foreign policy- -·the individual 2003
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Foreign PolicyThe Individual Level
There are differencesbetween humanbeings rather than
similarities.
Not all humans havethe same nature.
Some humans areclearly more capablethan others.
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The Individual Level
The mind of a policy-
maker is not a tabula
rasait contains complex
and intricately related
information and thought
patterns, such as beliefs,
attitudes, values,
experience, emotions,
operational style, memoryand national self-
conceptions.
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The Individual Level
Differences in thepsychological make-up ofindividuals are importantto the understanding of
foreign policy.
Franklin Roosevelt,Winston Churchill,Ronald Reagan, Mikhael
Gorbachev, George BushSr., Josef Stalin, SaddamHussein, and GeorgeBush Jr., etc.
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Do Individuals matter? The individual
characteristics of thedecision-makersskills,personalities, beliefs,psychological
predisposition, values,talents, and priorexperiencesmatter inFP.
The premise that anindividual decision-makers attributes aresource of FP rests on thebelief that decision-makers possess unique
personal qualities that areconstant and stable.
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When do Individuals Matter?
-when the formal andconstitutional proceduresrequire so.
-when a leader ispermitted great latitudeand discretion to makedecision.
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The Individual
-when a leader has ahigh degree of interestin the issue and
decision.
-when only oneinstitution isresponsible for thedecision.
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When do individuals
-when the decision is notroutine orunanticipatedcrisis.
-when the information islacking or overwhelming.
-when the top decision-
maker has littleexperience.
-during stressfulsituations.
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Rational Actor Model
Decisions made by individual
leaders are seen as the decisions
of the state.
This is because leaders act in
the way consistent with the
long-terms and persistent
national interests of the state.
This is because culture andsocialization produce
regularities among the
individuals who rise to national
office eliminating individual
differences.
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Rational Actor Model
Decision-makers examine
the internal and external
environments.
Define the situation on
hand and consider
alternative course of
actions.
Select the course of action
best suited to the national
interests.
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Psychological Needs Theory
Psychological NeedsMaslows hierarchy of needs:1) physical; 2) safety needs; 3)affection and belongnessneeds;4) Esteem needs; 5) self-actualizationimplicationspeople with high self-esteemare more trusting and moreopposed to the use of force,while people with low-esteemare more likely to use force.Deprivation lead to power-oriented people who tend todominate others, to beargumentative, to be paranoid,to have very littlehumanitarian concern, and to
be hesitant to take risk.Kissingers analysis of Sovietleadership in the 60s andmainstream American analysisof revolutionary regimes
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Personality Traits
Personality Traitssomepersonality types havespecial relevance for thetopic of foreign policy:
dogmatic personality;authoritarian personality;extroverted versusintrovert personalities;risk acceptant versus risk
averse; and narcissisticpersonalities.
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James David Barbers Presidential
Style
Refers to the fourfoldcategorization for leadersusing the axelsActive-Passive/Negative-Positive.
The first axel taps into theleaders energy level andsense of satisfaction in his
job (Image of their jobdescription); the second
axel looks into hisdifficulty in effectingchange and lower level of
job satisfaction (level ofcommitment to their jobs).
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Presidential Characters: Active
Versus Passive Active Presidents are
movers and shakers,energetically engagedin the challenge ofleading, eagerlyattentive to the
responsibilities of theoffice, and willing toaccept risk;
Passive Presidentsrefer to steer an even
and face course,maintaining currentarrangements andavoiding conflicts thatinvariably accompanychanges.
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Presidential Characters:
Positive-Negative Positive presidents-
enjoy their jobs, thedemands that go withthem and the perks thatgo along with the
positions.
Negative presidentsdonot enjoy their positionsand look at withdisfavor on the burdenof responsibility. Theydutifully accept but donot enjoy the demandsthat go along with theposition.
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Presidential Types
Styles Active Passive
Positivewant to achieveresults and effectchanges.
want to remain inpower.
Negative want to beaccepted and areafter affection.
tend to bedemocratic andtend toemphasize civilvalues and
responsibilities.
