food irradiation research and technology second edition ......coverage of safety and quality of...

Press

The benefits of food irradiation to the public health have been described extensively by organizations such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the USA and the World Health Organization. The American Medical Association and the American Dietetic Association have both endorsed the irradiation process. Yet the potential health benefits of irradiation are unknown to many consumers and food industry representatives who are wary of irradiated foods due to myth-information from “consumer-advocate” groups.

This updated second edition of Food Irradiation Research and Technology reviews the latest developments in irradiation technologies as they are applied to meat, seafood fish, fruits, vegetables and nuts. Experts from industry, government, and academia define the basic principles and public health benefits of irradiation.

New chapters in this edition address irradiation chemistry, including furan formation due to irradiation, irradiation of packaging materials, processing irradiation technologies and parameters, and ready-to-eat meat products. Coverage of safety and quality of fresh fruits and vegetables, phytosanitary applications and consumer acceptance has been expanded to address recent interest and development.

The book is designed to appeal to a broad readership: industry food scientists involved in the processing of meat and fish, fruits and vegetables; food microbiologists and radiation processing specialists; and government and industry representatives involved in the import and export of food commodities.

The Editors

Dr Xuetong Fan and Dr Christopher H. Sommers, both of the Eastern Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania, USA

Also available from Wiley-Blackwell

Dense Phase Carbon Dioxide: Food and Pharmaceutical Applications Edited by M. O. Balaban and G.Ferrentino / ISBN 978-0-8138-0649-5

Decontamination of Fresh and Minimally Processed Produce Edited by V.M. Gómez-López / ISBN 978-0-8138-2384-3

Ozone in Food Processing Edited by C. O’Donnell, B. K. Tiwari, P. J. Cullen, and R.G. Rice / ISBN 978-1-4443-3442-5

9 780813 802091

ISBN 978-0-8138-0209-1

Press

Food Irradiation Research and Technology

Fan and Somm

ers

Food Irradiation Research and Technology second edition

Food Irradiation Research and Technology second edition

Xuetong Fan and Christopher H. Sommers

EDITORS

Presswww.wiley.com/go/food

Fan_Food_9780813802091_hb_2.indd 1 20/08/2012 09:59

BLBK437-fm BLBK437-Fan Trim: 229mm×152mm August 21, 2012 19:31


Food IrradiationResearch and Technology

i


The IFT Press series reflects the mission of the Institute of Food Technologists – toadvance the science of food contributing to healthier people everywhere. Developedin partnership with Wiley-Blackwell, IFT Press books serve as leading-edge handbooksfor industrial application and reference and as essential texts for academic programs.Crafted through rigorous peer review and meticulous research, IFT Press publicationsrepresent the latest, most significant resources available to food scientists and relatedagriculture professionals worldwide. Founded in 1939, the Institute of Food Tech-nologists is a nonprofit scientific society with 18,000 individual members workingin food science, food technology, and related professions in industry, academia, andgovernment. IFT serves as a conduit for multidisciplinary science thought leadership,championing the use of sound science across the food value chain through knowledgesharing, education, and advocacy.

IFT Press Advisory Group

Nicolas BordenaveYiFang ChuJ. Peter ClarkChristopher J. DoonaJung Hoon HanFlorence FeeherryChris FindlayDavid McDadeThomas J. MontvilleKaren NachayMartin OkosDavid S. ReidSam SaguyFereidoon ShahidiCindy StewartHerbert StoneKenneth R. SwartzelBob SwientekHilary ThesmarYael VodovotzRon Wrolstad

A John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publication

ii


Food IrradiationResearch and Technology

Second Edition

EDITED BY

Xuetong FanUSDA, ARS, Eastern Regional Research Center

Wyndmoor, PA

USA

Christopher H. SommersUSDA, ARS, Eastern Regional Research Center

Wyndmoor, PA

USA


iii


This edition first published 2013 C© 2013 by Blackwell Publishing and the Institute of FoodTechnologistsFirst edition published 2006 C© 2006 by Blackwell Publishing and the Institute of FoodTechnologists

Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’spublishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical and Medicalbusiness to form Wiley-Blackwell.

Editorial offices: 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa 50014-8300, USAThe Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK

For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about howto apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website atwww.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell.

Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the internal or personal use ofspecific clients, is granted by Blackwell Publishing, provided that the base fee is paid directly tothe Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923. For thoseorganizations that have been granted a photocopy license by CCC, a separate system ofpayments has been arranged. The fee codes for users of the Transactional Reporting Service areISBN-13: 978-0-8138-0209-1/2012.

