for the future of fire safety to save human life, asset, and memories. iyer.pdf · 2018-03-09 ·...

For the Future of Fire SafetyTo save Human Life, Asset, and Memories.

Fire Safety of Façade in High Rise Buildings.

FacadeFacade

What is façade ?

A façade is generally one side of the exterior of a building, especially the front, but also sometimes the sides and rear.

The word comes from the French language, literally

Nohmi Bosai (India) Pvt.

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The word comes from the French language, literally meaning "frontage" or "face".

Type of facadesType of facades

• Glazing

• Curtain Walling

• Point Support Glazing

• Spider Glazing

• Bolted Glazing

• Cladding - covering of one material with another

• Aluminium Composite Panel

• Metal Cladding

• Zinc Panel Cladding


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• Bolted Glazing

• Glazing on Tension Truss

• Glazing on Cable Truss

• Atrium

• Skylight , Canopies , Dome

• Shop Front / Display

• Doors & Windows

• Zinc Panel Cladding

• Stone Cladding

• Clay tile Cladding

• Wooden Panel Cladding

• Polycarbonate Panel

• GFRC Cladding

• FRP Cladding

Types of glazingTypes of glazing


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Curtain Wall

Sky LightStructural Glazing

Spider Glazing on Tension Rod

Skyscrapers on the riseSkyscrapers on the rise

• Per the standards of Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH)

• Skyscraper is a building which is 200 meters tall

• Supertall is a building taller than 300 meters (984 feet).


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• 2014 was a landmark year that saw the completion of a record 97 skyscrapers across the world.

• These skyscrapers were completed across 19 countries, mostly in Asia and the Middle East.

• These skyscrapers vary in size, function, and construction material, but they are all at least 200 meters (656 feet) tall.

Skyscrapers on the riseSkyscrapers on the rise

• Buildings are getting taller and being completed at a faster rate than ever before.

• China used a 3D printer to construct a 6 storey building, could go even higher.

• With buildings going higher, issue of safety becomes


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• With buildings going higher, issue of safety becomes even more pertinent. forms of egress are crucial to survive a high-rise fire.

What is a curtain wall?What is a curtain wall?

• A curtain wall cladding system is a continuous vertical "curtain" of glass, stone or other material that does not provide structural support, and is supported by the floor slab.

• It supports no load other than its own weight and the environmental forces which act upon


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environmental forces which act upon

• Curtain walls are a relatively complex combination of components that can include aluminum frames, vision glass, spandrel panels of glass, metal or stone, metal back pans, insulation, gaskets, sealants, and anchors or connectors of steel or aluminum.

3 ways for fire to spread from seemingly 3 ways for fire to spread from seemingly contained areas contained areas

APoke through effect- this is where flame and hot gases penetrate through

openings in fire-rated walls and floor/ceilings to ignite combustibles on the other side.

" Chimney effect- is where heated surfaces create thermal zones that include upward air movement, which in turn sucks hot gases and flames in its direction. This effect is attributed to the spread of fire upward through shafts, and also the spread of fire upward through available openings between the


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and also the spread of fire upward through available openings between the floor slab edge and the curtain wall.

" Leapfrog effect- this effect is apparent in mid- to high-rise building fires where flames blasting out through perimeter windows ultimately reach back in through the windows above and continue to spread vertically to upper floors.

Once the heat release rate of the fire is high enough, between 9 kW/m2 to 35 kW/m2 , the window of the room above the room of origin will fall out. This allows for the fire to reach combustibles in this room and possibly spread to higher floors.

Main risks in Perimeter jointsMain risks in Perimeter joints

You cannot see your hands 18 inches in front of you?


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Critical PartsCritical Parts


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What is perimeter fire barrier system ?What is perimeter fire barrier system ?

• Void space commonly appears between the floor system and the curtain wall assembly

• such void space conditions are sealed with a material or system to prevent the interior spread of fire from one to


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the interior spread of fire from one to the floor above. This requires some form of a joint system or what today are called “perimeter fire barrier systems.”

• The purpose of the Perimeter Fire Barrier System is to make sure that the safing slot remains sealed for the full duration of the floors rating and to maximize the performance of the non-rated wall..

3 mechanisms of fire spread 3 mechanisms of fire spread

The three principal mechanisms

Inside – Flames and fire gases in the building attack the interior surfaces and details of the curtain wall and associated perimeter fire barrier materials.

