food technologykaraali/ftechlec1.pdf · the non-oil bearing by products and wastes (i.e. the...
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1
FOO
D T
ECH
NO
LOGY
2
Raw
Mat
eria
lsO
ilbe
arin
gm
ater
ials
used
as ra
wm
ater
ials
in fa
tsan
doi
lsm
anuf
actu
ring
may
be o
f eith
erpl
anto
rani
mal
orig
in.
3
Plan
tsus
edto
prod
uce
edib
lepr
oduc
ts:
Soy
bean
, co
tton
seed
, su
nflowe
rse
ed,
saff
lowe
rse
ed, co
rnge
rm, pe
anut
, olive,
rice
bran
, ra
pese
ed,
cano
la,
coco
nut,
palm
fruit,
and
caro
b.
Plan
tso
urce
sfo
rind.
oils
:Fl
ax(li
nsee
d), ca
stor
bean
, tu
ngnu
t, a
ndjo
joba
seed
.
Animal
sour
ces
and
anim
alfa
tpr
oduc
ts:
Catt
le,
shee
p, p
igs,
fish
Butt
er, lard
, ta
llow,
wha
leoilan
dfish
oil.
4
InTU
RKEY
,
Mai
nra
wm
ater
ials
used
for
oilm
anuf
actu
ring
proc
ess
are:
Cott
onse
ed, s
unfl
ower
seed
, and
oliv
e.
5
Chem
istr
y
6
7
8
OIL
and
FAT
PR
OC
ES
SIN
GIn
gene
ral,
oilb
earin
gm
ater
ials
are
proc
esse
das
follo
ws:
Oil
is fi
rstr
emov
edfro
mth
era
wm
ater
iala
ndth
ere
sulti
ngoi
lis
proc
esse
din
toei
ther
edib
leor
ined
ible
prod
ucts
.Th
eno
n-oi
lbea
ring
bypr
oduc
tsan
dw
aste
s(i.
e. th
eoi
lsee
dca
ke, s
oaps
tock
) are
also
proc
esse
dto
mak
ea
varie
tyof
edi
ble
and
ined
ible
prod
ucts
.
OIL
SEED
PRO
CESS
ING
Seed
Clea
ning
Brea
king
of k
erne
ls
Rem
oval
of h
usks
Hus
ksby
-pr
oduc
twa
ste
Inne
rke
rnel
s
Flak
ing
For
impr
ovin
gth
eef
fici
ency
of
extr
acti
onRo
asti
ng11
0°C
for
90 m
in
Pres
sing
OIL
SEED
PRO
CESS
ING
Crud
eoi
lPr
ess
cake
(4-5
% o
il)
Extr
acto
r
Extr
acti
onca
ke-
< 1%
oil
Tofe
edm
anuf
actu
rere
s
Crud
eoi
l
Refi
ning
Solven
t
(hex
ane)
Crud
eoi
lnee
dsre
fini
ng, t
hey
cont
ain
impu
riti
es(o
ff-f
lavo
rs,
waxe
s, g
ums,
dar
kpi
gmen
ts).
Prep
arat
ion
of R
awM
ater
ials
-Cl
eani
ng All
good
pre
para
tion
proc
esse
s st
art w
ith
clea
ning
. Cle
anin
g is
impo
rtant
not
onl
y to
en
sure
the
good
qua
lity
of th
e fin
al p
rodu
cts-
mea
l and
oil-
but a
lso
to a
void
pre
mat
ure
wea
r of t
he p
repa
ratio
n eq
uipm
ent.
Cle
anin
g us
es a
com
bina
tion
of s
cree
ning
, air
aspi
ratio
nan
d, w
hen
nece
ssar
y, o
ther
m
etho
ds, t
o se
para
te p
ods,
fine
s, s
tone
s,
sand
, met
al, e
tc.,
from
the
prod
uct.