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks.All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks,trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associatedwith any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provideaccurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on theunderstanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. Ifprofessional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competentprofessional should be sought.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Food irradiation research and technology / edited by Xuetong Fan, Christopher H. Sommers. –2nd ed.

p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-8138-0209-1 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Radiation preservation offood–Research. 2. Irradiated beef. I. Fan, Xuetong. II. Sommers, Christopher H.

TP371.8.F676 2013664′.0288–dc23

2012015387

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears inprint may not be available in electronic books.

Cover image: C© iStockphoto.com/mattjeacockCover design by Meaden Creative

Set in 10.5/12.5pt Garamond-Book by Aptara R© Inc., New Delhi, India

1 2013

iv

http://www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell


Titles in the IFT Press series� Accelerating New Food Product Design and Development (Jacqueline H. Beckley,

Elizabeth J. Topp, M. Michele Foley, J.C. Huang, and Witoon Prinyawiwatkul)� Advances in Dairy Ingredients (Geoffrey W. Smithers and Mary Ann Augustin)� Bioactive Proteins and Peptides as Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals (Yoshi-

nori Mine, Eunice Li-Chan, and Bo Jiang)� Biofilms in the Food Environment (Hans P. Blaschek, Hua H. Wang, and Meredith

E. Agle)� Calorimetry in Food Processing: Analysis and Design of Food Systems (Gonul

Kaletunc)� Coffee: Emerging Health Effects and Disease Prevention (YiFang Chu)� Food Carbohydrate Chemistry (Ronald E. Wrolstad)� Food Ingredients for the Global Market (Yao-Wen Huang and Claire L. Kruger)� Food Irradiation Research and Technology (Xuetong Fan and Christopher H.

Sommers)� Foodborne Pathogens in the Food Processing Environment: Sources, Detection

and Control (Sadhana Ravishankar, Vijay K. Juneja, and Divya Jaroni)� High Pressure Processing of Foods (Christopher J. Doona and Florence E.

Feeherry)� Hydrocolloids in Food Processing (Thomas R. Laaman)� Improving Import Food Safety (Wayne C. Ellefson, Lorna Zach, and Darryl

Sullivan)� Innovative Food Processing Technologies: Advances in Multiphysics Simulation

(Kai Knoerzer, Pablo Juliano, Peter Roupas, and Cornelis Versteeg)� Microbial Safety of Fresh Produce (Xuetong Fan, Brendan A. Niemira, Christopher

J. Doona, Florence E. Feeherry, and Robert B. Gravani)� Microbiology and Technology of Fermented Foods (Robert W. Hutkins)� Multiphysics Simulation of Emerging Food Processing Technologies (Kai

Knoerzer, Pablo Juliano, Peter Roupas and Cornelis Versteeg)� Multivariate and Probabilistic Analyses of Sensory Science Problems

(Jean-Francois Meullenet, Rui Xiong, and Christopher J. Findlay)� Nanoscience and Nanotechnology in Food Systems (Hongda Chen)� Natural Food Flavors and Colorants (Mathew Attokaran)� Nondestructive Testing of Food Quality (Joseph Irudayaraj and Christoph Reh)� Nondigestible Carbohydrates and Digestive Health (Teresa M. Paeschke and

William R. Aimutis)� Nonthermal Processing Technologies for Food (Howard Q. Zhang, Gustavo V.

Barbosa-Canovas, V.M. Balasubramaniam, C. Patrick Dunne, Daniel F. Farkas, andJames T.C. Yuan)

� Nutraceuticals, Glycemic Health and Type 2 Diabetes (Vijai K. Pasupuleti andJames W. Anderson)

� Organic Meat Production and Processing (Steven C. Ricke, Ellen J. Van Loo,Michael G. Johnson, and Corliss A. O’Bryan)

� Packaging for Nonthermal Processing of Food (Jung H. Han)� Preharvest and Postharvest Food Safety: Contemporary Issues and Future Di-

rections (Ross C. Beier, Suresh D. Pillai, and Timothy D. Phillips, Editors; RichardL. Ziprin, Associate Editor)

v


� Processing and Nutrition of Fats and Oils (Ernesto M. Hernandez and Afaf Kamal-Eldin)

� Processing Organic Foods for the Global Market (Gwendolyn V. Wyard, AnnePlotto, Jessica Walden, and Kathryn Schuett)

� Regulation of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals: A Global Perspective (ClareM. Hasler)

� Resistant Starch: Sources, Applications and Health Benefi ts (Yong-Cheng Shiand Clodualdo Maningat)