Outside – Flames and hot gases projecting from fire-broken glazing or other openings


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from fire-broken glazing or other openings directly impinge on the curtain wall exterior face (convection). Flame impingement on the architectural cladding system may ignite combustible components of the cladding system if not appropriately isolated/protected.

Outside – Flames projecting from fire-broken glazing or other openings radiate heat to and through glazed surfaces or through other openings to building contents and furnishings.

Flames emitting from an exterior window can extend higher than 5 mtr above the top of the window

Fire safety issue of CWFire safety issue of CW

• Given a fully developed fire exposure in a room or space (i.e. sprinkler system out of service or failure scenario) bordered by a building’s curtain wall system, the vision glass may fail. Once the failure occurs and flames extend to the exterior, the various curtain wall components and any perimeter fire barrier system are then subject to thermal forces and degradation that can result in fire spread to the floor above.


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spread to the floor above.

TWO paths:

1. spreading up the inside of the wall due to inadequate fire stopping at the floor-wall interface and

2. spreading up the exterior surface on combustible facing materials.

Fire safety issue of CW and code requirementsFire safety issue of CW and code requirements

CW Fire safety issue - fire spread up the building from floor to floor.

TWO paths:

1. spreading up the inside of the wall due to inadequate fire stopping at the floor-wall interface and



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Code Requirements

• Interior Fire SpreadThe basic requirement for controlling spread through the interior is that the opening where the floor meets the curtain wall must be sealed with a material or system with fire-resistance equal to that required for the floor.

• The primary evaluation method is an ASTM E2307 test.

CCode requirementsode requirements

• Exterior Fire Spread

To control fire spread up the exterior face of a curtain wall, the code

addresses two factors: fire separation distance as a function of ease of

ignition of the wall covering; and flame spread up the face from a fire

breaking out a window.

• Combustible exterior wall coverings are required to be tested for ignition

resistance per NFPA 268 .This test standard exposes a 4 ft. x 8 ft. (1.2 m x


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resistance per NFPA 268 .This test standard exposes a 4 ft. x 8 ft. (1.2 m x

2.4 m) test specimen to a 12.5 kW/m2 heat flux from a large (3 ft. x 3 ft. –

0.9 m x 0.9 m) radiant panel for 20 minutes to see if the material ignites. If

the material passes - i.e., does not ignite - it can be used on the face of a

building with a fire separation distance of 5 feet (1.5 m) or less.

• If it does ignite, the material can be tested at a reduced heat flux until a

passing level is determined. That heat flux level then determines how far the

fire separation distance must be.

• NFPA 285, "Standard Fire Test Method for Evaluation of Fire Propagation

Characteristics of Exterior Non-Load-Bearing Wall Assemblies Containing

Combustible Components,"

Testing Of Curtain Wall Systems:Testing Of Curtain Wall Systems:

3 Main Testing Standards:

• 1. ASTM E2307: “Standard Test Method for Determining Fire Resistance of Perimeter Fire Barriers Using Intermediate-Scale, Multi-Story Test Apparatus”

• Advantage of the two-story firestopping and flame spread tests is that they evaluate the materials and systems in a realistic


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that they evaluate the materials and systems in a realistic arrangement that, while more costly, provide much greater assurance of safer performance in the field.

• 2. EN 1364 – Part 3: “Fire resistance of curtain walling systems – full Configuration” – Fire Resistant Glazing

• 3. EN 1364 – Part 4: “Fire resistance of parts of curtain walling” – Non Fire Resistant Glazing

Key factors that impact the CW’s resistance to Key factors that impact the CW’s resistance to vertical fire spread vertical fire spread

• Factors that impact the curtain wall’s resistance to vertical fire spread

include:

• Full height or partial height (e.g. spandrel panel design) vision glass systems

• Nature of the glass used to construct glazing system

• Nature of the curtain wall components (e.g. framing, spandrel panels)

• Height of spandrel panels


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• Height of spandrel panels

• Vertical or horizontal projections on the exterior that may deflect or enhance

flame behavior

• Building geometry at curtain wall – twisted, staggered, sloped, etc.

