance of

wayang stories and Javanese literary work for the Javanese society. They are also

rich in didactic material. The characters within the stories contain inner attitude,

therefore, they become role models for the Javanese community (Febrian, 2012).

For this reason, wayang characters are close to Javanese people life. The people

remember the story and personalities of the epics’ characters. Therefore, the

characters and their personalities are used for comparing or describing someone’s

traits. It is indicated by Sastrodarsono, the main character of PP, who compares

his daughter to Wara Sembadra. In addition, Javanese people also try to apply the

wisdom within the literary work to their life in order to attain the state of slamet.

Therefore, Puppet shadow performance not only becomes a mere entertainment

for Javanese people but also didactic art performance to plant virtue. The relation

between wayang and Javanese culture is supported by Woodward (1989) stating

that Wayang is the center of Javanese culture, the tradition of religious and

literary, also serves an essential role in the Sultanate of Yogyakarta (as cited by

Franke, 2017). It is implied that wayang is important to Javanese society.

Javanese culture about Wayang that serves as art and education method is

presented in PP. The ST presents wayang story entitled Sumantri Ngenger. The

story is conveyed in the wayang performance as a wedding present from Romo


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Seten to Sastrodarsono and Ngaisah who would build a family of new priyayi.

Sumantri Ngenger tells about the servitude of Bambang Sumantri to Prabu

Arjunasasrabahu. It presents the message and moral value to new priyayi to be

faithful and devoted to the king and the country. In the TT, this cultural substance

that contains in the characters of Sumantri Ngenger are translated by borrowing

technique that foreignizes the CSIs. It is exemplified by example (46).

(46) ST Waktu Sumatri melepas panahnya dan mengenai dada

Sukarsana, adiknya, yang telah menolongnya, menjelang

ajalnya, menangis beriba-iba, sungguh adegan yang

menyayat hati. (SL/ C3/ P44/ 21)

TT I was stunned when Sumantri released the arrow which

pierced Sukarsana's breast: Sukarsana who had assisted

Sumantri, who had cried carefully for compassion for his

elder brother. (TL/ C3/ P59/ 2)

The example indicates that foreignizing through borrowing is practiced in

translating the name of Serat Tripama characters. Therefore, the didactic story

that is the part of Javanese culture is maintained. The translation strategy resists

the domination of target culture towards the source culture because the popular

Javanese fictional characters from Javanese literary work which are foreign for the

target readers were introduced. It is in line to Myska (2013) stating that

foreignization marks the otherness. Therefore, the foreignization in JG marks the

cultural distinction between source and target culture.

Borrowing is not the only way to foreignize the fictional character of

Javanese wayang story in the JG and resist the domination of target culture,

amplification is also applied in this term. Additional information related to the

fictional character is applied to amplify the Javanese CSIs. Therefore, the target

readers can have an understanding of the source culture. The target readers are

also invited to know the original terms of the source culture. In this study,


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foreignization through amplification towards Javanese fictional characters is

mostly applied to translate the characters from Javanese mythology or folklore

that has been living for a hundred years. Example (47) indicates foreignization

through amplification.

(47) ST Tapi istrimu sudah diselamati tujuh bulan apa belum? Kalau

belum diselamati di sini saja. Nanti keburu kena musibah

dimakan Betoro Kolo anakmu. (SL/ C3/ P95/ 8)

TT Yes, but have you held a selamatan for her seventh montrh

yet? Have you or not? If not, then you absolutely must have

the meal here of you’ll be struck down with something

frightful. Ogre Betoro Kolo will devour the children

(TL/ C3/ P121/ 18)

Example (47) indicates the application of foreignization in

translating Betoro Kolo. In the TT, the term is amplified by adding Ogre that

means a cruel and frightening giant who eats people (according to Oxford

Advanced Learners’ Dictionary). The amplification is suitable to describe the

physical and characteristics of Betoro Kolo that look like an ogre. He is a giant

with hideous physical appearance. In fact, Betoro Kolo is a deity of the

underworld (Lee, 1999). He is the destructive aspects of the world

(Koentjaraningrat, 1980). Betoro Kolo is described as an ogre with a very big

appetite. He is also impolite. He also likes to devour humans. Therefore, Javanese

people conduct a selamatan for the protection towards the destruction of Betoro

Kolo (Geels, 1997).

Foreignization through amplification towards mythology character is also

presented in example (48).

(48) ST Terutama Hari dan Lantip yang kenyang diceritai tentang

lakon-lakon ketoprak. Tentang Prabu Anglingdarma yang

sakti dan ajaib itu, tentang Raden, Ronggo, putra

Panembahan Senapati dengan Ratu Kidul yang gagah,


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tetapi juga terlalu sakti dan berbahaya, tentang Anggang-

Anggang Siluman yang menyeramkan. (SL/ C5/ P175/29)

TT Stories about royal Anglingdarma and his miraculous

powers; about Prince Ronggo, the valorous son of glorious

Senapati who founded the Mataram dynasty, the lad

Ronggo begotten by Senapati from Ratu Kidul, the

Empress of the South Sea; about the horrible spider

Siluman defeated by Prince Ronggo: all told wIth ardour

and spellbinding histrionics. (TL/C5/P213/11)

Example (48) indicates that Ratu Kidul is foreignized by amplification translation

techniques. The mythology character is amplified by the addition of information

that Ratu Kidul is “the Empress of the South Sea. Therefore, the techniques

maintain the source culture in TL and target culture by presenting the foreignness

of Javanese mythology in the TT.

Mythology about the Ratu Kidul that is conveyed in the Javanese literary

works is believed as truth by Javanese people living in the southern coast of Java.

She is perceived as a powerful female deity and considered as the one who is

responsible for the big waves and strong wind in the south sea of Java. Ratu

Kidul has an important place in term of Javanese spiritual aspects of Javanese

sultanate. According to Resink (1997), through the relationship with Ratu Kidul,

the divine spouse, Javanese kings are able to assure themselves to govern over the

land, the water, and the state. It implies that the relation between Ratu Kidul who

is powerful gives power and legitimation to the sultans to have authority towards

the land of Java.

By foreignizing the characters in Javanese mythology in the TT, the foreign

aspects within the Javanese CSIs are maintained and presented to the target

readers. Therefore, in this study, the Javanese mythology is introduced to the

target readers through JG.


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The findings related to resistance in foreignization is in line with Gupta

(1998) claims that foreignizing and avoiding recognizable codes in TL are the

way of resisting the power imbalance. Moreover, the resistance happened in the

level of surface resistance marking by linguistics resistance. Borrowing,

amplification, and literal translation serve Javanese code that is foreign for the TL

readers in this study. Resistance is also presented at a deep level that was

indicated in the translator’s reason in applying foreignization. The translator of PP

also stated in the interview that politeness in and among generations, family

solidarity, and their aspects are fundamental to be preserved in JG, therefore, the

discovery of this study indicates that the terms are preserved by maintaining them

through borrowing, amplification, and literal translation techniques classified into

foreignization.

4.2.2 Foreignization Strategy as Medium of Exoticization and Resistance

Foreignization does not only represent source culture in the TT and resist

TL domination towards SL and source culture but also serves domination from TL

in disguise. According to Sharma (2014), foreignization may serve exoticization.

Sharma discovered foreignization that is intended to maintain the originality of

the Arabic culture, at first, can legitimate exoticization in the translation work of

1001 Arabian Nights translated by Burton in the 1800’s. This study also discovers

exoticism that is brought by foreignizing translation. However, the exoticization

in JG serves a different type of exoticization that is created by Burton. He

exoticizes the SL culture by emphasizing sensuality and violence through

foreignizing translating technique. Burton creates exoticism that is similar to the

engravings that are on the traveling book written and published by Dutch in the


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1600s. The portrait presents the exotic east as sensual beings because they show

their skin and like gore punishment under the despotic ruler. Meanwhile, this

study perceives exoticization is practiced in JG differently. Foreignization of

Javanese CSIs in JG serves exoticism that creates excitement towards Javanese

culture because it is foreign and comes from a remote area, a place that is far from

the west.

In this study, exoticization is served by foreignizing Javanese CSIs that is

applied to translate the cultural domains that are not intended to be maintained by

the translator. According to the interview with the translator of PP, on March 2nd,

2018, the translator stated that politeness within and between the generations and

family solidarity should be preserved in JG. Moreover, Javanese social strata

classification is also preserved in JG because it is the fundamental aspect and the

core of the story besides family. Therefore, the importance of those aspects is

reflected through the foreignizing translation techniques applied in translating

such terms. According to these reasons, foreignization in those domains can be

assumed as resistance towards domination and an attempt to preserve the Javanese

culture in TT.

Foreignization towards the CSIs that are not from kinship and social class

can be claimed as exoticizing that still performs resistance and perseverance of

Javanese culture at the same time. This paradoxical position is attained by the

foreignness of Javanese culture that is maintained but it still indicates west

centrality. The paradox foreignization is also indicated through the high number

of foreignization that is smaller than domestication. Moreover, it is presented by

the random application of foreignization to the cultural domain outside socio-


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familial and social strata terms. It implies that the aspects are not the main focus

of preservation.

Introducing Javanese culture in the TT also can be practiced by applying a

foreignizing translation strategy towards metaphorical expression. In JG, there are

six out of thirteen Javanese metaphorical expressions that are foreignized using

literal translation. It is exemplified by example (49).

(49) ST Dengan pendek, rumah tangga Ndoro Guru adalah rumah

tangga khas priyayi Jawa, di mana sang priyayi adalah

juga soko guru keluarga besar yang berkewajiban

menampung sebanyak mungkin anggota keluarga-jaringan

itu ke dalam rumah tangganya. (SL/ C2/ P15 /46)

TT In short, this was a typical household of the better-off

Javanese, in which a paterfamilias stood as the center

pillar of an extended-clan, kin whose general expectation

was that he would accommodate under his wing (if I might

vary the figure) as many as possible of its less fortunate

members. (TL/C2/P21/18)

Example (49) indicates that the metaphorical expression soko guru is foreignized

through literal translation technique. In JG, the translation result of soko guru

indicates metaphor that is unfamiliar in TL

According to Poerwadarminta, Hardjasoedarma, and Poedjasoedira (1939)

in Bausastra Jawa, soko guru literally means the big pillars in the center of

Javanese traditional house. Robson & Wibisana (2002) also define soko guru as

the four main pillars. In this context, soko guru means the center of the extended

clan who has an important role to support the family. In Javanese familial culture,

a person can be considered as soko guru because he is respected by the extended

clan. Moreover, he has financial stability and a good position in society.

Therefore, soko guru of the family supports and develops the family condition and

life quality.


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Javanese metaphor applied in PP indicates the culture, daily reality, and

concept that they have. It is in line to Wulandari (2017) claims that the discovered

metaphors in PP present the Javanese life’s realm and the virtue from its local

wisdom. Thus, foreignizing metaphor through literal translation maintains and

presents the Javanese cultural realm in JG. In addition, it resists the domination of

target culture that may not give the opportunity to the source culture to be

presented in target texts but it also performs exoticism through the foreign term.

Resistance towards culture domination and exoticism in translating PP is

also presented in the application of literal translation towards Javanese proverbs.

The phenomenon is exemplified by example (50).