Deh
ullin
gD
ehul
ling
(dec
ortic
atin
g), o
r par
tial d
ehul
ling,
is
an
addi
tiona
l and
som
etim
es a
com
plex
pr
oces
s. It
s pu
rpos
e is
to in
crea
se th
e pr
otei
n co
nten
t and
redu
ce th
e fib
reco
nten
t of t
he
extra
cted
see
dca
ke(a
lso
calle
dm
eal).
S
unflo
wer
and
soy
aar
e ty
pica
l see
ds fo
r de
hulli
ng. I
n th
e ca
se o
f cot
tons
eed,
par
tial
delin
ting
and
dehu
lling
at le
ast,
is re
quire
d by
th
e pr
oces
s. R
ape
or c
anol
a se
ed is
alm
ost
neve
r deh
ulle
d.
13
Deh
ullin
gH
ulls
are
ligh
ter t
han
the
kern
el o
r mea
t. D
ehul
ling
is g
ener
ally
a s
ucce
ssio
n of
uni
t op
erat
ions
: im
pact
ing
or c
rack
ing,
scr
eeni
ng,
and
grav
ity s
epar
atio
n th
roug
h m
ultip
le
aspi
rato
rs. A
ims:
To
enha
nce
the
prot
ein
and
fibre
leve
ls o
f the
mea
l, an
d fo
r red
ucin
g th
e am
ount
of o
il lo
st w
ith th
e hu
lls.
The
hulls
are
gen
eral
ly s
old
as fi
bre
com
plem
ent,
to fe
ed c
attle
, or b
urnt
as
fuel
.
14
Crac
king
Seed
s ar
e cr
acke
d to
redu
ce th
e pa
rtic
le s
ize
to e
nsur
e un
iform
coo
king
. C
rack
ing
is a
chie
ved
on c
orru
gate
d ro
ll st
ands
. Cra
ckin
g m
ills
with
one
or t
wo
pairs
of
rolls
are
use
d.
Ham
mer
mill
sar
e us
ed fo
r cer
tain
raw
m
ater
ials
like
pal
m k
erne
l.
15
Cook
ing-
Cond
ition
ing
Dur
ing
cook
ing,
the
seed
s ar
e he
ated
and
con
ditio
ned
to
a de
sire
d m
oist
ure
leve
l. Th
e m
ain
obje
ctiv
es o
f the
pr
oces
s ar
e:1.
Giv
e pl
astic
ity to
the
seed
s or
mea
ts.
2. D
ecre
ase
the
visc
osity
of t
he o
il.3.
Coa
gula
te th
e pr
otei
ns.
4. S
teril
ise
the
seed
s.5.
Det
oxify
cer
tain
und
esira
ble
seed
con
stitu
ents
.
Mul
ti-st
age
vert
ical
sta
ck c
ooke
rsor
larg
e, s
ingl
est
age,
ro
tary
hor
izon
tal c
ondi
tione
rs a
re u
sed
in in
dust
ry. T
he
seed
is u
sual
ly h
eate
d to
90-
110°
C fo
r pre
ssin
g or
65-
72°C
for d
irect
ext
ract
ion.
16
Flak
ing
All
seed
s m
ust b
e fla
ked.
Oil
extra
ctio
n is
ai
ded
by p
assi
ng th
e se
ed b
etw
een
larg
e di
amet
er s
moo
th ro
lls to
pro
duce
flak
es o
f, ty
pica
lly, 0
.3 to
0.4
mm
thic
knes
s. T
he fl
akes
are
pr
oduc
ed b
y fri
ctio
n be
twee
n th
e ro
lls th
at tu
rn
at d
iffer
ent s
peed
s.
17
Oil
Extr
actio
n
Sol
vent
ext
ract
ion
is a
hig
h te
chno
logy
pro
cess
th
at h
as to
be
carr
ied
out a
t com
para
tivel
y la
rge
scal
e. E
ssen
tially
the
proc
ess
is o
ne o
f co
ntin
uous
cou
nter
curr
ent e
xtra
ctio
nw
ith th
e ra
w m
ater
ial f
low
ing
in o
ne d
irect
ion
agai
nst a
so
lven
t; us
ually
hex
ane.