• Operable windows/openings – size, vertical or horizontal orientation

• Ability of perimeter fire barrier system to remain in place during fire exposure

• Design characteristics of double-skinned facades

• Wind conditions

Risk Assessment Factors Risk Assessment Factors

Factors to consider in a risk assessment of fire spread at the building façade:

• Automatic Sprinkler Systems’ reliability

• Fire Department/Brigade response capabilities

• Building height


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• Building height

• Building occupancy considerations – e.g., office, residential, hospitals, mercantile

• Building compartmentation features

• Building evacuation strategies

• Fire hazard – fuel loads, continuity of combustibles, compartment sizes

• Security threat assessment scenarios

Curtain Walls & the Perimeter JointCurtain Walls & the Perimeter Joint

• Unsealed or Improperly sealed perimeter joints cost lives and huge liability losses…

• Summerland, Isle of Man, British Isles. Fire spread through safing slot. 50 people killed.

• Hilton Hotel, Las Vegas, NV. Fire spread from 8th to 13th floor in 25 minutes. 8 fatalities.


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minutes. 8 fatalities.

• First Interstate Bank, Los Angeles, CA. Flames spread from 13th to 16th

floor via perimeter joint. One death.

• One Meridian Plaza, Philadelphia, PA. Fire spread from 22nd to 30th floor through unprotected openings including slab edge.

• Cause for the spread of the fire in ALL of the above incidents _ IMPROPER SAFING OR LACK OF SAFING

“Towering infernos““Towering infernos“-- Torch Fire in Dubai Torch Fire in Dubai

• The Torch is a “super-tall” structure; an 86 story, 352 meter high tower in Dubai. When it opened in 2011, it was the tallest residential building in the world

• It is believed that the fire on February 21, 2015 which spread up 15 floors, did so vertically up the external aluminum


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vertically up the external aluminum composite wall cladding

• Burned external cladding on the corner of more than two dozen stories from roughly the 51st floor to the top of the Torch

• Experts believe the majority of Dubai’s approximately 250 high-rise buildings use cladding panels with a thermo-plastic core, which have been generally used for insulation, to improve rigidity and for cosmetic purposes .

Towering InfernosTowering Infernos

• One expert in the UAE has estimated that 70% of the high-rise buildings there have panel facade cladding made of a combustible thermoplastic core held between two sheets of aluminium.

• When the panel ignites, fire spreads rapidly, racing to the top of the building and sending flaming debris hurtling to the streets below. "Like a Roman candle" is how one observer described it.


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"Like a Roman candle" is how one observer described it.

• “At least 500 buildings in UAE cities are sheathed in the flammable panels. The facades are good-looking, long-lasting and easy to maintain, but they have one big problem - they burn rapidly," Thom Bohlen, of the Dubai-based Middle East Centre for Sustainable Development

• As with the Torch fire, fire at the Al-Hafeet Tower in Sharjah in April 2013 and the blaze which gutted the Tamweel Tower in Dubai November 2012 the flames roared up the sides of the building as individual panels ignited.

Balanced approach to fire protectionBalanced approach to fire protection

• Regardless of the reliability projections, the prospect for less-than-optimum sprinkler system performance in a structure without containment systems in place leaves the potential for disaster.

• Best construction design will call for a balance of active sprinkler systems,


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balance of active sprinkler systems, insulated containment systems and up-to-date detection systems that will alert both building occupants and first responders.

• Perimeter Fire Barrier systems protect against the passage of fire, hot gases and toxic smoke through the void between the floor slab edge and the curtain wall.

• ASTM E2307 Standard Test Method for Determining Fire Resistance of Perimeter Fire Barriers

• ASTM E2307 using the Intermediate- Scale, Multi-Story Test Apparatus (ISMA) is used to determine

• Two ratings are provided per the ASTM E2307 test:

• “F”-rating, in hours (resistance to fire spread)

• “T”-rating, in hours (temperature on non-fire side)

• UL provide two additional ratings using same test apparatus “integrity rating” & “insulation rating”


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“integrity rating” & “insulation rating”

• The INTEGRITY rating is comparable to the F rating in firestopping. This is the duration in hours that an assembly has been tested to resist the propagation of fire to the unexposed side.

• The INSULATION rating is comparable to the T rating in firestopping. This limits the temperature rise above the ambient starting point on the unexposed side of the joint to 325 degrees F. This is derived from ASTM E119 which is the test standard used to evaluate the fire resistance ratings of floors and walls themselves.