(50) ST Yo, wis. Terserah kamu Bune. Kita usahakan agar ikan bisa

kita tangkap tanpa harus membuat airnya keruh. Kecekel

iwake ojo nganti buthek banyune, Bune.” (SL/ C7/

P217/28)

TT Hmm. Well, I’ll leave it to you, Bune. Just be careful, is my

advice. Catch the fish and don’t muddy the water that

sort of thing. (TL/ C7/ P265/ 24)

In example (50), proverb kecekel iwake ojo nganti buthek banyune is translated

per world to catch the fish and don’t muddy the water that sort of thing. The

proverb means to solve the problem without complicating it. The proverb

indicates the realm of nature condition that is encountered by Javanese people.

Traditionally, Javanese people do some activities that are related to nature. They

catch fish in the river with the muddy riverbed. The ripple muddies the water.

Then, the event is compared to the case of resolving the problem.

Foreignization that acts as exoticism and resistance is indicated in the

borrowing process applied in social culture domain related to occupation. Three

out of eighteen Javanese cultural words about the occupation was borrowed in the


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TT. Example (51) presents paradoxical foreignization in translating Javanese CSI

word related to occupations.

(51) ST Wayang, gamelan, dalang, penabuh gamelan, para

pesinden, yaitu penyanyi pengiring gamelan, semua beliau

tanggung ongkos-ongkosnya. (SL/ C3/ P43/ 15)

TT Wayang, gamelan, the puppet's dalang, the percusionist,

the singer who acompanies the gongs: he bore the cost of

all those, only asking us to let him choose the episode to

be portrayed. (TL/ C3/ P57/ 23)

In example (51), dalang which means a puppet master is not translated into TL

however it is maintained in TT through borrowing. There is no explanation about

dalang in JG. Therefore, the target readers are left in the foreignness of Javanese

culture in the TL. Another example from occupational terms is presented by (52).

(52) ST Adegan-adegan itu meliputi adegan Panembahan Senapati

membujuk anak perempuannya agar mau menyamar

menjadi seorang penari ronggeng pengamen ke Mangir

dengan tujuan untuk memikat hati Ki Ageng Mangir yang

tidak mau tunduk kepada Panembahan Senapati. (SL/

C9/P269/18)

TT The first scene showed Senapati instructing his daughter to

masquerade as a ronggeng girl and win the heart of Ki

Ageng. (TL/ C9/P326/6)

Ronggeng is a Javanese traditional dance that is performed by physically

attractive female dancers. The dancers travel and perform with a troop of gongs

musician. During the performance, the dancer invites male audiences to dance

together intimately. Rongeng does not have a term that is equivalence in TL. It is

also a foreign concept for the target culture. Borrowing ronggeng and dalang into

TT creates exotic nuances because it serves the foreignness of Javanese culture.

However, at the same time, the culture was presented in TT through the original

form thus it also resists TL domination. In this case, the Javanese identities

presentation, contained in those two CSI, do not have a useful and serious


94

purpose. It is in line to the claim that exoticism is an act of representation through

identities that are allocated frivolously (Savigliano, 1995 cited in Shay and

Sellers-Young, 2003)

The same paradox is also discovered in the foreignizing translating of

Javanese dialect within the dialogue of PP characters. The foreignization is also

practiced by direct borrowing. It is presented in examples (53) and (54)

(53) ST "Wah, wong anak desa sekecil kamu, kok ya cepat belajar

mengatur rumah tangga priyayi, lho," kata Lik Paerah. (SL/

C2/ P19 /9)

TT “Wah, a wee lad just just out of the village! Well you are

quick, all right!” (TL/ C2/ P26/ 17)

(54) ST Lha, ini lho, Kakang Atmokasan, putri panjenengan pun

genduk Siti Aisah. (SL/ C3/ P41/ 38)

TT Lha, there we have my daugther Aisyah , brother

Atmokasan , Siti Aisyah , if the chit's name must have its

due. (TL/ C3/ P55/ 25)

Example (53) and (54) present the use of Javanese interjection in Javanese

dialect. The dialect is marked by wah and lha. Wah is an interjection expressing

astonishment. It is equivalent to wow in English. Lha is an expression to show

shock. Those interjections are not applied and not familiar to the target readers. In

the TT, the terms are borrowed directly. There are two implications in

foreignizing those Javanese interjections. First, it introduced the identity of

Javanese speakers that commonly utter wah and lha to the target readers.

Therefore, it brings the Javanese dialect, which is considered as a peripheral

language, to the central language. However, maintaining the originality of

Javanese dialect presents exoticism in the TT. It gives JG a measure of interesting

exoticism (Zhukov in the personal interview on March 2nd, 2019). Foreignization

to give exotic nuance was also applied in example (55).


95

(55) ST "Inggih, Ndoro. Di rumah tidak ada yang menjaga tole. "

(SL/ C2/ P13 /36)

TT my mother would hiss differentially in acknowledgment:

inggih, Ndoro. There is no one to look after him in our

house. (TL/C2/P19/16)

Example (55) presents borrowing technique applied to translate a Javanese

term inggih. The term is included in Javanese krama language. It is a polite

speech of yes that is applied according to the social strata or the age of

interlocutors. For the target readers, the term is unfamiliar because it does not

assimilate into English. Therefore, inggih presents foreignness of Javanese culture

and resistance towards TL culture. In addition, maintaining the original form may

create exoticism. Zhukov states in the interview conducted on March 2nd, 2019

that inggih is “a common expression of agreement in PP—Yes, sir! Certainly! —

easily assimilable by a foreign reader, and provides some of that sprinkling of the

‘exotic’”. The interview justifies that borrowing CSIs to translate PP is to

exoticizing the atmosphere within JG.

CSI from a material culture which is related to attires also is also

classified into paradoxical foreignization. Foreignizing the term serves resistance

and exoticism at the same time. The phenomenon is presented in the example

(56).

(56) ST Saya membayangkan waktu itu Pakde sudah jadi orang

gede, giginya pasti sedikitnya tiga yang diganti emas dan

memakai peci beledu merah miring. (SL/ C1/ P6/ 28)

TT I have a picture of him in my mind as thriving figure in his

later days, even something of a substantial personage in

local terms: three or four gold teeth in his mouth, a red

velvet peci set at a gay angle on his head. (TL/ C1/ P10/ 2)

Example (56) presents foreignization through borrowing towards peci, a square

velvet hat with a tapered tip on the two sides. The foreignization serves resistance


96

towards the domination of TL through the existence of the SL that is unfamiliar

for the target readers. However, the foreignness also raises exotic atmosphere in

the TT. It is because the perseverance of source culture representation is practiced

without special purpose to maintain certain aspects of language. Firstly, it is

because the occurrences of foreignization are much less than domestication. There

is only one out of eight CSIs related to a costume that is foreignized. It implies

that the realm about costume is not the main aspect that is intended to be

maintained by the translator. Secondly, peci is a term that does not indicate the

original Javanese costume. It is adapted from the Malayan outfit. It is not the main

attire that is commonly worn by male priyayi or Javanese peasantry but it is

usually worn by male Indonesian Moslems during the religious practice. Even, in

central Java peci is head attire for formal assembly. Moreover, the appearance of

priyayi that is commonly indicated by Javanese traditional attire, is mainly not

preserved in TL. Those two reasons indicate borrowing towards random terms

which results in exotic nuances in the TT.

Paradoxical foreignization that is exotic yet indicates resistance discovers in

the application of amplification translation technique to render material culture

related to food. It is exemplified by example (57) and (58).

(57) ST Kemudian sederet penjual makanan, jajanan dan

minuman. Nasi pecel, wedang cemoe, tepo atau tahu

ketupat dan segala macam jajanan pasar. (SL/ C1/ P1/ 21)

TT There are lines of food-sellers behind their tables of

snacks and drinks: salad of blanched greens spooned over

with peanut sauce; glasses of soupy wedang cemoe, that

lemongrass infusion thickened with sweet bean sauce;

kupat tahu, piles of cubed tofu and pressed steamed

rice slathered with peanut sauce; and in general all kinds

of such market delicacies remained unchanged.

(TL/ C1/ P2/ 5)


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(58) ST Tujuan kami adalah warung, sesungguhnya lebih tepat

emperan warung, gudeg Yu Marsinem, langganan kami

para seniman Lekra. (SL/ C7/P261/23)

TT Our goal was the stall of Yu Marsinem, if you could call it

a stall: it was just an awning-covered porch attached to

building. There, a famous Yogya speciality, the gudeg,

could be had: a concoction of young jackfruit cooked

with spices in coconut milk, ... (TL/C8/P316/24)

Example (57) and (58) present exoticism of Javanese food by representing

foreignness and excitement that creates through amplification of local food. Even

though the translation strategy gives an opportunity to source culture to represent

the culture and resist domination from the target culture, it still serves an

exoticization attitude.

By revisiting the translator’s belief about what should be preserved in TT

and the aim of PP translation, foreignization that is applied deliberately is not

aimed to resist target culture domination towards Javanese culture. It is also not

intended to introduce the source culture. However, it is aimed to serve exotic

nuances of Javanese culture in the TT. It is in line with the interview with Zhukov

on March 2nd, 2019 that maintaining the original form of Javanese CSIs gives “a

measure of interesting exoticism” to the target text (see appendix 17). This kind of

exoticization is in line to the way that is applied to Voltaire’s “Mahomet” and

“Zaire”. According to Masson (1991), in “Mahomet” and “Zaire”, Voltaire applies

some level of exotic nuance by imparting foreign words, such as sérail, calife,

shérif, or soudan.

This foreignization practice towards Javanese CSIs in this study makes

foreignness as something that attracts TL readers. Therefore, the audiences find

the source culture as something that is interesting. It is in line with Ashcroft,


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Griffiths, & Tiffin (2007) stating that exoticization exploits culture and tradition

and using them as an attraction.

4.2.3 Foreignization as Operator of Exoticization, Ethnocentrism, and

Orientalism Attitude

This study discovers colonialism ideology in foreignization. It is served by

exoticization, ethnocentrism, and orientalist attitude. It is marked by borrowing

SL terms that are not equivalent to the source language and culture. This kind of

foreignization is found in the realm of anthroponym, especially kinship and

honorific title for Javanese court member.

Foreignization as exoticism is presented in example (59) in translating

kinship.

(59) ST Kami boleh kadang-kadang datang ke mari ya, Bulik dan

Paklik? (SL/ C3/ P72/ 18)

TT But we can still come to visit you and Bapak sometimes,

Bu? (TL/ C3/ P93/10)

Example (59) indicates the application of borrowing technique to translate paklik

which means uncle or the younger brothers of your parent and bulik which means

aunt or the younger sisters or your parent. However, in this case, the TT does not

borrow the original terms form the ST. It borrowed new terms from the Javanese

language. Paklik is translated into pak which means father and bulik is translated

into bu meaning mother. Borrowing Javanese terms that are unfamiliar for the

target readers marks the foreignness of source culture in the TT. Thus, it creates

exotic nuance that moves the reader to the remote culture mentally. In addition,

the exoticizing is caused by in-equivalent borrowing in example (59). It is formed

by the inappropriate borrowing that presents SL foreignness


99

Foreignization strategy in example (59) also indicates the act of

colonialism that is marked by ethnocentrism. It is because it performs a

framework that puts one’s own culture as the core of production and distribution

of knowledge about other culture that is presumed as peripheral. This ideology is

reflected through the prejudice of the translator in choosing borrowing technique

as a translation strategy to encounter the CSIs. The translator claims that

maintaining the original terms of paklik/ bulik by the extension of bapak/ibu cilik

(little father/mother) will lead target readers into complexities beyond necessary

because their range of terms family relationships is narrower than Indonesians

(Zhukov personal communication, March 2nd, 2019). His statement indicates that

source culture as something that is complicated to be understood by west

audiences although the meaning of paklik and bulik is listed in the glossary at the

beginning of JG that is expected to help the target leader in encountering the

terms. It implies that the opted translation strategy in example (59) puts west

culture as the center of distribution of knowledge about Javanese culture related to

kinship. Therefore, translation in example (59) is indifferent about the source

culture representation in the translation text.