A
fter o
il ex
tract
ion
the
solv
ent p
asse
s to
a
reco
very
plan
t whe
re th
e so
lven
t is
strip
ped
off
unde
r vac
uum
. The
cru
de o
il th
en p
asse
s on
for
refin
ing.
18
Oil
Extr
actio
n
Inm
echa
nica
lext
ract
ion,
hyd
raul
icpr
esse
sar
eus
edan
din
the
pres
s, fl
akes
pass
betw
een
a sp
ecia
llyde
sign
edsc
rew
and
a ca
gew
hich
is
lined
with
stee
lscr
een
bars
spac
eda
fract
ion
of
an in
chpa
rt. S
crew
pres
ses
are
also
avai
labl
ein
sev
eral
conf
igur
atio
ns.
19
Soyb
ean
Prep
arat
ion
Con
vent
iona
lPre
para
tion
Syst
em fo
r So
ybea
ns
(Sou
rce:
Moo
re 1
983)
20
REF
ININ
G
Crud
eoi
lsas
rec
eive
dfr
omth
eex
trac
tion
plan
tor
rend
erin
gpl
ant,
co
ntai
nse
vera
lnon
-trig
lyce
ride
com
pone
nts
whi
chm
ust
be
rem
oved
. Ref
inin
gco
nsis
tsof
se
vera
lpr
oces
ses
whi
chac
com
plis
hth
isai
m.
REFI
NIN
G CR
UD
E O
ILS
Crud
epr
esse
dan
dex
trac
ted
oils
Deg
umm
ing
Wat
erGu
ms
are
hydr
ated
, se
ttle
in lo
wer
leve
l, se
pera
ted
phys
ical
ly.
Neu
tral
izat
ion
NaO
H(2
0%
solu
tion
)“S
oaps
tock
” so
ldto
soap
man
ufac
ture
rs
Blea
chin
gBl
each
ing
eart
hGe
ttin
gri
dof
dar
kco
lore
dpi
gmen
ts
Win
teri
zati
onRe
mov
elo
wer
mel
ting
poin
tfr
acti
ons
(use
din
m
arga
rine
pro
duct
ion)
. W
axes
are
rem
oved
. Co
olin
gto
~5°C
and
cent
rifu
ging
.
REFI
NIN
G CR
UD
E O
ILS
Deo
dori
zati
on
Refi
ned
oil
Hig
hte
mpe
ratu
re18
5-20
0°C,
low
pres
sure
stea
mdi
still
atio
npr
oces
sre
mov
ing
unde
sire
dof
f-fl
avor
com
pone
nts
(ald
ehyd
es, k
eton
es)
stea
m
Neu
tral
ized
, ble
ache
dan
dde
odor
ized
(nbd
) so
ldto
mar
gari
ne
prod
ucer
s
“liqu
idsa
lad
oils
”
23
Deg
umm
ing
Gum
s in
veg
etab
le o
il ne
ed to
be
rem
oved
to
avoi
d co
lour
and
tast
ere
vers
ion
durin
g su
bseq
uent
refin
ing
step
s.
Deg
umm
ing
is t
here
mov
alof
pho
spha
tides
from
the
oils
. Som
eph
osph
atid
esca
n be
re
mov
edby
wat
er-d
egum
min
g, “
non-
hydr
atab
leph
ospa
tides
” re
guire
a ch
emic
alde
gum
min
gpr
oces
sfo
rth
eir
rem
oval
.