• Obviously, the fire cannot break through the upper story windows during the test. This would constitute a loss of compartmentation.

• The rating is established for the entire assembly including the floor, safing slot, and exterior wall system rather than just the safing slot alone.

ASTM E2307 _ Test AssemblyASTM E2307 _ Test Assembly


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How Are Perimeter Fire Barrier Systems Tested?How Are Perimeter Fire Barrier Systems Tested?

• Only two labs presently perform testing in accordance with newly developed test methods:

• Underwriters Laboratories Inc. – Northbrook, IL

• Omega Point Laboratories – Elmendorf, Texas

• UL & OPL Testing

• Perimeter joint curtain wall test is performed in accordance with ASTM E2307


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• Perimeter joint curtain wall test is performed in accordance with ASTM E2307

• Other labs, testing per UL 2079 alone, do not adequately capture the dynamics between a rated floor and a non-rated curtain wall assembly, the structural nature of curtain walls, and fire attacking at two planes

• CW systems are specific perimeter tests between a rated floor and non-ratedcurtain wall using the Intermediate Scale Multi-story Apparatus (ISMA) per ASTM E2307.

• ASTM E2307 evaluates the interior passage of fire and hot gases through the perimeter joint only. Increasing the spandrel height reduces the likelihood of the leap frog effect.

Elements of the CW systemElements of the CW system


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Elements of the Perimeter Fire safety systemElements of the Perimeter Fire safety system

1. Provide Backing/Reinforcement Member at Safing Line

2. Mechanically Attached Curtain Wall Insulation (hangers, clips, impaling pins,weld pins)

3. Compression-fit Safing Insulation -


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3. Compression-fit Safing Insulation -as required per tested assembly

• Install Safing Impaling Clips - as required per tested assembly

4. Protect Aluminum Mullions

5. For “Smoke Containment” - Add Firestop Coating (goes over the safing insulation and all abutments between the safing insulation and adjacent components)

Smoke Smoke –– major cause of deathsmajor cause of deaths

75% of fire related deaths are caused by smoke inhalation


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For smoke containment and For smoke containment and firestopfirestop coatingcoating

• Role of the Firestop coating

1. Smoke seal.

2. Seals off the path of hot


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2. Seals off the path of hot gasses. Makes the safingmore effective.

3. “Glues” everything together


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Requirements for Fire Protection _CCPSRequirements for Fire Protection _CCPS

The Confederation of Construction Products and Services is a non-profit organization which is dedicated to the sustainable growth of construction products sector by working collectively to improve quality and efficiency in building industry in India.

Fireman knock-out/openable glazing panels

• Glazing panels required for venting and emergency access from the exterior.

• Knock-out panels are generally fully tempered glass to allow full fracturing of


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• Knock-out panels are generally fully tempered glass to allow full fracturing of the panel into small pieces and relatively safe removal from the opening.

• Knock-out panels are identified by a non-removable reflective dot (typically two inches in diameter) located in the lower corner of the glass and visible from the ground by the fire department.

Egress window

• Window designed to be large enough for a fire fighter to climb in or a person to climb out in an emergency.

• Building codes often require each bedroom of a home to have an emergency exit window, with minimum sizes specified. Generally requires 20" width and 24" height opening and 5.7 sq. ft. opening.

Requirements for Fire Protection _ CCPSRequirements for Fire Protection _ CCPS

The Confederation of Construction Products and Services is a non-profit organization which is dedicated to the sustainable growth of construction products sector by working collectively to improve quality and efficiency in building industry in India.

Perimeter Protection

• A curtain wall by its very nature does not provide compartmentation

• The use of fire sprinklers has been shown to mitigate this matter. Unless the building is sprinkled, fire may still travel up, if the glass on the exposed floor is


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building is sprinkled, fire may still travel up, if the glass on the exposed floor is shattered due to fire influence, causing flames to lick up the outside of the building

• Fire rated assemblies may be required in unsprinklered buildings. The ratings of the Perimeter Fire Containment System must be equal to or greater than the floor rating

Protection against Fire Leaping

• Spandrels to be provided with insulation or / and projections to be provided

• Distance between external wall and glass façade shall not be more than 300 mm

Protection against falling glass

• Safety Glass - tempered / toughened glass & laminated Glass is also a solution

NBC (2005) Part 4NBC (2005) Part 4

3.4.19 Glass of façade for high rise buildings, etc shall be of minimum 2h fire resistance rating.

Glass façade to any building shall comply with following:

i) There shall be openable windows having area of minimum 10% of total façade area on every floor.

ii) The distance between the building line and facade shall not be more than 1.5 mtrs.