The foreignization that indicates exoticization and ethnocentricism in

example (59) cannot be separated from the translator’s consideration and

understanding about the context. The translator understands ngenger as taking the

two children, who in the context are Sastrodarsono’s and Ngaisah’s distance niece

and nephew, into a home where the adults stand in loco parentis; and it can be

expected by readers that the children would use the terms pak and bu (see

appendix 17). Correspond to borrowing in example (59), the translator also states


100

that if target readers have some knowledge of Indonesia, the travelers use those

two shortened forms of the addressee in a natural way towards all elderly

Indonesians. The translator’s statement indicates that there is a misunderstanding

about ngenger concept and addressee related to Javanese kinship in that context.

Ngenger is not only a loco-parentis act to your relatives’ children as described by

the translator; however, there is a family relationship between the wealthy and

impoverished one and a sense of servitude to the benefactor’s household in

ngenger. It is described as relatives living in poverty will join and live with

wealthier uncle and aunt in order to get proper care and education; they usually

carry out housework and help running the house in return for meals, board, and

schooling (Koentjoroningrat, 1985, and Britton, 2018). Therefore, although the

benefactor acts like parents to the children, there is still a boundary between the

nuclear family and children in ngenger because the practice expects the children’s

servitude as the return of the favor. The boundary in ngenger makes addressing

pak or bu to your uncle or aunt become unacceptable in Javanese society. Pak or

bu also can be applied to address elderly strangers. Thus, the relationship in

ngenger is not too close and not too distant to make the children addressed their

uncle and aunt who receive them in their house as pak and bu.

The translator’s answer regarded the translation technique in example (59)

indicates the Orientalist attitude that is unconsciously reflected. The translator

unintentionally claims that he, as the occident, understands the cultural concept of

the orient better than them. Therefore, he perceives that he will convey the source

culture in his way better than maintaining the original despite the misconception.

In addition, it presents the occident superior feeling unconsciously. It is in line


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with a notion that west believes in their ability to understand east better than the

east itself as the result of west superiority (Said, 1978).

The original terms and culture in example (59) may be considered as a

complicated concept to be understood by target readers. However, the translator

could bridge the difficulty to help readers to comprehend it without

misrepresenting it. The unsuitable borrowing application exoticizes SL culture

and serves ethnocentrism. It is in line with Asadzadeh & Abbasi (2012) statement

claims that ethnocentric translation does not keep the original terms correctly.

Foreignization that serves exoticization, ethnocentrism, and orientalist

action are also discovered in the translation strategy applied to render the

honorific title of Javanese court member especially in translating adipati. The

example is presented in example (60).

(60) ST Ternyata Kanjeng Gusti Pangeran Adipati Arya

Mangkunegara VII adalah seorang yang berwajah cakep,

ganteng, berkumis njlirit, tebal tetapi kecil (SL/ C5/

P157/18)

TT I had the opportunity to quickly note that His Highness,

Prince and Supreme Bupati The Most Noble

Mangkunegara VII, seemed actually quite a dashing

person with face sporting a small, thick mustache. (TL/

C5/ P192/ 3)

Example (60) presents foreignizing translating through literal translation practice

to render Kanjeng Gusti Pangeran Adipati Arya Mangkunegara VII, the honorific

title of Mangkunegaran king. Literal translation technique is combined with

borrowing technique to translate the honorific title. Therefore, the term is

translated per word into His Highness, Prince and Supreme Bupati The Most

Noble Mangkunegara VII. Adipati is elaborated into prefix adi- and bupati. Adi- is

superior or supreme according to Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia. Bupati means


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the native official who governed a particular region during the Dutch colonial

government (Poerwadarminta, et. al, 1939). It is also defined as a head of

government districts or a position of the highest functionary court in Sultanate of

Yogyakarta and Surakarta by Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia. Therefore, adipati

is translated into supreme bupati by the translator. Literally, the translation is

equivalent according to the dictionaries. However, the translation does not

translate the historical and Javanese kingdom background into TL. Adipati is the

specific honorific title for the king of Mangkunegaran and Paku Alam, the vice of

Yogyakarta Sultanate according to Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia. The honorific

title in the example is a specific title for the king of Mangkunegaran, the small

sultanate under Keraton Surakarta. The title is only used by the highest authority

of Mangkunegaran. Kanjeng Gusti presents that the title holder is the highest ruler

of Mangkunegaran. Wasino (1994) claims that Pangeran Adipati Arya

Mangkunegaran is the title and name of the oldest son of Sunan Amangkurat IV

Kartasura who is exiled to Srilanka for supporting a rebellion towards the Dutch

colonial government. Then, his name is taken by his first son Raden Mas Said,

who is given territory by the king of Surakarta thus he could establish a small new

sultanate, to be the name and title of the king for the new sultanate. (Wasino,

1994)

According to Robson & Wibisono (2002), Adipati refers to “king, regent,

ruler, sovereign” or “title used by princes” (p.26). They also state that bupati is a

“regent, top administrative officer of a Regency”. Oxfords Advanced Learners’

Dictionary defines a regent as a person who rules because the king or queen is too

young or sick. Therefore, in the cultural context of Mangkunegaran presented in


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PP, adipati is a title for a king, a ruler and a sovereign, not a regent although the

kingdom is under the government of the Surakarta Sultanate.

According to the background of adipati, borrowing bupati to translate

adipati and complete the literal translation to the honorifics title for the king of

Mangkunegran creates exotic nuances in the TT by using unfamiliar SL terms

among TL. Moreover, the translation misrepresents the position of Mangkunegara

VII in TT. The misrepresentation or in-equivalence could have been avoided by

inserting a technical explanation about class-status in the glossary. However, the

translator stated that it would have gone beyond what the target readerships’ need

and interest (Zhukov, personal communication, March 3rd, 2019). The statement

related to the translation technique in example (60) indicates ethnocentrism and

orientalist that might lead into domination because borrowing technique

application is underlying on the behalf of the target language and its readers as the

occident, rather than the SL as the origin of the term. Moreover, the technique and

strategy of translation applied in example (60) does not perform the translation

ethic proposed by Antoine Berman (cited by Kristal, 2014). The translation ethic

expects translation is the medium to respect other culture and decenter

ethnocentric attitude but in this case, the application of foreignization translation

serve ethnocentric attitude.

Colonialism ideology conveyed through exoticization, ethnocentrism, and

translator’s orientalist attitude in examples (59) and (60) is also unconsciously

supported by publisher. The ideology hides behind the aims of the publisher to

promote Indonesian literature and culture through the translation of Indonesian

literary works. It is because Lontar, as the publisher, tolerates the Javanese culture


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misrepresentation through foreignization in JG. According to its purpose, Lontar

certainly promotes Indonesian literature and culture worldwide. However, it

introduces the culture embedded in JG through the western point of view.

Therefore, Lontar presents western centrality in JG.

4.2.4 Domestication Strategy as a Bridge of Cultural Differences

Domestication towards Javanese CSI outnumbers foreignization translation

in all cultural domains applied in PP. There are 242 out of 401 CSIs that are

domesticated into TL in JG using adaptation, description, establish equivalence,

generalization, linguistic amplification, modulation, transposition, variation,

compensation, and omission. Therefore, the percentage of domestication is 61%

and foreignization is 39%. It implies that the strategy of translating adopted in JG

inclines to target readership and language rather than the source language. It tries

to domesticate the foreignness of source culture so that it will be acceptable and

comprehensible to target readership. The strategy helps the targeted readers who

come from western and international society to understand JG and the embedded

cultural aspects. It makes the translation quality good. However, it is perceived

from the west perspective. It is because domesticating translation accentuates the

naturalness and fluency of the target text to decrease the foreignness of both

source language and culture in TT (Myskya, 2013; Venuti, 1995; Ajtony, 2017).

The practice of domestication strategy that outnumbers foreignization

justifies the purpose of JG. The translation work is aimed to be easily enjoyed by

target readers. It is in par with Zhukov’s statement in translator’s foreword

claiming that both PP and JG are intended to be an enjoyable tale for general

readers because it is no such study but an “entertainment” (Javanese Gentry: xi).


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He also emphasizes the claim in the interview conducted on March 2nd, 2019. He

says that “JG is not a book for a specialist, nor is PP” (see appendix 17).

Therefore, domestication that is applied in JG helps target readers to acquire the

story and Javanese culture easily. It makes unfamiliar CSIs is understandable to

target readership although in some degrees it causes a loss in the source language

and culture. Domestication in translating PP is beneficial for the target readers to

enjoy JG.

Domestication happens in translating PP to JG because SL and TL do not

share the same culture, especially in term of politeness. English does not have the

same system of language politeness such as Javanese. The Javanese language is

more refined in term of language politeness than English. Language politeness in

Javanese is classified according to context, age and social status of speakers and

interlocutors. In this case, domestication becomes a bridge to encounter the

unavoidable loss caused by a cultural gap and to assists the target reader to

understand the text when foreignization is impossible to be practiced in translating

the Javanese dialect. Thus, domestication can be a good option in encountering

CSIs. In JG various ways of domesticating is applied to render cultural loaded

dialogue; it is exemplified by example (61).

(61) ST Iya. Tak jaluk patimu. Saya minta kematianmu!

(SL/ C6/ P197/17)

TT Yes, dammit! I'm telling you die! (TL/C6/P241/ 9)

Example (61) presents domestication by linguistic amplification. The

dialogue which is conducted in the lowest level Javanese and in the context of

hostility is rendered by amplifying the linguistic component using profanity “. It is

because the English language does not apply a level of language politeness that


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creates the harsh pragmatic effect. Based on the context, the dialogue happens

between the speaker who is an executioner and the interlocutor who is a raden, a

priyayi. In Javanese culture, ceremonial Javanese language is compulsory to be

applied when talking to a person with higher social status. Using ngoko Javanese

in this situation is considered as unrefined and rude. Therefore, domesticating

translates the discourse marker to create equivalence.

Domestication is necessary to be applied in translating cultural aspects in

order to avoid readers’ misunderstanding towards the TT. It is also exemplified by

example (62)

(62) ST “Apa Darsono? Kowe tertawa?” (SL/ C6/ P194/35)

TT He snarled at him in low Javanese: "What now, Darsono?

Laughing, you bastard? Laughing, hey? (TL/C6/P237/23)

In example (62), domestication is applied through amplifying linguistics

component. It adds information about the application of low Javanese language

and profanity to give the same effect of the use of kowe in this context. In PP, this

dialect appears in a dialogue uttered by Marto Kebo. He shows hostility and anger

towards his priyayi neighbors whom he claims to be the cause of suffering to

impoverished peasants. He uses kowe which is Javanese ngoko language to

address priyayi. In Javanese society, using ngoko language to address someone

who has high social status is considered as impolite. Besides, kromo madya or

krama inggil cannot be applied in the context of anger.

Although domestication in translating Javanese dialect in example (61) and

(62) helps the translation work to attain the equivalence towards the context and

the target readers’ understanding of the message within the text, it gains profanity

in TT to replace the ngoko language and to attain the same context in ST. The


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addition of profanity to result in the same nuance but it causes the utterances to

become more vulgar. Therefore, the translation omits the refined Javanese culture

in term of utterance.