� Sensory and Consumer Research in Food Product Design and Development(Howard R. Moskowitz, Jacqueline H. Beckley, and Anna V.A. Resurreccion)

� Sustainability in the Food Industry (Cheryl J. Baldwin)� Thermal Processing of Foods: Control and Automation (K.P. Sandeep)� Trait-Modified Oils in Foods (Frank T. Orthoefer and Gary R. List)� Water Activity in Foods: Fundamentals and Applications (Gustavo V. Barbosa-

Canovas, Anthony J. Fontana Jr., Shelly J. Schmidt, and Theodore P. Labuza)� Whey Processing, Functionality and Health Benefits (Charles I. Onwulata and

Peter J. Huth)


vi


CONTENTS

List of Contributors xixPreface xxv

Chapter 1 Introduction: Food Irradiation Moving On 1Joseph Borsa

Introduction 2Two Tracks Going Forward 3

The Food Safety Track 3The Disinfestation Track 5

Bumps Still Remain on the Road Ahead 5Summary 7References 7

Chapter 2 Advances in Electron Beam and X-ray Technologiesfor Food Irradiation 9Marshall R. Cleland

Introduction 10Basic Irradiation Concepts 10

Definition and Units of Absorbed Dose 10Absorbed Dose versus Emitted Radiation Power 11Temperature Rise versus Dose 12

Electron Beam Facilities 13Absorbed Dose versus Beam Current 14Electron Beam Technologies 14

X-ray Facilities 21Conclusion 24References 25

Chapter 3 Gamma Ray Technology for Food Irradiation 29Kevin O’Hara

Introduction 29

vii


viii Contents

Overview of Co-60 Gamma Technology 30Basic Irradiation Concepts 32

Gamma Ray Facilities 32Irradiator Categories 34Criteria for Irradiator Design and Selection 35Pallet Irradiator 38Tote Box Irradiator 40Independent Dose Delivery Carrier and

Stationary Irradiations 41Gray∗ Star GenesisTM Underwater Irradiator 42

Gamma Ray Facilities for Radiation Research 43Comparison of Irradiation Technologies 45References 46

Chapter 4 Regulation of Irradiated Foods and Packaging 47George H. Pauli

Introduction 48References 52Notes 52

Chapter 5 Toxicological Safety of Irradiated Foods 53Christopher H. Sommers, Henry Delincee, J. ScottSmith, and Eric Marchioni

Introduction 54Food Irradiation 54Benzene, Formaldehyde, and Amines 56Formation and Levels of 2-ACBs in Foods 57Toxicological Safety of 2-ACBs 632-ACBs and Tumor Promotion 66Diet and Tumor Promotion 67Conclusions 67References 68

Chapter 6 Radiation Chemistry of Food Components 75Xuetong Fan

Basic Radiation Effects 76Radiolysis of Water 76

Radiation Chemistry of Major Food Components 77Radiation Chemistry of Lipids 77Radiolysis of Proteins 80Radiolysis of Carbohydrates 83


Contents ix

Reduction of Undesirable Compoundsby Irradiation 88Reduction of Furan and Acrylamide 88Reduction of Mycotoxins 89Antinutritional Compounds 92

Acknowledgments 93References 93

Chapter 7 Dosimetry for Food Processing andResearch Applications 99Kishor Mehta and Kevin O’Hara

Importance of Dosimetry 99Introduction 100

Some Fundamentals of Dosimetry 101Absorbed Dose 101Dosimetry System 102Measurement Management System 103

Selection and Characterization ofa Dosimetry System 103Types of Dosimetry Systems 103The Selection of an Appropriate Dosimetry

System 104Dosimetry System Characterization 106

The Use of a Dosimetry System 107Dosimetry in Food Research 108Dosimetry at a Commercial Facility 109

General 109Process Validation 110Operational Qualification (OQ) 110Performance Qualification (PQ) 114Routine Process Monitoring and Control 117

References 120

Chapter 8 Detection of Irradiated Foods 123Eric Marchioni

Introduction 124Free Radicals and Electronic Excited States 126

ESR Spectroscopy 126Luminescence 129

Stable Radiolytic Products 131Radiolytic Products from Proteins 131


x Contents

Volatile Compounds 131Radiolytic Products from Carbohydrates 132Radiolytic Products from Nucleic Acids 132Radiolytic Products from Lipids 134Modification of Macroscopic Physico-Biological

Parameters of the Food 137Gas Evolution 138Cellular Wall Modifications 138Bacteriological Modifications 138

