For a landscape of many ecosystems to perpetuate over time, there must be a diversity of species within each ecosystem, a diversity of ecosystems, and a diversity of successional stages within each ecosystem type

Alpha diversity: many different species within an ecosystem type

Beta diversity: the difference in species composition among ecosystems

Gamma diversity: the total diversity of organisms over a landscape of ecosystems

BIODIVERSITY = biological diversity

Congress: "..refers to the variety and variability among living organisms and the eco-logical complexes in which they occur."

The Wildlife Society: "..the variety of life and processes that link plants, animals, soil, air, and water into ecological systems."

Types of Biodiversity: (a matter of scale)

Genetic - each individual organism is unique; a varied genetic base provides a hedge against an unknown future; allows species to adapt through natural selection

Species - each is an important link in the web of life; enhances our survival and adds to stability of individual ecosystems.

Ecosystem - a marsh, a stream, an bottomland forest, an upland forest within a limited geographic area

Landscape - grassland, forest, desert, scattered over a large geographic area

Protecting Biodiversity - what difference does it make?

The field of Conservation Biology deals with this question and ways of preserving diversity

Ecosystem integrity = completeness

Biodiversity = foundation of ecosystems

Eliminating a species damages an ecosystem in ways we probably do not understand.

What is the earths species diversity?

About 2 million species identified:

- 1.5 million insects

- 0.5 million plants

- only a few thousand birds and mammals

How many not yet identified?

- 5 million? 50 million?

By preserving ECOSYSTEMS, we can preserve species diversity without knowing what species are present!

Although most species yet to be discovered are bugs, some are not!

New genus of rat found in the Andes Mountains in 2000

One-half of world's prescription and non-prescription drugs have active ingredients extracted from wild organisms.

One-fourth of these are from tropical forest plants.

Drug industry is billions of $$ in economy

penicillin = from fungus / tetracycline = from bacteria

anti-biotic from the African Clawed Frog

• new birth-control pill from Mexican wild yam

• Endangered species of primrose has chemical that may help treat multiple sclerosis

• many others known or yet to be discovered

Extinction: a natural process in evolution where certain kinds of animals die out and other better-adapted species take their place

How many species have become extinct?

99% of all species that ever existed are now extinct!

Fact: all species will eventually become extinct!

What is a SPECIES?

all organisms of the same kind

organisms that freely interbreed

(for sexually-reproducing species)

What is a subspecies??

What is a population??

Can look at DNA to find level of similarity

Diversity is the most important point, not whether it deserves a special name from man

Extinct species - species that no longer exists (due to inability to adapt to changes in its environment)

e.g., dinosaurs (why?)

e.g., passenger pigeon (why?)

logging, disease, 1 egg/female, persecution, last one in 1914

Endangered Species - insufficient #'s left to assure perpetuation of the species (will decline to extinction unless something is changed)

Threatened Species - expect to be endangered

Who decides what species are endangered?

May be international, national or state government, or private organization:

IUCN - International Union for Conservation of Nature: lists about 5,000 species in "Red book"

CITES - Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species (1975): now 120 nations list and protect through treaties endangered (675), threatened, or species of special concern (27,000, mostly plants) due to trade of plants, animals, or their parts.

USDI - U.S. Department of Interior lists over 1,000 species, of which about half are U.S. species

Endangered Species – who decides, cont.

States - many individual U.S. states list species that may be of more-local concern (these species may or may not be on the federal list); Kentucky, no official state list

Private organizations - e.g., over 3,000 plant species in U.S. have been identified as endangered; < 200 are federally protected.

U.S. Laws on Endangered Species

1966 - Endangered Species Preservation Act

First legislation; called for keeping list, research, and acquisition of habitat

1969 - Expanded to include some invertebrates

1973 - Expanded to include all kinds of plants and animals except insect pests

includes "subspecies" (e.g., eastern Mt. lion, N. spotted owl, southern bald eagle)

1978 - Amended to protect critical habitat

• Today the Endangered Species Act:– prohibits killing of listed species– prohibits sale, import/export of whole

animal/plant or any part– protects habitat from destruction

• No public money can be used to destroy habitat

• Exempt:– Little Tennessee River (Tellico) Dam)

• snail darter

Also Exempt:

Logging in Pacific Northwest

N. spotted owl, marbled murrelet

CAUSES OF EXTINCTION:

1. Restricted range or habitat (narrow niche)

Kirtland’s warbler

- only exist in an 85X100 mi. Area in Michigan and other isolated sites

- “pine barren” habitat of 6-15 year-old trees (5-20 ft. Tall)

- about 500 left in the world

2. Slow population growth rate (low reproduction)

California condor

S 1 egg every 2 years so only about a dozen eggs produced per year in entire world

S researcher dropped an egg

3. Interbreeding with more successful species

red wolf/coyote or black duck/mallard

S “swamping of genes

4. Non-adaptive behavior

Carolina parakeet

S extinct in 1914

S flock around dying bird

5. Specialized diet (narrow niche)

Koala

S eats eucalyptus leaves only

S hunted for fur; can’t hide in eucalyptus forest

S now only in a few protected forests

6. Pet trade

Puerto Rican Parrot, etc.

S now bred in captivity

7. Introduction of exotic species

Rats introduced to islands

S kill off many species of birds

S mongoose introduced to kill rats in Puerto Rico

S rats nocturnal, mongoose diurnal

8. Open trade

Elephant (ivory)

Alligator (skin)

Tortoise (shell)

Spotted cats (fur)

various birds (plumes)

9. Pesticides

Peregrine falcon - DDT

Osprey - DDT

Bald eagle - DDT