Domestication is also practiced in translating other domains besides dialect.

It is applied to assists target readers to understand the text and source culture in

TL easily. Domestication is highly applied in translating gesture and habit

domains. There are 42 out of 45 CSIs translated using domestication. The terms

are domesticated using generalization, compensation, description and omitting.

The description is commonly applied in translating gesture and habit in PP. It is

exemplified in (63).

(63) ST Kadang-kadang juga ngerowot, yaitu makan ketela,

jagung, ubi-ubian, yang direbus tanpa lauk dan garam (SL/

C3/ P91/ 10)

TT Or they limited themselves to eating just yams or corn

or various tubers, also simply boiled and served

without garnish. (TL/ C3/ P116/12)

Ngerowot means fasting by limited themselves to just eating boiled tubers, corn,

and yams without sugar, salt, or other side dishes (Poerwadarminta et.al, 1939).

The term is translated using description. In example (63), ngerowot is translated

by describing it as “limited themselves to eating just yams or corn or various

tubers, also simply boiled and served without garnish”. However, the description

is restricted to the practice of ngerowot. It does not describe the spiritual purpose

of ngerowot.


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4.2.5 Orientalist Attitude, Ethnocentrism, and Colonial Ideology in

Domestication Strategy

Domestication does not only facilitate target readership, naturalness, and

fluency in translating SL and culture but also makes the translation work can be

enjoyed easily. It also brings certain cultural and political agendas (Venuti, 2001).

Domestication discovers in this study indicates ideology that is unconsciously

reflected in the TT. Domestication in this study brings orientalist and

ethnocentrism ideology.

Orientalism is discovered in the domestication of CSI correspond to

Javanese beliefs. It is presented in example (64).

(64) ST Dengan kehadiran Sri dan Darmin itu kami berharap anak-

anak bisa menghayati agama Islam dari jarak yang sangat

dekat, dari sanak saudaranya sendiri, bukan orang lain. Juga

supaya anak-anak saya hanya tahu tokoh-tokoh Pendawa

dan Kurawa saja. (SL/ C3/ P71/ 8)

TT We hoped that the arrival of those two would bring balance

to our children's religious outlook" for the three were more

inclined to delight in wayang stories than in the scripture

either Koranic or of the sacred book revealed to the prophet

Jesus. (TL/ C3/ P91/ 4)

Example (64) presents domestication through generalization translation technique.

The technique is applied in translating tokoh-tokoh Pendawa dan Kurawa,

members of Pendawa and Kurawa, characters in Mahabarata story. The term is

generalized the specific characters of Mahabarata into wayang story. Moreover,

the generalization of the terms supported orientalism discourse attached in JG.

The discourse is presented in the additional information “or of the sacred book

revealed to the prophet Jesus” that was not written in PP. The additional discourse

indicates that Javanese as the Orient needed to be introduced to Christianity.

Wayang story, that conveys wisdom and gives a role model from the character,


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and Koran are not enough for Javanese people, therefore, Christianity is important

to be taught. It is in line with a notion that described by Hart (2004) that the

Orient is the object of a missionary. Moreover, it also indicates the assumption

that the Orient is ignorant of other beliefs and need to be taught Christianity

(Weir, 2011).

The orientalist attitude is unconsciously attached to the domestication of

wayang characters in example (64). It is indifferent wayang as a spiritual compass

of human life which educates people about the way and wisdom of life. Wayang

contains elements of entertainment, art, education, information, scientific, and

spiritual knowledge (Mulyono, 1977). It is part of the Javanese people’s life.

Moreover, the stories have a philosophy of life, an example of life spiritually,

etiquette, moral, patriotism, and heroism reflected in Ramayana, Baratayuda, and

Arjuna Sasrabahu stories (Mulyono, 1977).

Ethnocentrism is also discovered in domestication applied in this study. It is

indicated in the notion of domesticating CSIs applied to create readability but it

reflects negation towards the foreign terms (Asadzadeh &Abbasi, 2012). In this

study, it is presented in the domestication of material culture related to Javanese

costumes that are worn by female and male Javanese. The domestication is

applied by adapting the SL terms into TL. It is presented in example (65) and

(66).

(65) ST Kami semua berpakaian lengkap. Yang laki-laki kain, jas,

dan destar. Sedang para ibu kain dan kebaya. (SL/ C3/

P39/ 31)

TT the man, including myself, in sarongs, jackets, and head-

cloths bound into the Javanese light turban; the women in

sarong and blouses. (SL/ C3/P53/28)


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(66) ST Waktu saya masuk, saya lihat ada seorang laki-laki yang,

menilik dari pakaiannya serta jas beskap landung serta

blangkon di kepalanya, adalah seorang priyayi pejabat

istana. Karena Wonogiri adalah kabupaten

Mangkunegaran, maka saya menyimpulkan bahwa pejabat

tersebut adalah seorang punggawa istana Mangkunegaran.

(SL/ C5/ P154/30)

TT As I entered I saw someone there who by his long jacket

and batik headdress I recognized as a court official, and

Wonogiri being within one of the Mangkunegaran-

administered kabupaten I surmised he came from, the

Prince in Solo (TL/C5/P188/23)

In example (65), kebaya, a female Javanese top that is usually matched with batik

sarong (Poerwadarminta et.al, 1939; Robson and Wibisono (2002),), is

domesticated into blouses using adaptation translation technique. Domestication

using adaptation also applies in example (66) in translating beskap landung, court

Javanese male costume consist of a long jacket that is worn with batik sarong and

batik headdresses. Beskap landung is rendered into a jacket. The negative attitude

towards maintaining the originality of the words is reflected behind the reason of

translation technique choice. According to personal communication with the

translator, the CSIs are adapted using TL terms because readers have limitation to

accept foreign concept and terms unless they are cultural studies expert yet PP

and JG are not books for specialist. He also adds that readers that are inspired and

interested in Javanese culture can research such technical term by themselves. The

translator’s opinion is true that readership and the readers’ convenience in reading

the translation work are important to be attained. It is also important to deliver the

source culture in TL albeit it is strange to the target readers’ reality and difficult to

be acquired thus it the foreignness is needed to be limited. However, the statement

from the translator indicates that understanding source culture is not really

essential due to readers’ understanding limitation towards source culture. The


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cultural aspects embedded in PP are not significant to be introduced as in reality.

Therefore, the translator wants the readers to recognize the Javanese culture based

on their imagination which is west imagination. In addition, it is rendered into the

culture that wants to be understood from the west point of view.

Orientalist attitude is also presented in domestication translation that is

practiced in translating domains related to wayang performance art. The

domestication is presented in example (67).

(67) SL Tapi, mungkin hatinya sudah terhibur sedikit, sempat

melihat goro-goro di mana dalang itu sempat membuat

suasana jadi gembira karena lucunya dia memainkan tiga

punakawan Semar, Gareng, dan Petruk. (SL/ C7/

P207/35)

TL Well at least he got to where the dalang raised the level of

fun a bit when he brought out the three clowns. Gets a

bit ribald there at times, the way those three, Semar,

Gareng, and Petruk, are sometimes played.

(TL/C7/P254/3)

Domestication in example (67) is applied to translate goro-goro and punakawan.

Goro-goro is a moment when the puppet master lowers the tension of wayang

performance, after the conflict of the story. During goro-goro, the puppet master

plays punakawan that is consisted of Semar, Gareng, Petruk, and Bagong to

create the gaiety of the situation. In the TL, goro-goro is described as “where the

dalang raised the level of fun a bit when he brought out the three clowns”.

The same technique is also applied in translating punakawan. Puna or pana

derives from purna which means perfect and kawan means friends thus

punakawan means perfect friends who are intelligent, trustworthy, and open-

minded (Ensiklopedi Nasional Indonesia, 2005 and Zoetmulder, 1982 cited in

Sunarto, 2012). They present comedy using Javanese ngoko language in goro-

goro part (Mrázek, 1999). However, in JG, punakawan is described as “the three


112

clowns” that sometimes are played with ribald jokes. The description of

punakawan in JG, as the three clowns, is not suitable although their features look

like clowns and they present comedy in the performance because punakawan

consists of four members, namely: Semar, Gareng, Petruk, and Bagong. In

addition, they are not just jokers. There is a deeper intention behind punakawan

characters and their jokes that entertain the audiences. They deliver critics towards

the authority and wisdom behind their jokes. In addition, their positions in the

Mahabarata epic are the advisors of the Pandawa knights. Therefore, describing

punakawan as three clowns in JG was inappropriate. The description does not

engage the wisdom and power of Punakawan.

The first member of Punakawan is Semar, the incarnation of Batara Ismaya.

He is a deity who lived like a commoner (Pausacker, 2004). He is ordered by

Batara Guru to come to the earth to assist Pandawa. His characteristic is faithful

to Pandawa members, wise, honest, and down to earth. Therefore, Semar was

much respected. During the wayang performance, He rarely appears in goro-goro.

However, his three children, Semar, Petruk, and Bagong, are more often played in

goro-goro.

Punakawan characters and the physical depiction that is not proportional in

wayang make them look like a clown, funny and paltry. However, they are not

mere comedians or clowns because they are wise and had an important position as

the advisors of Pandawa. Their strange physical condition contains philosophy

and symbols of modesty, circumspection, independence, openness, fertility, and

intelligence.


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The way punakawan played is not ribald. They are presented vulgarly in

term of the language use and the way they talk in Javanese puppetry. Vulgarity

applied in punakawan and goro-goro indicates that they are from a humble origin,

not from aristocrat background; like their masters. In general, they are played

humorously and rarely in a ribald manner. Ribaldry is usually presented in the

communication among dhalang, sinden, and additional comics outside wayang

characters. Generally, when just involving punakawan, the jokes usually do not

refer to sex but more about body shamming among the members of punakawan

because each of the members has the abnormal physical condition but sometimes

they feel handsome and overconfident. In addition, they often satirize the

authority and the system through their jokes. In spite of the way of punakawan are

performed in the original context, they are presented as wayang characters that

show a sense of impolite humor referring to sex in JG. The translation presents

the ribald side of punakawan in goro-goro rather than satire humor that is often

performed. Therefore, the description of punakawan that is depicted as ribald in

JG may serve an Orientalist attitude. It justified the orient’s imagery that is

depicted as lustful by the occident proposed by Said (1978).

Domestication strategy is also practiced in CSI that indicates in mimicry

towards the Dutch language, the ex-colonial master of Indonesia. It is indicated in

the Javanese accent in pronouncing Dutch’s vocabulary that is applied by Kayam

in his writing. The mimicry towards Dutch term initiated by Kayam is presented

in example (68).

(68) SL Di HIS guru-guru dipanggil sebagai "meneer". Tentu saja

saya, tamatan sekolah desa lima tahun ditambah dengan

kursus guru bantu dan sedikit pergaulan kesukan dengan

para priyayi kabupaten dan bahasa Belanda een-twee-drie


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dari Dik Ngaisah, tidak pernah juga dapat mengucapkan

dengan pas kata "meneer" itu. Saya mengucapkan

dengan "menir" saja. (SL/ C3/ P65/ 38)

TL At Wanagalih HIS, the teachers were addressed as

“Meneer”. Naturally, as one who had only done five years

at a village school and merely trained as an assistant

teacher, anything Dutch was a trap to me, and after the best

help from our neighboring priyayi and Dik Ngaisah’s een-

twee-drei pennyworth the closet I could get to

pronouncing “meneer” was menir. (TL/ C3/ P85/15)

Mimicry is presented in how Sastrodarsono, the priyayi who lives in Javanese

culture but adopt little the colonial language, pronounced meneer, a Dutch

vocabulary to refer mister or sir, in Kayam’s writing. The term is applied to the

addressee for male teachers during the colonial era. Meneer is pronounced menir

by Sastrodarsono. It indicates that Sastrodarsono is mimicking the Dutch as

colonizer through his pronunciation. Mimicry which is practiced in the CSI

indicates a thread towards colonialism discourse in ST. It is possible to destabilize

colonial discourse. According to Ashcroft et al. (2000), mimicry is a menace for

colonialism discourse because it indicates the limit of colonial discourse that may

become its destruction.