Germination Inhibition 139Irradiated Ingredients and Low-Dose Irradiated

Plants 139Conclusion 140References 140

Chapter 9 Irradiation of Packaging Materials in Contactwith Food: An Update 147Vanee Komolprasert

Introduction 148Current Authorizations of Packaging Materials for

Irradiation of Prepackaged Food 149Radiation-Induced Chemical Changes in Packaging

Materials 157Role of AOs 158

Evaluating Packaging Materials Irradiatedin the Presence of Oxygen 159Irradiation Effects 160Analysis for RPs 161Dietary Exposure to RPs 162Safety Assessment of RPs 164Approaches to Testing 165

Conclusions 167Acknowledgment 168References 168

Chapter 10 Consumer Acceptance and Marketingof Irradiated Foods 173Ronald F. Eustice and Christine M. Bruhn

Introduction 174What Is Food Irradiation? 174Why Is Food Irradiated? 174


Contents xi

Marketing of Irradiation Foods 176Commercial Acceptance of Irradiation Foods. 177Resistance to “New” Technology 178Risks versus Benefits 179World’s Safest Food Supply, But Not Safe Enough 179Irradiation: A Powerful and Effective Tool to

Improve Food Safety 181Education: The Key to Consumer Acceptance 182Effect of Unfavorable Information 185Can Unfavorable Information Be Counteracted? 186Effects of Gender, Income, and Children 188Barriers to Acceptance 188The “Minnesota Model” of Consumer Acceptance 189A Defining Moment in Food Safety 191Is It Farm to Fork, or Turf to Tort? 192Conclusion 192References 193

Chapter 11 Irradiation of Ready-To-Eat Meat Products 197Christopher H. Sommers and William J. Mackay

Introduction 198Materials and Methods 198

RTE Meats 198Processing of Beef Bologna 199Bacterial Isolates 199Preparation of Inoculum 200Inoculation of RTE Meats 200Gamma Irradiation 200Enumeration of Bacteria 201Storage Study 201D10 Values 201Statistical Analysis 202

Results and Discussion 202Acknowledgment 205References 205

Chapter 12 Mechanisms and Prevention of Quality Changes inMeat by Irradiation 209Doug U. Ahn and Eun Joo Lee

Introduction 209Food Irradiation 210


xii Contents

Microcidal Effect 211Quality Changes in Meat by Irradiation 213

Lipid Oxidation 213Sources and Mechanisms of Off-Odor Production 214Color Changes in Meat by Irradiation 216

Control of Off-Odor Production and Color Changes 220Additives 220Packaging 221Packaging and Additive Combinations 221

Future Research 222References 222

Chapter 13 Phytosanitary Irradiation for Fresh HorticulturalCommodities: Research and Regulations 227Peter A. Follett and Robert L. Griffin

Introduction 228Developing Irradiation Quarantine Treatments 228

Insect Radiotolerance 228Methodology 231

Varietal Testing 234Probit 9 Efficacy and Alternatives 234Generic Radiation Treatments 236Regulatory Aspects of Irradiation 240USDA Regulations 242Regional and International Harmonization 244Trade 245References 249

Chapter 14 Antimicrobial Application of Low-Dose Irradiationof Fresh and Fresh-Cut Produce 255Brendan A. Niemira

Introduction 256Produce Microbiology and Irradiation Treatment 257Internalization of Bacteria 258Biofilm-Associated Pathogens 260Postirradiation Recovery and Regrowth 261Treatment Parameters for Irradiation of Produce 262Influence of Plant Variety 264Combination with Sanitizers 264Irradiation Plus Mild Thermal Treatment 265


Contents xiii

Summary 266Acknowledgments 266References 266

Chapter 15 Irradiation of Fresh and Fresh-Cut Fruits andVegetables: Quality and Shelf Life 271Xuetong Fan

Introduction 272Ethylene and Respiration 273Appearance 274Texture 276Flavor/Taste 278Nutrients 281

Vitamin C 281Other Nutrients 282

Combination of Irradiation with Other PostharvestTechniques 284Chemical Sanitizers 284Hot-Water Treatment 284Calcium and Calcium Ascorbate 285MAP 286

Shelf-Life Extension 287References 288

Chapter 16 Irradiation of Seeds and Sprouts 295Kathleen T. Rajkowski and Md. Latiful Bari

Introduction 295Outbreaks Associated with Sprouts 296Potential Source of Contamination 301Pathogens of Concern for Sprouts 302

Salmonella 302Enterohemorrhagic E. coli 302L. monocytogenes 302B. cereus 303Yersinia enterocolitica 303Shigella 303Klebsiella 303