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mtrs.

iii) If facade is provided away from the building line, the vertical barrier between building wall and façade shall be provided after interval of 10 mtrs / three floors, in the form of non combustible dampers having minimum 2 hrs. fire rating. These shall be either on fusible link or of permanent type with perforations coated with luminescent paint.

iv) The glazing used for the façade shall be of toughened glass type or of the material having integrity characteristics and low smoke hazard.

v) Automatic wall drenchers shall be provided on the face of the façade at the interval of 10 mtrs. vertically.

Perimeter fire incidents in MumbaiPerimeter fire incidents in Mumbai

Fire in 2012 at First International Financial Centre, Bandra-KurlaComplex, glass structure made operations a mammoth task,

Fire on 6th June 2013 at IBL House in Andheri, trapped over 30 people, and killed 4 in the incident


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killed 4 in the incident

Fire on July 18 ,2014 at Andheri's Lotus

Business Park, a 22-storey glass façade

structure

Four bank staffers died of suffocation by

the time firemen could break open the

glass façade to enter the building. A

fireman turned martyr, while 20 others

received injuries.

Mumbai Fire regulationsMumbai Fire regulations

• A window-like opening on each floor of glass-façade buildings is mandatory as access points for rescue workers. The opening should be at least 1.5 metre wide and 1.5 metre high. On each floor, such windows should be created at a distance of 15 metre.

• These outlets are mandatory and must be provided every 50 feet. They should be openable both ways, so that those trapped can open them from inside, and rescue workers can open them from outside to climb in. The openings must have 'Emergency exit' labels, which will help save time as fire-


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openings must have 'Emergency exit' labels, which will help save time as fire-fighters will not have to hunt for access points.

The window should be positioned such that it is overlooks an access road. This will allow easy access to the ladder in case a fire breaks out an upper floor.

• The window should have manual opening mechanism from not just from inside outside as well.

• To restrict spread of fire, there must be an automatic water curtain system on each floor

• Each ceiling must have a pop-up vent, which can be easily reached from the floor, to be integrated with the smoke detection system

Mumbai Fire regulationsMumbai Fire regulations

• The window should have manual opening mechanism from not just from inside outside as well.

• The glass panel should swing open horizontally — left to right or vice versa – instead of opening vertically like, for instance, the boot of a car

• The distance between a building’s glass exterior and the inner brick periphery wall should not be more than 300mm.


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periphery wall should not be more than 300mm.

• Smoke barriers should be placed on each floor. This will prevent the smoke from billowing onto either the higher or lower floors. The smoke barriers should be of non-combustible material.

• The glass material should be such that it can withstand and resist a fire for at least an hour.

• Coating of any film made of plastic or any combustible material shall not be allowed on either the internal or external wall of the glass façade and must be designed to resist fire for at least 2 hours

BIS codeBIS code

• Panels on Use of Glass in Buildings P1 & P2: ‘Use of Glass in Buildings’ and ‘Glazing System’ under CED 13

• IS 16231 (Pt. 4) 2014 – “Code of Practice for Use of Glass in Buildings Part 4: Safety Related to Human Impact” is based and derived from CCPS Guidelines


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Window sprinklerWindow sprinkler

“Specific Application” Listing to Maintain the rating of Walls Incorporating Glazing Assemblies

Evaluated and listed for performance under the following conditions:

• Fire tests related to the intended hazard

• Distribution of the spray pattern with respect to wetting of floors


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• Distribution of the spray pattern with respect to wetting of floors and walls

• Distribution of the spray pattern with respect to obstructions

• Evaluation of the thermal sensitivity of the sprinkler

• Performance under horizontal or sloped ceilings

• Area of design

Why a Window Sprinkler?Why a Window Sprinkler?

• Distribution from Standard Spray Sprinklers does not efficiently cover a glazing assembly

• Original Testing conducted in Canada by Gem & RJA. Not Specifically Listed. Used By Variance. Both the


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Listed. Used By Variance. Both the AHJ & specifying engineer assumed liability/responsibility for its use

The TFBP Model WS Specific Application Window The TFBP Model WS Specific Application Window SprinklerSprinkler

• These sprinklers are the first sprinklers ever to be specifically Listed to provide protection for heat strengthened or tempered glass windows using automatic sprinklers.