The rejection towards ex-master colonial language in SL is applied through

the continuity of mimicking the colonizer. In SL, all meneer words in the ST are

written as menir based on the Javanese pronunciation. However, the mimicry is

not continued in the TL because menir is domesticated into meneer by adopting

the colonizer’s language although not all of menir were translated into meneer. In

the TL, the terms are still foreignized only in Sastrodarsono’s dialogue parts.

Therefore, instead of transferring the CSI and postcolonial discourse to TL, the


115

translation still brought back the colonial discourse. It is exemplified by example

(69).

(69) SL Apa boleh buat. Yang penting Menir Soetarjo kepala

sekolah HIS serta Menir Soerojo, guru bahasa Belanda,

ilmu bumi, dan sejarah tidak keberatan saya mengucapkan

"menir" itu. (SL/ C3/ P66/ 2)

TL Well, no matter, Meneer Soetarjo, the school principal,

and Meneer Soerojo, who taught Dutch, geography, and

history accepted my effort (TL/ C3/ P85/16)

Example (69) presents the application of borrowing that domesticates the CSI

because the TT borrows from the Dutch language. The domestication is applied

towards the Javanese mimicry in pronouncing meneer. In SL, the terms are

written menir but they are translated into meneer. Therefore, the TL practices the

ex-colonial master original language. In addition, the domestication practices

reveal colonial attitude.

This research discovers that domestication can bridge the cultural gap

between SL and TL. It also finds that domesticating CSIs can serve

ethnocentrism, orientalist attitude, and colonial ideology of the translator.

Ethnocentrism is unconsciously served in the translation of CSIs in JG by

systematic negation towards original terms practiced by Zhukov and occurrences

of domestication that is higher than foreignization. Orientalism is also served

through domestication of CSIs that justifies the orient’s image established by the

occident.


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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

Chapter V provides a conclusion and suggestion of this study. Conclusion

section gives summary discoveries and discussion elaborated in chapter IV.

Suggestion conveys recommendation for future researchers, translators, and

readers.

5.1 Conclusion

After conducting a study in translation techniques, strategy, and ideology in

translating CSIs in Para Priyayi using a postcolonial perspective, the research

questions proposed in this thesis are answered. There are two research questions,

namely: (1) what translation techniques are applied in translating CSI in Kayam’s

Para Priyayireflected in Zhukov's Javanese Gentry? (2) What ideology of

translating are presented in translation techniques applied to render CSI in

Kayam’s Para Priyayi reflected in Zhukov's Javanese Gentry?

This study discovered fourteen types of translation techniques applied in

401 CSIs from the Javanese language. There are amplification, borrowing, calque,

literal translation, adaptation, description, establish equivalence, generalization,

linguistics amplification, modulation, transposition, variation, compensation, and

omission. Those translation techniques are applied in translating twelve domains

of CSIs that consists of ecology, material culture, social culture, organization-

custom-activities-procedure-social conception, gesture and habit, measurement

system, dates, anthroponym, dialect, fictional character, idiom, and metaphor.

Borrowing occurs 93 times. The literal translation is applied fifteen times. There

are seven occurrences of calque and 48 times of amplification. Then, adaptation is


117

applied 22 times. There are 44 times of established equivalence translation

technique, 47 times of generalization, three times of variations, 26 occurrences of

compensation, six times of linguistics amplification, three times of modulation, 85

occurrences of descriptions, 17 times of omitting application, and an occurrence

of transposition.

These translation studies find two translation strategies, namely:

foreignization and domestication. The two translation strategies that are examined

using postcolonial theory and consulted to translator interview result suggested

that foreignization in this study indicates resistance towards TL culture

domination when it was applied in translating domain related to Javanese kinship,

social status, and social strata. Foreignization also indicated exoticization and

resistance when it is applied in other domains that are not intended to be preserved

by the translators (outside kinship, social status, and social strata realms), it is

practiced less than domestication, and it is considered acceptable for target

readership and intended to give a sprinkle of exotic nuances. Foreignization also

presents exoticization and ethnocentrism when it conveys foreignness of source

culture but it does not present the source culture in the right manner. This study

also discovered domestication that is necessary to convey the tale and bridge

cultural gaps. However, there is also domestication that supports orientalist

attitude, ethnocentrism ideology, and colonial discourse.

5.2 Suggestion

This research provides suggestions for future researchers and translators.

The future researcher is expected to conduct rigorous research in postcolonial

translation because postcolonial translation research in Indonesian context is still


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limited and still dominated by Arabic and Hindi scholars and context. Postcolonial

Indonesian study may enrich the diversity of postcolonial study that is rooted in

historical event and context. Development of postcolonial translation study also

may increase Indonesian translators’ awareness in rendering cultural loaded texts.

Therefore, they may aware of their role as the agent of preserving and presenting

local culture to international audiences. Moreover, the translator may prevent

ethnocentrism towards peripheral culture and language. They are also expected to

prevent the development of internalized neo-colonialism that may develop

through translation works.


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Ajtony, Z. (2017). Taming the Stranger: domestication vs foreignization in

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https://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/j/ausp.2017.9.issue-2/ausp-2017-

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Assadzadeh, M. and Abbasi, A. (2012). Translation and Ethnography:

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APPENDICES


127

Appendix 1. Amplification

No Domain SL TL

1. Material culture Nasi pecel salad of blanched greens

spooned over with

peanut sauce;

2. wedang cemoe glasses of soupy

wedang cemoe, that

lemongrass infusion

thickened with sweet

bean sauce;

3. Kupat tahu kupat tahu, piles of

cubed tofu and pressed

steamed rice slathered

with peanut sauce

4. Klepon klepon, for example,

steamed rice cakes with

a center of palm sugar

5. onde-onde onde-onde, balls of rice-

flour filled mung beans

6. Nagasari nagasari, those little

cubes of rice flour and

minced banana wrapped

in woven strips of

banana leaf

7. pendopo kabupaten the old pendopo, the

open sided audience hall

where regents used to

meet the kabupaten's

assembeled dignitaries

8. keris-keris Ndoro Guru. the teacher's krisses-the

appurtenances of a

priyayi -

9. pendopo Prangwedanan The Prangwedana

pendopo, the gathering

place of military stuff in

past days.

10. air kendi a glass of cool water

from our earthenware

kendi

11. Kendang the kendang, a type of

small double-ended

drum

12. gudeg Yu Marsinem There, a famous Yogya

speciality, the gudeg,

could be had: a

concoction of young


128

jackfruit cooked with

spices in coconut milk,

13. Kesukan kesukan or simply

diversion.

14. nyonya kontrolir the nyonya kontrolir, the

European wife the local

Dutch district officer

15. Organization,

Custum, Activities,

Procedure, Concept

Priyagung Jakarta

dengan title doktorandus

lagi.

a lofty Jakarta priyayi, a

university man, a

doktorandus,

16. Sekolah sekakel sekakel, as we called

them, a schakel school

or linking schooll of

seven years, where

instruction in the upper

level was carried out in

Dutch.

17. Sarotomo Sarotomo, named after

the sacred bow or

Arjuna,

18. Medan Priyayi Medan Priyayi, The

Priyayi Forum

19. keluarga petani santri a village of santri

peasants, Devout

adherents to islam.

20. priyayi abangan, abangan, whose islam

still accommodated

elements of immemorial

native lore and a

Javanise Hinduism

21. Cukup sakmadya sakmadya: temperance

and moderation.

22. Mocopat reciting folk version of

episodes from history.

He knew many in the

form of six-line verses

called macapa

23. panembromo, panembromo, a song of

welcome

24. pencak silat, an episode of pencak

silat styled fighting;

25. Ketoprak another group song; and

finally, a ketoprak,

historically drama.

26. Pocung Pocung, "The Sheaf of

Truths, is a song from

High Wisdom, a


129

theosophical tract which

teaches ascetic attitudes

and self-control;

27. Kinanthi while Kinanti,

"Guidance", from Lore

and Discipline,

introduces the convert

to the practical

techniques by which

passion and egoism may

be overcome

28. Parto Kromo: Parto

taking a wife

Parto Kromo

29. Gatutkaca Gandrung Gatutkaca Gandrung,

the lovelorn Pendawa

figure from pendawa

figure from the

Mahabarata

30. ketoprak dengan lakon

“Ki Ageng Mangir

Ki Ageng Mangir the

tragedy of democratic

village leader, one

Ageng of Mangir,

succumbing to

Senapati's centraling

despotism during a time

of instability after the

collapse of Majapahit in

the early 1500

31. Gestrure and habit Sembah a sembah: palms

together. Fingertips

upwards and touching

the forehead

32. ngapurancang ascetic pose called

ngapurancang': that is,

standing with his arms

crossed over his crotch

33. Anthroponym Embah Wedok my grandmother,

Embah Wedok

34. Bapak "bapak", as I were not

their contemporary and

former schoolfellow but

some old gentleman to

be addressed as "Father"

or "sir".

35. Dik Ngaisah little sister" Ngaisah,

Dik Ngaisah

36. Ndoro Sepuh Ndoro Sepuh -


130

Honorable Ancient

37. Romo Pensiunan Seten

Sunoko, Romo

Pensiunan Jeksa

Romo Seten Sunoko,

and Romo Jaksa: those

last two, the old

assistant distict chief

and prosecutor, long ago

retired and on their

pension.

38. Harimurti Harimurti,… We has

given him a name which

translated from the

Sanskrit as "Touched by

the Light of the Sun”

39. Murjangkung Murjangkung - That Jan

Peterszoon Coen who

had defeated Sultan

Agung in the 1600s

40. Fictional Character Betoro Kolo Ogre Betoro Kolo

41. Batara Kresna, titisan

Wisnu

Lord Krishna , who also

in his popular

incarnation was dark,

and indeed literary

whose name litterary

meant "Black" Krisna

characterized as

Harimurti in the

Javanese pantheon was

the avatar of Visnu

42. Prabu Kresna dari

Dwarawati

Vishnu incarnate,

Krishna, he of the

exemplary kingdom of

Dwarawati.