Pathogen Decontamination Overview 304Seed and Sprout Evaluation after Treatment 305Radiation Dose to Reduce Microbial Pathogens

on Seeds 305Combination Treatments 308


xiv Contents

Radiation Dose to Reduce Microbial Pathogenson Sprouts 308

Other 309Conclusions 310References 310

Chapter 17 Irradiation of Nuts 317Anuradha Prakash

Introduction 317Farming and Harvesting 318Insect Disinfestation 318Microbial Contamination 319Contamination with Pathogens 320Irradiation Treatment of Nuts 323Insect Disinfestation 323Molds and Aflatoxins 324Pathogen Inactivation 325Chemical and Sensory: Irradiation Can Catalyze

or Induce Lipid Peroxidation, and Lipid and/or Protein Radiolysis 325Nonoxidative Radiolytic Reactions 329

Effect of Irradiation on Nut Allergenicity 329Advantages of Using Irradiation to Treat Nuts 330Research Needs 330References 331

Chapter 18 Irradiation of Seafood with a Particular Emphasis onListeria monocytogenes in Ready-To-Eat Products 337Denise M. Foley

Introduction 338Listeria monocytogenes Is a Significant

Contaminant of Seafood 338Stress Adaptation of the Organism 339Irradiation Is an Effective Postprocessing Treatment

for Fish Products 340Physical, Chemical, and Sensory Changes

of Irradiated Seafood 344Competing Microflora 345Comments Regarding Irradiation and the Risk

for Botulism 346Conclusion 346References 346


Contents xv

Chapter 19 Ionizing Radiation of Eggs 351Ignacio Alvarez, Brendan A. Niemira, XuetongFan, and Christopher H. Sommers

Introduction 352Ionizing Radiation of Shell Eggs 353

Microbial Lethal Effect of Ionizing Radiationon Shell Eggs 353

Internal Quality of Ionizing Radiated Shell Eggs 356Physicochemical Properties of Ionizing Radiated

Shell Eggs 358Functional Properties of Ionizing Radiated Shell

Eggs 358Ionizing Radiation of Refrigerated Liquid Egg 359

Ionizing Radiation of LWE 359Ionizing Radiation of Liquid Egg White 361Ionizing Radiation of Liquid Egg Yolk 362

Ionizing Radiation of Dried Egg 363Microbial Lethal Effect of Ionizing Radiation

in Dried Egg 363Quality of Ionizing Radiated Dried Egg 363Physicochemical Properties of Ionizing Radiated

Dried Egg 363Functional Properties of Ionizing Radiated

Dried Egg 364Ionizing Radiation of Frozen Egg 365

Microbial Lethal Effect of Ionizing Radiationin Frozen Egg 365

Physicochemical Properties of Ionizing RadiatedFrozen Egg 365

Functional Properties of Ionizing RadiatedFrozen Egg 365

Strategies to Increase the Quality of IrradiatedEgg Products 366

Areas for Future Research 368Conclusion 369Acknowledgments 370References 370

Chapter 20 Irradiated Ground Beef for the National SchoolLunch Program 373Xuetong Fan

Introduction 374


xvi Contents

Foodborne Illnesses in School 374Regulatory Allowance and Specifications

of Irradiated Foods for Schools 376Sensory Properties of Irradiated Ground Beef 378Conclusion 382Acknowledgments 383References 383

Chapter 21 Potential Applications of Ionizing Radiation 385Ju-Woon Lee, Jae-Hun Kim, Yohan Yoon,Cheorun Jo, and Myung-Woo Byun

Introduction 386Reduction of Food Allergies by Ionizing Radiation 386Volatile N-nitrosamine and Residual Nitrite

Reduction 387Biogenic Amines Reduction 390Reduction of Phytic Acid and Increase

in Antioxidant Activity 391Chlorophyll b Breakdown 393Color Improvement of Plant Extracts without

Change of Biological Functions 393Control of Enterobacter sakazakii

in Infant Formula 394Use of Irradiation to Control Food-Related Bacteria

in Meat Products 394Application of Irradiation for Sea Food Safety 396Use of Irradiation on Fresh Produces and

Dairy Products 396Application of Irradiation for the Development

of Traditional Fermented Foods 397Use of Boiled Extracts from Cooking 398Improvement of Nutritional Conditions and Food

Quality by Irradiation 399Conclusion 399Acknowledgments 399References 400

Chapter 22 A Future Uncertain: Food Irradiation Froma Legal Perspective 407Denis W. Stearns