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Presidential Types
Style Active Passive
Positive Not driven by twisted
and dark motives.Are willing to workand effectimprovements orchanges in thesystem.
Compelled to power
by deep-seatedfeelings ofinadequacy and fearof humiliation andostracism. They wantto be feared than
loved. They canbreak rules in orderto maintain power
Negative They take the mantleof power out ofobligation or duty,not of the desire forpower and control.
They focus on theissues of acceptanceand affiliation. Proneto graft andcorruption.
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ClassificationsStyles Positive Negative
Active FranklinRoosevelt,
John F. Kennedy;
George Bush;
Bill Clinton
Woodrow Wilson;
Lyndon Johnson;
Richard Nixon
Positive William Taft;Ronald Reagan
DwightEisenhower and
Calvin Colledge
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Cognition, Belief System, and
Misperception
Refers to the mental filtersthat help decision-makersdecide when sensoryinputs are worthy of more
detailed processing. Thesefilters might includestereotypes, biases, andheuristic--are all mentalshort-cuts that help the
mind decide which sensoryinputs should be focusedupon given the situation.
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Pyschohistory
Psychological problemsusually affect high governmentofficials and political leaderscases of Joseph Stalin,Woodrow Wilson, and RichardNixon.
Leaders, generally, haveneurotic personality. Thisrefers to people who possessedan idealized images ofthemselves as heroic figures.
They are supposed to intenseego defense mechanism. Theneed to protect ones self-esteem and defend againstanxiety caused by frustration.
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Stress
Ancient biological mechanismdeveloped to prepare humanbeings for stressful encountersmay actually distract humansfrom dealing with stressfulsituations.
Stress has some debilitatingeffects on the ability ofindividuals to react rationallyto their environment. Theymay also cause physical illnessand mental disorder todecision-makers. (Cases theBritish leadership during theSuez Canal Crisis and thecaptain of the Vincennes in
July 1988)
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What about misperception?
Human belief system or worldview affect how leaders makesense of the world and respondto world events: Sprout andSprout the psychological
milieu and the operationalmilieu; Alexander Georgesoperational code (philosophicaland instrumental code forunderstanding a leaders viewtoward politics) cognitive
consistency and cognitivedissonance; inherent bad faithmodel of politics; and evokesets and images of the lessonsof history.
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Misperception
Alexander Georges
Operational Codes for
Decision-makers
particular set ofbeliefs about
international affairs.
It affects the decision-
makers perceptionand responses to
international events.
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Motivational Factors for
MisperceptionAll human beings have thestrong needs to constructand maintain a highlyideological image ofourselves and our
environment.
Decision-makers strive forcognitive consistency andwill cling to their old imagesif there is limitedinformation or the situationis extremely complex.
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Misperception
In face of rapidlychanging environment,DM will: ignore or rejectnew information;
discredit the source ofnew information; twist ordistort the information;search for otherinformation that will
conform to the old image;or simply treat the newinformation as theexception which provesthe rule.
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National Self-Image or Conception?
Political leaders have some viewof their own states and theirplace in the world: These viewsinclude: 1)the other side hasmore hostile intention; 2)inaccurate perception of the
relative balance of powerbetween one-self and oneopposed; 3) perception that waris inevitable; 4) perception thatwar is relatively inexpensiveand short; misperceptions ofintentions of third states;misperception of oneself and theopponents image of oneself.
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Tit for Tat and Evoke Images
Perceptions or misperception
may intervene in the stimulus-
response process that can
either accelerate or decelerate
a crisis.
Certain events can affect how
we will interpret information
from environment by creating
predispositions to notice
certain things and ignore
others.
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Limits of the First Level Analysis
Any of these variables couldplay an important role in theFPP.
Decision-making is not always
an individual process, often itis a collective political process.
This ignores the dynamicfunction of the role sourcethe impact of the office andstatus on the behavior of its
occupant. Socially prescribedbehaviors and legallysanctioned norms attached tothe position also affectdecision-makers.