24
Deg
umm
ing
The
tota
l deg
umm
ing
proc
ess
invo
lves
disp
ersi
nga
non-
toxi
cac
idsu
chas
ph
osph
oric
acid
into
the
oil,
allo
win
ga
cont
act
time
and
subs
eque
ntly
, th
eoi
lis
pas
sed
toa
cent
rifug
alse
para
tor
tore
mov
egu
ms
(Phy
sica
lref
inin
g).
25
PHYS
ICAL
REF
ININ
G
Phys
ical
refin
ing
is b
asic
ally
an a
cid
pret
reat
men
t(u
sual
ly0.
05 t
o0.
2% o
f ph
osph
oric
acid
adde
dan
dw
ellm
ixed
at a
bout
100C
), f
ollo
wed
imm
edia
tely
byhe
avy
conv
entio
nala
dsor
ptiv
ebl
each
ing
usin
gup
to2-
3% c
lay.
26Ph
ysical R
efining
28
Neu
tral
izat
ion
Man
y cr
ude
oils
con
tain
free
fatty
aci
ds (F
FA)w
hich
im
part
unp
leas
ant o
dour
san
d fla
vour
s. T
he F
FA's
are
neut
ralis
edby
trea
ting
the
oil w
ith a
car
eful
ly c
ontr
olle
d qu
antit
y of
cau
stic
sod
a so
lutio
n. In
larg
er o
il re
finer
ies
the
caus
tic s
oda
was
hes
are
sold
on
for s
oap
man
ufac
ture
and
are
know
n as
soa
p st
ock.
Neu
tral
isat
ion
also
resu
lts in
rem
oval
of p
hosp
hatid
es,
rem
oval
of f
ree
fatty
aci
ds a
nd re
mov
al o
f col
our
bodi
es. R
emov
al o
f tra
ces
of s
oap
and
moi
stur
e oc
curs
in
the
was
hing
and
dry
ing
step
s.Th
e ne
utra
lisat
ion
proc
ess
cons
ists
of c
aust
ic re
finin
g an
dre
-ref
inin
g (w
here
ver r
equi
red)
firs
t wat
er w
ashi
ng,
seco
nd w
ater
was
hing
and
vac
uum
dry
ing.
29
“CH
EMIC
AL R
EFIN
ING
” N
EUTR
ALIS
ATIO
N”
Chem
ical
(Alk
ali)
refin
ing
wor
kson
alm
ost
all
the
unde
sira
ble,
non
-trig
lyce
ride
com
pone
nts
Alka
li re
finin
gpr
oces
sco
nsis
tsof
:-M
ixin
gof
an
aque
ous
caus
ticph
ase
into
the
oil
phas
eto
prod
uce
soap
, -D
evel
opm
ent
of t
heaq
ueou
sph
ase
(soa
p) f
rom
the
oil
-Sep
arat
ion
of t
heaq
ueou
sph
ase
from
the
oil.
30Ch
emic
alRe
fini
ng
31
Blea
chin
gS
ome
oils
are
rath
er d
ark
in c
olou
rdue
topr
esen
ce
of o
xidi
sed
pigm
ents
and
can
be b
leac
hed
by th
e ad
ditio
n of
a s
mal
l am
ount
of b
leac
hing
ear
th o
r ac
tivat
ed c
arbo
npr
ior t
o fil
tratio
n.
Ble
achi
ng is
als
oth
e la
st s
tage
whe
re re
sidu
al
phos
phat
ides
, met
als
and
oxid
atio
n pr
oduc
ts c
an
be re
mov
ed p
rior t
ode
odor
isat
ion/
deac
idifi
catio
n.Th
e re
mov
al o
f the
se m
inor
impu
ritie
s is
ver
y im
porta
nt s
ince
they
hav
e a
dire
ct e
ffect
on
the
orga
nole
ptic
qual
ity a
nd o
xida
tive
stab
ility
of th
e de
odor
ised
prod
uct.