Introduction 408


Contents xvii

Liability for the Manufacture of a DefectiveFood Product 409The Origins of Strict Liability in Tainted

Food Cases 409The Modern Rule of Strict Liability 410Defining Products and Defects 410Proving the Existence of a Defect in Food 411

Strict Liability Creates Few If Any Legal Incentivesin Favor of Food Irradiation 412

A Possible Existing Legal Duty to Use IrradiatedFood: The Challenge of Highly SusceptiblePopulations 414

Negligence: Failing to Avoid a Known andAvoidable Risk 414The Eggshell Plaintiff: Irradiation, Liability, and

Susceptible Populations 416The Prospect of Punitive Damages as a Stronger

Incentive 417The Possibility of Liability Arising from Irradiated

Foods 418Conclusion 419Notes 420

Chapter 23 Technical Challenges and Research Directionsin Electronic Food Pasteurization 425Suresh D. Pillai, Les Braby, and Joe Maxim

Introduction 426Target Pathogens 427

Enteric Viruses 427Protozoan Pathogens 428Bacterial Pathogens 428

Radiation Physics and Chemistry 428Chemical Environment 428Standardized Protocols 429Electronic Pasteurization in Conjunction

with Microbial Risk Assessment 430Low Dose Electronic Pasteurization

and Dosimetry 431Product Packaging 431


xviii Contents

Electronic Pasteurization of Complex-ShapedPackages 432

Acknowledgments 433References 433

Index 435


LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Doug U. AhnAnimal Science DepartmentIowa State UniversityAmes, USA

Ignacio AlvarezTecnologıa de los AlimentosFacultad de VeterinariaUniversity of ZaragozaZaragoza, Spain

Md. Latiful BariFood Analysis and Research LaboratoryCenter for Advanced Research in SciencesUniversity of DhakaDhaka, Bangladesh

Joseph BorsaMDS NordionOttawa, Canada

Les BrabyNational Center for Electron Beam Food ResearchInstitute of Food Science & EngineeringTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, USA

Christine M. BruhnCenter for Consumer ResearchDepartment of Food Science & TechnologyUniversity of CaliforniaDavis, USA

xix


xx List of Contributors

Myung-Woo ByunRadiation Food Science & Biotechnology TeamKorea Atomic Energy Research InstituteDaejeon, Republic of Korea

Marshall R. ClelandIBA Industrial, Inc.Edgewood, USA

Henry DelinceeDepartment of Physiology and Biochemistry of NutritionMax Rubner-InstitutKarlsruhe, Germany

Ronald F. EusticeMinnesota Beef CouncilMinneapolis, USA

Xuetong FanEastern Regional Research CenterAgricultural Research Service, US Department of AgricultureWyndmoor, USA

Peter A. FollettPacific Basin Agriculture Research CenterAgricultural Research Service, US Department of AgricultureHilo, USA

Denise M. FoleyDepartment of Biological SciencesChapman UniversityOrange, USA

Robert L. GriffinPlant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis LaboratoryUS Department of Agriculture, APHISRaleigh, USA

Cheorun JoRadiation Food Science & Biotechnology TeamKorea Atomic Energy Research InstituteDaejeon, Republic of Korea


List of Contributors xxi

Jae-Hun KimRadiation Food Science & Biotechnology TeamKorea Atomic Energy Research InstituteDaejeon, Republic of Korea

Vanee KomolprasertDivision of Food Contact Substance Notification ReviewCenter for Food Safety and Applied NutritionUS Food and Drug AdministrationCollege Park, USA

Eun Joo LeeDepartment of Food and NutritionUniversity of Wisconsin-StoutMenomonie, USA

Ju-Woon LeeRadiation Food Science & Biotechnology TeamKorea Atomic Energy Research InstituteDaejeon, Republic of Korea

William J. MackayDepartment of Biology and Health ServicesEdinboro University of PennsylvaniaEdinboro, USA

Eric MarchioniEquipe de Chimie Analytique des Molecules BioActives (IPHC-UMR7178)Faculte de PharmacieIllkirch, France

Joe MaximNational Center for Electron Beam Food ResearchInstitute of Food Science & EngineeringTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, USA

Kishor MehtaSenior Scientist EmeritusIAEAVienna, Austria


xxii List of Contributors

Brendan A. NiemiraEastern Regional Research CenterAgricultural Research Service, US Department of AgricultureWyndmoor, USA

Kevin O’HaraNordionOttawa, Canada

George H. PauliDivision of Product PolicyFDA Office of Premarket ApprovalWashington, USA