43. Prabu Angling Dharma Prabu Angling Dharma,

the incarnation of

Vishnu,

44. Ratu Kidul Ratu Kidul, the Empress

of the South Sea

45. Rahwana the giant Rahwana

46. Pasopati Arjuna, Pasopati Arjuna, his

younger brother and

rival

47. Panembahan Senapati Senapati, the founder of

the Mataram Dynasty

48. Dialect wassalamualaikum

warohmatullahi

wabarokatuh

wassalamualaikum

warohmatullahi

wabarokatuh. , the


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closing "peace be with

you and God's blessing

49. Inna lillahi wa inna

rojiun

Inna lillahi wa inna

rojiun: the graveside

formula - we are Allah's

and to Him we return

50. astagfirullah , astagfirullah, God be

merciful! God be

merciful


132

Appendix 2. Borrowing

No Domain SL TL

1. Material culture peci beledu merah a red velvet peci

2. pendopo pendopo

3. Arak arak

4. Peci peci

5. gamelan gamelan

6. Social culture Menir menir

7. Dalang the puppet's dalang

8. Organization,

Custum , Activities,

Procedure, Concept

Keprabon Keprabon

9. Wayang Wayang

10. orkes keroncong Keroncong pop band

11. penari ronggeng a ronggeng girl

12. Anthroponym Ndoro. Ndoro.

13. Mbok Mbok

14. Pak Lantip Pak Lantip

15. Ndoro Seten Ndoro Seten

16. Pak Lurah Pak Lurah

17. Pak Carik. Pak Carik.

18. Ndoro Kanjeng Bupati the Bupati

19. Dik Sastro Dik Sastro

20. Menir Soetarjo Meneer Soetarjo,

21. Menir Soerojo Meneer Soerojo

22. Bulik Bu

23. Paklik? Pak

24. Pakde Pak

25. Kang Kang

26. Yu Mbak

27. Raden Harjono

Cokrokoesoemo

Raden Harjono

Cokrokoesoemo

28. Romo Mukaram: Romo Mukaram:

29. Mbah Kromo Mbah Kromo

30. Pakde Pakde

31. Kamas Haji Mansoer Kamas Haji Mansoer

32. … Pak Dukuh

Soetoredjo

… Pak Dukuh

Soetoredjo

33. Ndoro Mantri Guru Ndoro Mantri Guru

34. Dimas Menir Tardjo? Dimas Menir Tardjo?

35. Ndoro Noegroho Ndoro Noegroho


133

36. Ndoro Den Ajeng

Soemini

Ndoro Den Ajeng

Soemini

37. Gus Hari Gus Hari

38. Ndoro Hardojo kakung-

putri

Ndoro kakung Hardojo

brought his wife

39. Nakmas Harjono Nakmas Harjono

40. Dik Pran Dik Pran

41. Mbak Nunuk! Mbak Nunuk!

42. Kanjeng Bupati Anom the deputy bupati

43. Raden Mas

Pringgokusumo…

Raden Mas

Pringgokusumo…

44. Denmas Kusumo, Denmas Kusumo,

45. Bapake Tole Bapake Tole

46. … Bung Hari … … Bung Hari …

47. … Bung Naryo .. … Bung Naryo ..

48. Bulik Mini Bulik Mini

49. Pakde dan Bude

Noegroho

Pakde dan Bude

Noegroho

50. Mbak Sus Mbak Sus

51. Pak Kaji Ngaliman, Pak Kaji Ngaliman,

52. Ki Ageng Mangir Ki Ageng Mangir

53. Fictional Character Sukarsana Sukarsana

54. Woro Sembodro Wara Sembadra

55. Yudistira Yudistira

56. Para Kurawa Para Kurawa

57. Wara Srikandi Wara Srikandi

58. Sultan Agung Sultan Agung

59. Karna Karna

60. Kunti Kunti

61. Sumantri Sumantri

62. Semar Semar

63. Gareng Gareng

64. Petruk Petruk

65. Parto Parto

66. Arjuna Arjuna

67. Lara Ireng Lara Ireng

68. Sembadra Sembadra

69. Srikandi Srikandi

70. Larasati Larasati


134

71. Bandung Bondowoso Bandung Bondowoso

72. Amangkurat Amangkurat

73. Rama Rama

74. Sita Sita

75. Laksmana Laksmana

76. Dialect inggih, Ndoro inggih, Ndoro

77. Wah Wah

78. Lha, Lha,

79. Allahu Akbar! Allahu Akbar!

80. Masya Allah! Masya Allah!

81. Insya Allah Insya Allah


135

Appendix 3. Calque

No Domain SL TL

1. Social Culture wong ndeso, village folk

2. Organization,


Procedure, Concept

kantor Karesidenan

Madiun

the high administration

of the Madiun

residency.

3. Ndeso typically "village"

4. Anthroponym Nak Guru our young teacher

5. Our lad, the teacher

there

6. Kanjeng Gusti Pangeran

Adipati Arya

Mangkunegara VII

His Highness, Prince

and Supreme Bupati

The Most Noble

Mangkunegaran VII

7. Idiom wong cilik the common folk


136

Appendix 4. Literal Translation

No Domain SL TL

1. Material Culture soko guru dan tiang-

tiang pendopo

Mangkunegaran dan

balariung istana

Kasunanan

the main and subsidiary

columns of the

Kasunanan palace both

in Solo,

2. Social Culture para priyayi pangreh

praja

the priyayi of

Wanagalih's civil

service

3. Organization,


Procedure, Concept

Wayang kulit leather puppets

4. Sumantri Ngenger the servitude of

Sumantri,

5. Gesture and Habit puasa Senin Kemis fast on Monday and

Thursda

6. Anthroponym Mangkunegara kaping

empat

Mangkunegara number

four

7. dialect nyuwun sewu

pangapunten,

a thousand, thousand

apologies,

8. Idiom Kecekel iwake ojo

nganti buthek banyune

catch the fish and don’t

muddy the water

9. Mikul duwur mendem

jero!

lift high! Dig deep!

10. Metaphor garwa, sigarane nyawa half a soul, we wives

are, that's the saying

11. salah kedaden, misbegotten boy.

12. kencono wingko To look ar a potsherd

and see a gold nugget

13. Kacang masa akan lupa

pada lanjarannya.

the bean-vine forgetting

the pole it grew up on

14. mbanyu mili, poured in

15. soko guru keluarga besar a paterfamilias stood as

the center pillar of an

extended-clan

Appendix 5. Adaptation

No Domain SL TL

1. Material culture Dodol Nangka jackfruit taffy.

2. Jadah Rice cake

3. jas tutup jacket

4. beskap landung long jacket

5. berjas beskap landung

berwarna juning gading

: ivory-white long

jacket


137

6. gambang xylophone

7. gender metalophone

8. Social culture Bupati regents

9. asisten wedana

Karangelo

assistant district chief at

Karangelo

10. montir pocokan food hawkers

11.

Organization,


Procedure, Concept

ronda tetek the town watch

12. Kelengengan concert hall gamelan

13. kelenengan atau uyon-

uyon gamelan Jawa

concert hall gamelan

14. roso rikuh the respect of our

subordinates and

respects those above

him

15. Measurement

system

hanya satu atau dua bau no more than a hectare

and a half

16. bergantang-gantang the hundredweight

17. Anthroponym Patih Sarwoko Minister Sarwoko

18. Kanjeng Gusti

Mangkunegara yang

kaping tujuh

Highness

Mangkunegara number

seven

19. Kanjeng Pepatih Dalem his excellency the chief

minister

20. Kanjeng Gusti perhaps his highness

himself

21. ,cah bagus my innocent lamb

22. Tole Darsono, Master Darsono,

Appendix 6. Description

No Domain SL TL

1. Ecology Sawah tadah hujam there was the additional

handicap that rice in this

area depended on rainfall,

2. Panu White blotches of fungus

3. Galih central core that supported

the variously grained layer

around it.

4. Masa bediding the air of approaching

cooler season

5. Material

culture

Celana kolor komprang

dari kain kastup

black short trousers made

of glossy cotton fabric, tied


138

at the waist by a drawstring

6. Sabuk otok the same wide-waisted

sashes on sale within which

on each side of the buckle

the country people stow

their capital when coming

to market

7. Caping broad conical hats,

8. Nasi pecel salad of blanched greens

spooned over with peanut

sauce

9. Tumpeng nasi kuning the ceremonial dish of

yellow rice,

10. Juadah various delicacies from

sticky rice

11. Botok ikan teri steamed white bait with

coconut in banana leaf,

12. Sambal terasi shrimp paste.

13. Sayur asem kangkung sour vegetable soup

14. Lalapan sambal fresh raw vegetables with

hot sauce,

15. Rumah gebyok weatherboard houses, in

those outmoded old cottage

16. Rumah gebyok The large weatherboard

house

17. Gedek panels of plaited bamboo

18. Amben the sleeping platform in one

of the rear buildings

19. Tumbal to be parted from their roots

and leave their native

surrounds

20. Bawonan harversted grain and stooks,

21. Ater-ater the occasion of ceremonial

meal or othe

22. Jadah dan wajik Rice cake and squares of

sticky rice with palm suga

23. Slepi …small wallet of tobacco

24. Destar head-cloths bound into the

Javanese light turban

25. Koplakan every wayside booth where

vehicles stopped to pick up

passengers

26. Saren Fried chicken blood


139

27. Blangkon batik headdress

28. Beskap landung Long jacket

29. Peri Celestia beauties

30. Upet source of illumination

wicks made from the husk

around coconut flowers,

basically a twist of fibers

flickering in a jam tin of oil

31. Lopis Rice tibes steamed in

banana leaf.

32. Juruh palm sugar syrup

33. Pepes cabuk a meal of steamed black

sesame seeds and grated

coconut wrapped in banana

leaf

34. Pepes botok teri … steamed anchovies

35. Lincak the low bamboo bench

36. Social

culture

Kromo alus ceremonial required of one

when dealing with the

gentry

37. Para penari ledek professionals of easy

morals, with kisses and

more within their gift

38. Kesukan Night of relaxation

39. Pesta tayub A party and a dancing girl

40. Gobak sodor Excited groups played

catch-me-if-you-can on

grids marked in the soft

ground

41. Nembang dan uro-uro Javanese poetry, chanted to

the beat of a gong, and to

sing those marvellous old

ballads.

42. tokoh kebatinan a person of considerable

spiritual eminence,

43. wayang kulit mythological fare of

shadow- puppetry

44. Ketoprak traveling troupe

45. Ludruk the semi historical fare of

folk theater

46. Sasmita a divine signal, an omen

and a sign.


140

47. Goro-goro where the dalang raised the

level of fun a bit when he

brought out the three

clowns

48. Wayang kulit dengan lakon

Partokromo,

leather puppets playing

"Partokromo, the marriage

of Arjuna and Sembadra

49. serat sastra Jawa. the odd tome of Javanese

Literatur

50. Serat wedhatama High Wisdom, a

theosophical tract which

teaches ascetic attitudes and

self-contro

51. Serat Wulangreh Lore and Discipline,

introduces the convert to

the practical techniques by

which passion and egoism

may be overcome

52. Abdi dalem

mangkunegaran

court functionary employed

by the Mangkunegaran

palace

53. Organization,

concept,

Tahlilan to recite the confession of

faith

54. Nontoni to take a peek at the

possible bride

55. Pesta ngunduh a celebration of the

occasion when the girls

removes to the

bridegroom's home

56. Sing tepa slira, le, marang

sapada-pada

… mixing with others in

social activities; dealing

with them as one would be

done by; measuring one's

coat to one's need indeed,

but cutting it to the going

fashion.

57. cegah dahar lawan guling starve and be place to sleep

in

58. Saru a sin against the rules of

Javanese negotiating.

59. Magersari subletting of free rooms and

other space by those who

had been first to dwell there

being common practice.

60. Gesture

Habit

Bersembahyang isya in the middle of her evening

prayers

61. duwe gawe the coming arrangements


141

for the wedding : a matter

of celebration after all.

62. Bedol desa uprooting the surrounding

vilages .

63. Ulem a tone which to me sounded

so even and authoritative

64. Keleleran to fall by the wayside

65. Keropok roasted …over a heap of

burning leaves

66. Ngenger living in , doing chores

67. Ngerowot limited themselves to eating

just yams or corn or varoius

tubers, also simply boiled

and served without garnish.