33
Deo
doris
atio
nIt
is a
hig
hte
mpe
ratu
re, h
igh
vacu
umst
eam
dist
illat
ion
proc
ess
tore
mov
evo
latil
e,
odor
ifero
usm
ater
ials
. D
eodo
rizat
ion
incr
ease
sth
eoi
l’sfla
vora
ndox
idat
ive
stab
ility
byne
arly
com
plet
ere
mov
alof
free
fatty
acid
s(F
FA) a
ndot
herv
olat
ileod
oran
dfla
vorm
ater
ials
, and
byth
erm
alde
stru
ctio
nof
pe
roxi
des.
But
it a
lso
parti
ally
rem
oves
the
toco
pher
ols.
34
Win
teriz
atio
nW
inte
rizat
ion
is a
n op
erat
ion
desi
gned
to
pres
erve
liqu
idity
and
refin
ed o
ils b
right
ness
.It
invo
lves
two
step
s:
Win
teriz
atio
nin
volv
es a
llow
ing
the
oil t
o st
and
at lo
w te
mpe
ratu
res,
dur
ing
whi
ch ti
me
high
er m
eltin
g gl
ycer
ides
crys
talli
seas
a s
olid
phas
ean
d ar
e se
para
ted
by c
entri
fuga
tion
orfil
tratio
n.
Proc
essing
Equ
ipmen
tSe
ed P
repa
ration
and
Cru
shing
Mills
-ha
mm
er, f
laki
ng, c
rack
ing,
dis
c, c
ollo
idCl
eaning
-m
ulti
dec
k gr
ain
drye
r, a
spir
ator
cook
er p
repr
ess/
full
pres
s, b
ench
pre
ss
Solven
t Ex
trac
tion
Equ
ipmen
tCr
own
solv
ent
extr
acto
rs
inve
rtin
g ba
sket
cen
trif
uge
for
powd
ers
Refining
Equ
ipmen
tCe
ntrifu
ges
Reac
tors
& F
ilter
s:fo
r bl
each
ing,
inte
rest
erif
icat
ion
and
hydr
ogen
atio
n.Deo
dorize
rs:
cont
inuo
usor
batc
h .
Win
teri
zati
on v
esse
ls
Idea
lflo
orpl
an o
f an
inte
grat
edoi
lpla
nt
37
Prim
ary
Proc
essi
ngAr
ea:
The
Pri
mar
yA
rea
is u
sed
topr
epar
eg
rain
s, o
ilsee
ds,
legu
mes
and
oth
erm
ater
ials
for
furt
her
proc
essi
ng.
Pilo
t sc
ale
indu
stri
aleq
uip
men
tca
n b
e av
aila
ble
tocl
ean
seed
s, m
illm
ater
ials
toan
ypa
rtic
lesi
ze, d
ryto
spec
ific
atio
nan
dsc
rew
pres
soi
lsee
ds.
Com
mon
proc
esse
sin
clu
de:
cru
shin
gof
oils
eeds
deh
ulli
ng
of g
rain
s&
legu
mes
mill
ing
of g
rain
s&
legu
mes
sepa
rati
onof
com
pon
ents
from
grai
ns
& le
gum
es
38
Seco
ndar
ypr
oces
sing
area
:Th
eSe
con
dary
Pro
cess
ing
area
prov
ides
a w
etpr
oces
sin
gen
viro
nm
ent
for
cen
trif
ug
es, e
vapo
rato
rs,
drye
rs, u
ltra
filt
rati
onu
nit
s, f
ilter
s, m
ixer
s, p
um
ps,
tan
ksan
dh
eat
exch
ange
rsco
nfi
gure
dto
suit
the
nee
dsof
fol
low
ing
seco
nda
rypr
oces
ses:
wet
mill
ing,
aqu
eou
sex
trac
tion
and
frac
tion
atio
nof
oi
lsee
dco
mpo
nen
ts
prep
arat
ion
of p
rote
in c
once
ntr
ates
and
isol
ates
aqu
eou
sex
trac
tion
and
puri
fica
tion
of b
ioac
tive
com
pon
ents
from
plan
tm
ater
ials
.