Suresh D. PillaiNational Center for Electron Beam Food ResearchInstitute of Food Science & EngineeringTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, USA

Anuradha PrakashDepartment of Physical SciencesChapman UniversityOrange, USA

Kathleen T. RajkowskiEastern Regional Research CenterAgricultural Research Service, US Department of AgricultureWyndmoor, USA

J. Scott SmithDepartment of Animal Sciences and IndustryKansas State UniversityManhattan, USA

Christopher H. SommersEastern Regional Research Center,Agricultural Research Service, US Department of AgricultureWyndmoor, USA


List of Contributors xxiii

Denis W. StearnsMarler Clark Attoneys at LawSeattle, USA

Yohan YoonRadiation Food Science & Biotechnology TeamKorea Atomic Energy Research InstituteDaejeon, Republic of Korea


xxiv


PREFACE

Many interesting and exciting developments have occurred in the fieldof food irradiation since the publication of the first edition in 2006. Todate, more than 50 countries have given approval for irradiation of manyfood products. The United States is among the leading countries in adopt-ing the technology. The traditional applications, such as disinfection ofspices and sprout inhibition, continue to be the major commercial uses ofirradiation with widescale global acceptance. In 2006, USDA Animal andPlant Health Inspection Service set a minimum generic irradiation dose of400 Gy for most plant insects and created a new minimum generic doseof 150 Gy for the fruit fly family. As a result, there have been renewedinterests in the United States and other countries for the disinfestation offresh fruits and vegetables to eliminate pests from imported agriculturalcommodities that could threaten the economic viability of American agri-culture. Irradiated fruits from Mexico and several Asian countries haveappeared on the US market. Sales of ground beef irradiated to inactivatepathogenic Escherichia coli has more than doubled since 2006. Oysters,irradiated to control Vibrio and other pathogenic bacteria, have appearedon the market since the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approvalof a petition to allow irradiation of mollusks in 2005.

The outbreaks of foodborne illnesses associated with fresh fruits andvegetables in recent years have gained much media attention and publicconcerns over produce safety. In response to a petition filed in 2000 andto ensure microbial safety of fresh produce, the US FDA approved theuse of irradiation on lettuce and spinach at a maximum dose of 4.5 kGy.Recent studies demonstrated that irradiation at low doses did not inducedetectable levels of furan (a possible carcinogen present in many ther-mally processed foods) in meat or vegetables, which provided scientificevidence for the FDA’s approval of lettuce and spinach irradiation.

The FDA allows the use of all approved packaging materials to packagefood being irradiated with conditions that the packaged food is alreadypermitted by FDA, that these packaging materials are subjected to radia-tion doses not exceeding 3 kGy, and the packaged food is irradiated inan oxygen-free environment or while the food is frozen and contained

xxv


xxvi Preface

under vacuum. Unfortunately, the exemptions cannot be applied for freshproduce because fresh produce cannot be frozen or processed in anoxygen-free environment. Therefore, packaging materials intended forthe irradiation of prepackaged fresh and fresh-cut produce in the pres-ence of oxygen may still need a premarket approval.

The food industry has been slow to adopt irradiation, partly becauseof the perception that relatively few consumers would be willing to pur-chase irradiated foods. A survey conducted by the International FoodInformation Council in 2009 indicated that 60% of people surveyed(n = 1064) are very favorable or somewhat favorable in their dispositiontoward the use of food irradiation. Only 13% are not very favorable andnot at all favorable. This survey and other studies demonstrated that manyconsumers would consider purchasing irradiated foods when given thechance, and informed about the benefits of irradiation (such as enhancedmicrobial safety). Consumer education should focus on the product andits benefits, rather than the technology. Treatment of foods with ionizingradiation does not rely on the direct use of chemicals to make food safer,or extend food shelf life. It can inactivate dangerous antibiotic-resistantfoodborne pathogens including Shiga toxin producing E. coli and harm-ful Salmonella spp., as well as replace toxic fumigants currently usedto control invasive insect species. Therefore, food irradiation can helppreserve precious foods and protect human health in a fast-moving globaleconomy.

This second edition of the book reviews our latest knowledge on foodirradiation, highlighting current developments in irradiation regulation,research, and technology. New chapters on irradiation chemistry, includ-ing furan formation due to irradiation, irradiation of packaging materi-als, irradiation technologies, and ready-to-eat meat products, have beenadded. Topics on safety and quality of fresh fruits and vegetables, phy-tosanitary application, and consumer acceptance have been expanded toaddress recent interest and development.