68. salat rubuh-rubuh gendang the five daily prayes with

their full complement of

bending and bowing

69. Laku kebatinan an act replete with spiritual

profit

70. Njenu a time when fisherman

were stupefying fish with

pulped tuba plants

71. Nyekar to make a parting visit to

the graves

72. Nduwe gawe the coming arrangements

for the weddin

73. Prsadja modest, good hearted,

hones

74. Purik a sulking daugther running

back to her parents

75. Ramban execercise picking

vegetables in the rear

garden and leaves from the

hedges growing around it

76. Kerokan drawing the edge of a coin

along the spine

77. Sungkeman the young couple bows,

raise their palms together

and presses their faces to

the knees of the parents

78. Boncengan sitting on the rear rack

79. Menggejik turning up earth and

planting seed

80. Mutih having plain rice without

side dishes or salt


142

81. Menyengkelit pistol butts poking out

waistbands

82. Mempur texture when boiled and in

the way peeled easily

83. Menuba

at a time when fisherman

were stupefying fish with

pulped tuba plants. With all

the excitement of the catch,

they too had waded in to

the drugged water

84. Metingkrang above people

85. Kegandesan grace and charm, a bit more

elegance. Something more

properly feminie in their

attitude

86. anthroponym Kemantren the office of the civil

administration

87. Lurah ngale the village head here at

Ngale

88. Bu mantra garam the wife of salt controller in

Sokokilo

89. Fictional

characters

Punakawan The three clowns

90. Gamelan lokananta a gamelan from the abode

of the gods

91. date Azar the time of the mid-

afternoon prayer

92. setiap malam hari-hari

yang dianggap keramat

oleh orang Jawa, misalnya

malam Selasa Kliwon atau

malam Jumat Kliwon

the night hours of holy

days, such as

certainTuesday and Fridays

of the Javanese five-day

week

93. Idiom Sangkan paraning dumadi the question of the origin

and goals of life, the limit

94. inggih, inggih mboten

kepanggih

Inggih! Inggih! To your

face and who then make

make no effort to carry out

what they are agreeing to,

95. Metaphor Mlempem Weak and limb


143

Appendix 7. Established Equivalence

No Domain SL TL

1. Social culture petani wutun, a simple man

2. Gesture- Habit sowan call in

3. Anthroponym sok kemayu go putting on air

towards

4. memblayang ke mana-

mana

alley-cattying all over

the city

5. Kuwalat a disaster

6. Genduk Chit

7. Ndoro School Opziener. the school opzienier

8. Kamas School

Opziener.

9. Jeng Sastro your good lady

10. Dimas yours

11. Genduk Mini a chit of tweleve years

12. Dialect Matur nuwun sanget A thousand thanks

13. Rak …. Yo .. Odd that

14. Tawakalah Trust in god

15. Dalem Yes

16. Wis, wiss Now,now

17. Eh Ndilalah But Dear,

18. kersaning Alah It’s the will of Allah

19. Nyuwun sewu If I may

20. Nyuwun duka don't be annoyed,

21. Wis,wis that's enough

22. Dahar have something to eat

23. Mbok Can … please

24. Sampun, Gone

25. Lenggah Take a seat

26. Aturi … I beg you to think

back

27. nyuwun pamit, nyuwun

pangestu

we go with your

permission and


144

blessing

28. Mangke rumiyin, One moment

29. Tawakallah. trust in God

30. panjenengan Ndoro

Guru Kakung miwah

Putri

what of that noble,

gracious couple Ndoro

Guru Kakung and

Putri?

31. melik nggendong lali.

Nafsu ingin memiliki

membawa serta lupa.

too much craving for

all kinds of things are

good and some are bad.

32. Idiom Moso borong see if you can knock

something into this

one's head

33. Metaphor tumplek blek eager to look

34. Cancut tali wanda, to send this daughter of

ours off

35. mengkis-mengkis strained enough

36. cenguk-cenguk kere,

yang mau ngemis Londo

itu.

puppy tail, tail-

wagging and beging at

the hand of Londo!


145

Appendix 8. Generalization

No Domain SL TL

1. Material culture nasi selamatan. the food.

2. jajanan pasar nice back from the

market

3. balariung istana

Kasunanan

Kasunanan palace

4. Mangkunegaran the Kasunanan palace

both in Solo

5. balariung-balariung Those (refer to

pendopo )

6. ketan putih, dan ketan

hitam

two kinds of sticky rice

7. kembang setaman. a bunch of flowers to

eat

8. demit, tuyul Ghost

9. Social Culture bahasa kromo halus,

kromo madyo, bahasa

ngoko

the three levels of

Javanese

10. menembang macapatan recite those verse

11. ledek Karangjambu a dancer in

Karangjambu

12. Dukun the healer

13. wayang orang Wayang drama

14. Organization,

custum , activities,

procedure, concept

air wudu the ablutions

15. Malati powers

16. merah mangar-mangar quite red

17. kapanewon the districs

18. kawedanan subdistricts

19. Gesture and habit

Cempa ya rowa,

pakananmu iwak apa ya

rowa

those simple lyrics of

their farming life

20. di-tingkebi the ceremony

21. laku prihatin the spirit of the old

teachings

22. tempelengan had been

thumped

23. Grapyak cheerful

24. kurang sreg unhappy


146

25. Measurement

system

rinjing atau bakul buah-

buahan

at least a basketful of

fruit

26. Anthroponym Ndoro Guru" dan "

Ndoro Guru Putri

"Ndoro", and

towards his wife,

"Ndoro Putri"

27. Tole him

28. Le my dear

29. Bune Mother

30. Mbokde Sumo Aunt Sumo

31. Mbokne Mother

32. Genduk chit

33. Kakang brother

34. Mbakyu sister

35. Nak Guru Dear chap

36. Kamas Wedana district chief

37. Ndoro Kanjeng Bupati the Bupati

38. Nduk, Le Dear

39. Pakde Pak

40. Kanjeng Gusti

Mangkunegara IV

His Lordship Prince

Mangkunegara I

41. Sinuwun Pakubuwana IV His Highness Paku

Buwana IV

42. Pak Dukuh. the village head

43. Dialect Dalem, Yes

44. Sampeyan You

45. Seda passed away.

46. Kowe you

47. Date malam anggarakasih,

malam Selasa Kliwon

Tuesday nights - and I

mean our, Javanese,

Tuesday!

48. Sabtu Wage the Javanese for

"Saturday,"

49. Idiom merak ati affable

Appendix 9. Linguistic Amplification


147

No Domain SL TL

1. Dialect “Apa Darsono? Kowe

tertawa?”

he snarled at him in low

Javanese: "What now,

Darsono? Laughing, you

bastard? Laughing, hey?

2. Tahu-tahu ibu saya dengan

tenangnya menyapa

Martokebo dengan dalam

bahasa kromo yang halus tapi

mantap “Pak Martokebo,

mbok yang sabar, ya. … Pak

Marto in kerso-nya apa to?

Sabar, Pak Marto, sabar.

Mbok duduk, lenggah, dulu.

…”

… in formal Javanese … :

Pak Martokebo. Come now.

Let us be reasonable. We are

all your neighbours. We've

always lived well together.

None of us are bad. Now,

what is all this for? Be

reasonable, Pak Marto, be

patient. Why don’t you take a

seat, rest yourself and tell us

what you have come for.

Lantip, bring out more chair

for our guest.

3. Iya. Tak jaluk patimu. Saya

minta kematianmu!”

Yes, dammit! I'm telling you

die!

4. “Boten, kok, Ndoro,” jawab

kusir dengan lantang

Why, Ndoro, I'm awake , the

man comes back, offended.

5. … ciloko tenan .. ...well, all I can say is poor

me, poor baby.

6. Lha wong didawuhi Kanjeng

Nabi Sulaeman, to. Mosok

tidak mau patuh.

Those trees, Pak - Pitching

about, dancing and such was

like sign they agreed to what

Kiai Jogo asked. And, well

naturally when it's the

prophet Solomon himself -

glory to him! - what he tells

you, you can't say no, can

you?


148

Appendix 10. Modulation

No Domain SL TL

1. Fictional

character

tokoh-tokoh Pendawa dan

Kurawa

Wayang stories

2. Social

culture

pangreh praja this officialdoms of ours

3. Organization,

Custum ,

Activities,

Procedure,

Concept

Kerajaan Mangkunegaran dan

Kasunanan

the prince; and, for that

matter, of the sultan of Solo,


149

Appendix 11. Transposition

No Domain SL TL

1. Tidak diadakan upacara

selamatan tujuh bulan

mengandung

Didn’t observe the seventh

month .


150

Appendix 12. Variation

No Domain SL TL

1. Dialect Kiai Jogosimo niku sama

dengan Kanjeng Nabi

Suleman

Yon Kiai Jogosimo now, he

and the prophet Solomon -

his name be honoured! Know

what? Those two were one

and the same! True!

2. Oh wong kalian itu, meski

sudah berkeluarga, beranak

pinak sesungguhnya masih

anak-anak ingusan. Kalau

pakde-mu ini kungkumsetiap

malam anggarakasih, malam

Selasa Kliwon itu, sambil

gemeletuk gigi Pakde karena

kedinginan, itu bukan karena

Pakde kepingin jadi Ratu

seperti raja ketoprak itu,

goblok!

O what a generation - look at

ye now! Married, with

children, descendants - and

as runny-nosed as any of 'em!

When your uncle goes 'a

dipping', as you call it,

Tuesday nights - and I mean

our, Javanese, Tuesday! -

when his teeth rattle in his

head because of the cold, it's

got nothing to do with sany

ambition to become Ratu:

dopes!

3. “Saya agak rikuh untuk matur

kepada Ibu.

I'm sorry to have to report it,

Bu, but the matter is

important.


151

Appendix 13. Compensation

No Domain SL TL

1. Material

culture

Rokok klobot, rokok daun

jagung kering, dihidangkan.

tobacco was passed around

and rolled in dry corn leaves,

..

2. Social

culture

para penari ledek, professionals of easy morals,

3. Pamong paraja among praja, para pemuka

agama dan kebatinan, serta

orang-orang Masyumi.

4. pesta tayub a party, and dancing girls

5. Nayub nayub take a round with them

6. mantri penjual candu He supervises the sale of

opium

7. Slametan to celebrate my name change

8. Menayub dengan penari

ledek

right among those floozies

9. Nenuwun Ask God for guidance

10. menyiapkan slametan bubur

merah

to make some rice porridge

with palm sugar and we will

have a propper little

selametan

11. kersaning Allah Allah has called for her

return.

12. Kamu boleh tinggal di sini

sampai slametan tiga hari

Embokmu.

you better stay here for three

days until they have the

selamatan meal for your

mother

13. kuwalat a Bless me. 'twould bring ruin

on our heads

14. diuwongake. by it we were being elevated

to the one level, his

15. Kebatinan followers of mystical

movements,

16. Mengintil followed on the heels of …

and then followed them back.

17. Mriyayeni noble lianaments ….the

visible features of class they

were destined to enter .

18. Ngabluk Can't be bothered to pay!

19. Wis, to. Kau panggil saya

sekarang dengan "romo" dan

kepada istri saya panggil dia

"ibu"

you can refer to me as

"Romo" and to my wife as

"Ibu" as we will thus be

termed father and mother by

you, …


152

20. Ndoro Hardojo kakung-putri Ndoro kakung Hardojo

brought his wife

21. Bapak Wedana the official I had met in

Wonogiri

22. Raden Mas by his title of Raden Mas,

expect that level of courtesies,

and it and they, I might tell

you, are not far lower than a

regents

23. Romo Seten Sunoko, and

Romo Jaksa:

, Romo Seten Sunoko, and

Romo Jaksa: those last two,

the old assistant distict chief

and prosecutor, long ago

retired and on their pension.