Oil
proc
essi
ngar
ea:
Common
proc
esse
sfo
roils
such
as s
oy, s
unflow
er, includ
e:
degu
mming
refining
pret
reat
ing/
blea
ching
stea
mst
ripp
ing
fatt
yac
idco
ncen
trat
ion
inte
r-es
terifica
tion
wint
erizat
ion
deod
orizat
ion.
Cont
empo
rary
Issu
esG
loba
l:H
erbi
cid
ere
sist
ant
soyb
ean
san
din
sect
resi
stan
tco
rn:p
rod
uct
sde
velo
ped
toh
elp
grow
ers
save
on in
pu
tco
sts
Hig
h-o
leic
soyb
ean
s(t
he
goal
for
tran
sgen
icso
ybea
ns
is t
ore
ach
80
-85%
ole
icac
idsi
nce
olei
cac
idis
con
side
red
mor
e"h
ealt
hy"
an
dm
ore
stab
leag
ain
stra
nci
dity
than
oth
eroi
ls)
are
two
exam
ples
of G
M f
oods
.
Cont
empo
rary
Issu
esLo
cal(N
atio
nal):
Shor
tage
of o
ilsee
dcr
ops(
dom
estic
prod
uctio
nin
suff
icie
ntfo
rlo
calc
onsu
mpt
ion)
Impo
rtQ
uota
sfo
rol
ive
oilf
rom
Turk
ey(s
ince
Sp
ain,
Gre
ece,
Ita
ly, P
ortu
gala
ndFr
ance
also
prod
uce
it(CA
P: c
omm
onAg
ricul
tura
lPol
icy)
in
ord
erto
enfo
rce
min
imu
m im
port
pric
esEx
port
subs
idie
sto
sell
EU p
rodu
cts
put
surp
luse
son
oth
erw
orld
mar
kets
too.
Poss
ible
Mea
sure
sB
ein
gou
rm
ajor
com
peti
tors
s, I
taly
, Gre
ece,
Spa
inan
dP
ortu
gal
take
adva
nta
geof
bei
ng
full-
mem
bers
of t
he
Euro
pean
Un
ion
. Tu
rkey
, on
th
eot
her
han
d, w
hile
expo
rtin
gn
on-q
uot
apr
odu
cts
toth
eEU
cou
ntr
ies
is
oblig
edto
pay
a ta
xof
16
.8%
. Mor
eove
r, w
ith
the
purp
ose
of im
prov
ing
its
glob
al t
rade
, Ita
lyke
eps
on
crea
tin
gn
ewpr
odu
ctva
riat
ion
s, p
utt
ing
her
self
one-
step
for
war
d. T
urk
eysh
ould
do t
he
sam
e.It
is p
ossi
ble
for
Turk
eyto
hav
ea
bett
erpo
siti
onin
ag
ricu
ltu
ral
expo
rts
prov
ided
that
the
pro
duce
rs,
entr
epre
neu
rsan
dth
est
ate
act
han
d-in
-han
d, w
hile
taki
ng
the
nec
essa
rypr
ecau
tion
san
dth
atth
est
ate
ince
nti
ves
are
incr
ease
dw
ith
agri
cult
ura
lpla
nn
ing,
av
oidi
ng
the
disi
nte
grat
ion
of f
ield
s, f
oun
dati
onof
pr
odu
cer
un
ion
s, s
tan
dard
izat
ion
of t
he
issu
eslik
est
orin
g, t
ran
spor
tati
on, a
nd
pack
agin
g.
43
Deg
umm
ing
Oil
refin
ing
mac
hine
rypi
ctur
esta
ken
at a
n o
ilre
finin
gpl
ant
44
Neu
traliz
atio
n
45
Dew
axin
g
46
Blea
chin
g
47
Win
teriz
atio
n
48
Deo
doris
atio
n