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sprinklers.

• These sprinklers are also recognized by ICC-ES, & ULC as providing a two-hour equivalency for a fire separation assembly

The Window Sprinkler ComponentsThe Window Sprinkler Components

�Two Types –

Horizontal Sidewall

Pendant Vertical Sidewall

�155 F and 200 F


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�155 F and 200 F

�5.6 K-Factor

�Fast Response

�Brass, Chrome or White

Window sprinklerWindow sprinkler

• Specific Application Sprinkler

• Use the Literature for Guidelines


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• Very Specific Rules for Installation

• Reviewed by all Approval Agencies

Area of UseArea of Use

• When acceptable to the Authority

Having Jurisdiction the Model WS

Specific Application Window

Sprinklers may be used in either a

sprinklered or un-sprinklered

building to protect non-operable

Interior Fire Separation


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building to protect non-operable

window openings that are part of a

fire separation

Exterior Spatial Separation

(Sprinklers Inside)

• Exterior Spatial Separation

• (Sprinklers Outside)

Type of Glass & Window frame/mullion Type of Glass & Window frame/mullion

• Single-glazed (Single Pane), Double-glazed (Double Pane ) or Insulated, Non-operable Heat-strengthened, Tempered, or stronger glass window assemblies where each individual pane is a minimum 1/4" (6 mm) thick.

• Noncombustible Frame with a standard EPDM rubber gasket seal. Vertical joints of glass panes must be


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gasket seal. Vertical joints of glass panes must be connected by butt-joints sealed with a silicone sealant between the individual panes or by Noncombustible Mullions

WS spacingWS spacing


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Mounting details of WSMounting details of WS


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Listings & ApprovalsListings & Approvals

• UL & C-UL Listed

• ULC – Underwriters Laboratories Of Canada

• BMEC - Building Material Evaluation Commission

• ICC Evaluation Service – ICC-ES Legacy Report NER-516


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• New York City Approval

• Witnessed by Factory Mutual-Report Available

TestingTesting

• Same temperatures as ASTM/UL E-119 and CAN/ULC-S101-M89 ( for 2 hours)

• In accordance with CCMC’s Technical Guide for Sprinkler Protected Glazing Systems

• Tested with Butt Joints and Mullions


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• Passed the Hose Stream Test ANSI/UL 10B

• No cracking or physical damage to window

Testing OverviewTesting Overview

• Calibration Test

• Same temperatures as ASTM/UL E-119 and CAN/ULC-S101-M89

• Five Tests with Window Sprinklers

• Various Assembly Types

• Various Sprinkler Locations


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• Various Sprinkler Locations

• Fire Test then Hose Stream Test

• Small Fire Scenario - 40 kW

NRC Conclusions on WSNRC Conclusions on WS

NRC reports conclude that:

1. Glazed assemblies protected by sprinklers, as described, will withstand a f ire exposure equivalent to that provided by the standard exposure; at least 2 h for single-glazed assemblies and at least 90 min for double-glazed assemblies.

2. When sprinklers are installed on the fire-exposed side, both quick response and standard sprinklers respond in sufficient time to prevent tempered glass from breaking.


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from breaking.

3. Minimum sprinkler water flow rates to prevent dry spots on the glass appear to be 70 to 90 L/min/m width, but lower flow rates may provide sufficient protection. Window height may play a role in minimum flow rates.

4. Tempered-glass assemblies with areas greater than five times and dimensions greater than 1.8 times those specified for wired glass in the National Building

5. Code of Canada are able to withstand the standard fire exposure for at least 2 h if sprinklers are located on the fire-exposed side.

6. Radiated heat flux levels on the unexposed side are reduced by more than 90% by the window sprinkler systems used in these tests.

Window Sprinklers ConclusionWindow Sprinklers Conclusion

• Successful Fire Test Results

• A Listed Option to Protect a Window in a Rated Assembly

• Installation Must Follow Specific Design Guidelines

• Allows Windows Previously Difficult to Protect


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Nohmi Bosai architects shape to the “Future of Fire Safety”

Thank you.

for the future of fire safety to save human life, asset, and memories. iyer.pdf · 2018-03-09 ·...

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