24. Batara Kresna, titisan Wisnu Lord Krishna , who also in

his popular incarnation was

dark, and indeed literary

whose name litterary meant

"Black" Krisna characterized

as Harimurti in the Javanese

pantheon was the avatar of

Visnu

25. "bagaimana pun panjang

lurung, lorong, masih lebih

panjang gurung, tenggorokan

However long the village

lane, malicious tongue are

longer.

26. Mikul duwur mendem jero I would uphold the name of

Sastrodarsono and strive to

inter any dishonor to it.

27. Oh, Nduuk, bejo

kemayangan, untung

mahabesar kamu, Nduuk,

ujarnya.

… told her excitedly that this

was the happiest news

possible, that she, her girl -

imagine!- was carrying the

seeds of priyayi.

28. Jangan keserimpet, terjerat

selendang putri Solo.

don’t trip now. Those shawls

the Solo girls wear, they're

the devil to get tangled up in

29. tangkas seperti Wara

Srikandi,

… a veritable goodes in

looks: Wara Srikandi, no less.

30. Hidup ini hanyalah untuk

mampir ngombe

… life was merely a

momentary stop on a long

journey, comparable to

calling in at a roadside tea-

stall, and we should give it to

more than casual attatention

that such a stop warranted …


153

Appendix 14. Ommission

No Domain SL TL

1. Organization,

Custum ,

Activities,

Procedure,

Concept

Sekolah ongko loro -

2. Gestrure mak cleng -

3. Krasan -

4. Guyub -

5. Jagong -

6. medok -

7. Anthroponym Ngger -

8. Jeng Sastro -

9. Embok Ngadinem -

10. Fictional

Character

Idiom

Prabu Arjuna Sasrabahu -

11. Prabu Suyudana -

12. Kerajaan Alengka -

13. Tumplek blek -


154

Appendix 15. Translation Technique

N

o Domain


TO

TA

L

Br

L

T

Ca

l

Am

p

Pr

t

Rd

c

Ad

p

E

q

Ge

n

L

D

Va

r Com

D

C

L

A

L

C

Mo

d

Su

b

Des

c

omi

t

Tra

ns

Ecology 1 1 4 5

material culture 5 1 12 7 8 1 31 65

social culture 2 1 1 2 3 1 5 7 1 17 40

Organization, Custom,

Activities,

Procedure, social

conception

4 2 2 16 4 6 5 1 7 1 49

Gesture and habit 1 2 1 5 5 26 40

Measurement

system

2 1

3

Anthrophonym 41 1 3 7 6 9 17 5 3 92

Dialect 6 1 20 4 3 6 40

fictional Character 23 8 1 1 2 35

Date 2 2 4

Idiom 1 2 3 1 1 3 11

Metaphor 6 4 3 1 14

Translation

technique Total 82 15 7 51 22 26 49 3 30 6 3 93 13 1 401

Ideology of

translation total 155 246


155

Appendix 16. Translation Strategies


156

Appendix 17. Interview to Vladislav Zhukov Result

List of Questions for the Study of Ideology of Translating in Javanese

Culture-specific Items in Para Priyayi and Javanese Gentry

Please answer these questions and type the answer in the answer column.

Translator’s Background

No Questions Answers

1. Where do you come from? Eastern (Russian-speaking) Ukraine

2. Where do you live? Mount Wilson, New South Wales,

Australia

3. What is your cultural

background? Western

4. What is your occupational

and educational background? I have had many varied occupations, the

military being my longest (ten years),

now am retired. I have a master’s

degree in Defense Studies

5. How long have you been

translating Indonesian –

English?

About two years

6. When and how did you study

Indonesian and Javanese

language?

The only Javanese I know is just those

elements that have found their way into

Bahasa Indonesia. I was introduced to

BI while serving in the New Zealand

Army in the 1970s; then picked up more

while travelling through your country in

the 1980s; then while doing a BA in

languages, which involved a fourth year

at Gadjah Mada U. It was during that

year (1992) that I came across Para

Priyayi.

7. Have you ever travelled to

Indonesia, especially Central

Java? How your travelling

experience help you to

translate Para Priyayi?

Yes, to both questions

8. When and how did you study

Indonesian colonialism

historical background? How

did the process of

understanding the history

help you to translate Para

Priyayi?

After leaving the army in the mid-’70s I

embarked on my first degree—Asian

Studies—which had a large component

of history, anthropology and sociology,

all very helpful in translating PP.

9. How did you study, gain

information, and understand

Javanese culture? How did

In the above degree, we had Indonesian

professors as well as others who had

lived in your country and were able to


157

the process help and

influence you in translating

Para Priyayi?

introduce the various Indonesian

culture to us. My own active experience,

while studying, travelling and living in

Java and many other parts of Indonesia,

helped.

10. In your point of view, how do

the expected target readers of

your translation work

perceive Indonesian and

Javanese culture?

Hopefully, they will find your country’s

various culture as attractive as I did,

and they will be enthused to learn more

about them from reading JG.

11. How is your own opinion

about Javanese culture? What

aspect do find interesting?

My lasting impression is of its

complexity and defensive conservatism,

for instance where language is

concerned. I find it interesting to

observe how your language and culture

will meet the inroads of a multicultural

world, the challenges presented by the

sciences and technological advances, the

incursions of modernity.

Translation Strategy and Techniques in Javanese Gentry

No Questions Answers

1. What are difficulties in

translating Para Priyayi?

Why? How did you

encounter them?

One difficulty is the family-based

structure into which every person in the

book is slotted, using family associated

pronouns etc.; and on top of that the

class-differentiating terminology. I

decided to largely retain the originals and

explain their use and significance by

providing a glossary and foreword.

2. In your opinion, what

aspect of Javanese culture

in Para Priyayi should be

preserved in Javanese

Gentry? Why?

Firstly, politeness within and between the

generations. Secondly, family solidarity.

These are fundamental in PP, and their

substance should be preserved in a

translation.

3. How do you maintain

Javanese cultural terms

from Para Priyayi in the

JG?

Apart from the cultural difficulty of

translating those terms (see above), there

is another good reason for keeping them

in their original form: they give the text a

measure of interesting ‘exoticism’.


Javanese cultural aspects

in PP are important to be

translated and what are

Everything that PP reveals of Javanese

culture is important and reinforces

knowledge of that culture. I don’t think

there can be any cultural aspects which

should be deemed unimportant in any


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not? Why? culture, even if they may sometimes be

perceived negatively from another

culture.

5. What did you do to help

the target readers to

understand the Javanese

culture embedded in the

source text?

Apart from the introductory comments to

the book noted above, I have tried

throughout the translation to infiltrate

unobtrusive but suggestive signals,

created ‘auras’, influenced my

vocabulary by whatever foreknowledge

I’ve had of the linguistic, historical,

anthropological and political context of

the original.

6. Why Javanese metaphor

and proverb were

translated using literal

translation technique?

I can’t recall an example, but if you are

asking when one should of should not use

a literal translation of folk wisdom, etc., I

reply, sometimes a literal translation is

incomprehensible, and so something

approximately similar has to be found in

the target language. At other times, the

literal translation makes a better impact

because it expresses something—some

truth or opinion—in an unusual way.

7. Why some Javanese terms

designating Javanese

wisdom or philosophy

(e.g.: Sangkan paraning

dumadi, melik gendong

lali,, hayuning memayu

buwana) were not

maintained but directly

described in target

language?

A translator has to help readers move

mentally into another culture, but there’s

a limit to the unfamiliar language and

ideas that readers will accept, unless they

happen to be specialists. JG is not a book

for specialists, nor is JJ.

8. Why some Javanese

fashion (e.g. kebaya and

beskap landung) were

translated by adapting the

target language culture?

Same reason. Readers who become

inspired by the translation can research

such technicalities themselves.

9. Why several dialogues in

the source text performing

kromo language was

translated into old use

English (e.g: niku

(kromo) is translated into

yon?

Yon is not a particularly archaic word,

but if it was, its use would take the reader

into another time-sphere than his own,

thus producing an effect analogous to that

of moving from one contemporary

cultural sphere to another. I have used

‘archaic’ language quite often in my other

translations (e.g. from Vietnamese) to try

to produce that effect.

10. Why several dialogue in Those words are rather more in the


159

ngoko language was

translated by adding

swear word (e.g: dammit

and bastard) to translate

dialogues using kowe or

ngoko Javanene

language?

nature of ‘strong language’ than swear

words and are often used for emphasis in

a range of moods, from mild irritation to

good natured humour. It would have been

helpful if you had provided the page

numbers where these expressions appear,

so that I could have checked the context.

Context is all-important!

11. Why Inggih expression

was borrowed into the

target text?

It’s a common expression of agreement in

JJ—Yes, sir! Certainly! —easily

assimilable by a foreign reader, and

provides some of that sprinkling of the

‘exotic’ which I noted above.

12. What Javanese cultural

aspects in Para Priyayi

are not in accordance to

your own belief/

ideology? Why? How do

you encounter that?

Translators should not obtrude their own

ideologies into their linguistic transfers.

Source culture and target culture are

already sufficiently complex without

intruding into the process of transfer the

translator’s own ideological standpoint.


Javanese cultural aspects

in Para Priyayi are not in

accordance to target

readers society’s belief/

ideology? Why? How do

you encounter that?

Arranged marriages by parents is one

example. But western readers understand

that it occurs in many parts of the world

(and centuries ago occurred in Europe

too), so that a translator can present the

reality of such things unmodified,

knowing that modern Western readers

will accept them in the spirit of long live

difference—it makes for an interesting

world!

14. Why borrowing technique

is not applied to all of

terms related to kinship

and proper name even

though glossary of socio-

familial/ age position/

addressee is provided?

Many such terms (tuan for example) have

entered English, which is a very actively

assimilating language, but there is a limit

to what can be expected a Western reader

will comfortably accept, given the

narrower linguistic limits of his familial

and social-class experience.

15. Why adipati in the

honorific title of

Mangkunegara was

translated into bupati?

Again, as an advanced student you should

always supply page numbers to you

queries. It’s a long time since I dealt with

JJ and gone on to other translations (see

Amazon.com Vladislav Zhukov).

16. Why Paklik and Bulik

was translated into Pak

and Bu?

Ditto.


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17. Why a note on spelling

and glossary of addressee

that is related to socio-

familial/ age position

were made in Javanese

Gentry? Why the notes

were put in the initial part

of the book or before the

story?

Once I understood how necessary a

glossary was for a proper appreciation of

the story, I felt it should appear near the

front of the book, so that readers were

immediately aware that they would be

presented with new terms and concepts

and know of the glossary’s function in

explaining those.

18. Why a glossary of

Javanese specific cultural

words was not composed?

The translation was done for a general

readership, visitors to Indonesia, people

broadly interested in your country, but

unlikely to want to delve into that sort of

distinction.

19. How do the publisher and

editor influence your

translation works?

They made some perfunctory changes in

spelling and pronunciation (not for the

best, in my opinion). They were

responsible for a major typographical

error in the heading of Chapter 4: ‘The

Hero Resolve’ should have read ‘The

Hero Resolves’; and they left out a whole

section dealing with Indonesian

acronyms, borrowings and abbreviations,

which meant the glossary was cut short

by about 50%. I subsequently corrected

all of that in a self-published edition,

which unfortunately is unavailable in

Indonesia.