We sincerely hope that this updated book will continue to be usefulto the food and irradiation industry, researchers, regulators, consumers,and consumer advocates in studying, evaluating, and applying the tech-nology. We are grateful to all chapter authors for their dedication andcontribution, which made this book possible.

Xuetong Fan and Christopher H. Sommers

BLBK437-c01 BLBK437-Fan Trim: 229mm×152mm August 3, 2012 14:10

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION: FOOD IRRADIATION

MOVING ON

Joseph BorsaMDS Nordion, Ottawa, Canada

Abstract: This chapter discusses the applications of irradiation technology for awide variety of food products. Irradiation has been widely used for spices andother food ingredients for many years; but for perishables (meat and produce),it is just now emerging into a significant commercial reality. Two major separatedriving forces are moving adoption of food irradiation forward. One is the needto effect microbial reduction, primarily for purposes of food safety enhancement.The second major driver is the need for an effective and environmentally friendlytechnology to disinfest fruits and vegetables for quarantine security purposes asso-ciated with interregional trade. These two main driving forces translate into twodistinct business opportunities on which the current implementation activities arecentered. Irradiation with ionizing energy is very effective in killing many of thecommon microbial pathogens such as Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria mono-cytogenes, Salmonella spp., and Vibrio spp. that are significant contributors tofoodborne illness. A major advantage of irradiation for this purpose is that the foodcan be processed after it has been sealed in its final packaging, thereby reducingor entirely eliminating the possibility of recontamination following this treatment.Irradiation is increasingly being recognized as an excellent agent for disinfestationpurposes. There is considerable interest around the world in bringing this potentialinto reality. USDA-APHIS is playing a leading role in the effort to put in place theregulatory infrastructure needed to allow its use for products imported into theUnited States, as well as for export of American horticultural products.

Keywords: microbial food safety; disinfestations; phytosanitation; fruits and veg-etables; USDA-APHIS

Food Irradiation Research and Technology, Second Edition. Edited by Xuetong Fan andChristopher H. Sommers.C© 2013 Blackwell Publishing and the Institute of Food Technologists.Published 2013 by Blackwell Publishing.

1

BLBK437-c01 BLBK437-Fan Trim: 229mm×152mm August 3, 2012 14:10

2 Food Irradiation Research and Technology

Introduction

There is an old Chinese proverb that says, “May you live in interestingtimes.” With respect to food irradiation (Borsa 2000), today’s proponentsand other observers of this technology have good reason to feel that in-deed these are interesting times in this unfolding story. Studied intensivelyfor more than half a century, and approved in some 50 countries aroundthe globe for a wide variety of food products (ICGFI 2005), irradiation hasbeen widely used for spices and other food ingredients for many years,but for perishables (meat and produce) it is just now emerging into asignificant commercial reality. This chapter focuses primarily on theseemerging applications, in which just in the past half dozen years or sothe changes in what we might call the food irradiation landscape havebeen dramatic, and at times go well beyond that. These changes havebeen most pronounced in the United States but the effects are beginningto be felt in other countries around the globe as well. In the United Statesfrom basically a standing start at the beginning of this recent period,but powered by a high level of entrepreneurial energy and zeal, com-mercialization of irradiation technology in the food industry acceleratedrapidly to reach heights far beyond anything previously achieved. Almostovernight, irradiated products appeared in literally thousands of retailand foodservice outlets (SureBeam 2001). Investors took notice (TitanCorp 2001) and millions of dollars were raised for ventures targeting theopportunity presented by the very real needs recognized in food safety(Osterholm and Norgan 2004) and quarantine security (IAEA 2004). Thefact that those needs are evident all over the world added to the invest-ment appeal. In these positive circumstances, interest in food irradia-tion rapidly escalated, giving rise to an exciting play in the investmentworld.

Unfortunately, in 2004 a major business miscalculation intervened andthis nascent industry suffered a significant setback just as it appeared tobe getting over the hurdles associated with its launch. Not surprisingly,and to the great satisfaction of the skeptics and antitechnology activists,unreasonable expectations had exceeded the actual pace of adoption,especially by the major food processors, and the simple but inexorablemath of the business world led SureBeamTM, the most prominent playerin the field, to declare bankruptcy (Egerstrom 2004). This failure causedconsiderable consternation and uncertainty in the fledgling industry, rais-ing concerns as to whether it would survive the setback. Now, more thana year later and with the dust largely settled, it appears that emergingfrom this uncertainty is a restructured food irradiation industry that isgradually regaining momentum. The fundamental benefits offered by the

food irradiation research and technology second edition ......coverage of safety and quality of...

Documents