fluvial response to the last holocene rapid climate change ... · fluvial response to the last...

Fluvial response to the last Holocene rapid climate change in theNorthwestern Mediterranean coastlands

Jean-Philippe Degeai a,⁎, Benoît Devillers a, Philippe Blanchemanche a, Laurent Dezileau b, Hamza Oueslati a,Margaux Tillier a,c, Hervé Bohbot aa ASM UMR5140, Université Montpellier 3, CNRS, MCC, 34000 Montpellier, Franceb Géosciences UMR5243, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, 34095 Montpellier, Francec ISEM UMR 5554, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, EPHE, 34095 Montpellier, France

a b s t r a c ta r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 1 February 2017Received in revised form 20 March 2017Accepted 27 March 2017Available online 28 March 2017

The variability of fluvial activity in the Northwestern Mediterranean coastal lowlands and its relationship withmodes of climate change were analysed from the late 9th to the 18th centuries CE. Geochemical analyses wereundertaken from a lagoonal sequence and surrounding sediments in order to track the fluvial inputs into the la-goon. An index based on the K/S and Rb/S ratios was used to evidence the main periods of fluvial activity. Thisindex reveals that the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA) was a drier period characterized by a lower fluvial ac-tivity, while the Little Ice Age (LIA) was a wetter period with an increase of the river dynamics. Three periods ofhigher than average fluvial activity were evidenced at the end of the first millennium CE (ca. 900–950 cal yr CE),in the first half of the second millennium CE (ca. 1150–1550 cal yr CE), and during the 1600s–1700s CE (ca.1650–1800 cal yr CE). The comparison of these fluvial periods with other records of riverine or lacustrine floodsin Spain, Italy, and South of France seems to indicate a general increase in fluvial and flood patterns in theNorthwesternMediterranean in response to the climate change from theMCA to the LIA, although someepisodesof flooding are not found in all records. Besides, the phases of higher than average fluvial dynamics are in goodagreement with the North Atlantic cold events evidenced from records of ice-rafted debris. The evolution of flu-vial activity in the NorthwesternMediterranean coastlands during the lastmillenniumcould have been driven byatmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns.

© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords:Fluvial dynamicsHistorical floodingLagoonal sequenceNorth Atlantic coolingLate HoloceneNorthwestern Mediterranean

1. Introduction

The last cooling transition from the Medieval Climate Anomaly(MCA), or Medieval Warm Period (MWP), to the Little Ice Age (LIA), isreferred as a rapid climate change (RCC) (Mayewski et al., 2004;Fletcher and Zielhofer, 2013; Goudeau et al., 2015). It was particularlywell studied in the North Atlantic realm (e.g. Mayewski et al., 1997;Grove, 2001; Meeker and Mayewski, 2002; Dawson et al., 2003, 2007;Mann et al., 2009; Trouet et al., 2009, 2012), although the existence ofthe LIA as a coherently and globally defined climatic period has beenquestioned (Goosse et al., 2005). This climate change took place in thecontext of millennial-scale oscillations characterized by the occurrenceof cold events in the Northern Hemisphere (Bond et al., 1997, 2001;Wanner et al., 2008, 2011). However, the mechanisms at the origin ofthis millennial-scale pattern such as variations in atmospheric and oce-anic circulation or in solar irradiance have differed from the Early to the

Late Holocene (Debret et al., 2007, 2009; Fletcher et al., 2013;Wassenburg et al., 2016; Zielhofer et al., 2017).

In theWestern and Central Mediterranean, the MCA and LIA chronol-ogy based on oxygen and carbon isotopic records of foraminifera orspeleothems can show some age discrepancies, but there is a commonpoint to start the MCA between ca. 600 and 900 cal yr CE, to demarcatethe MCA from the LIA between ca. 1200 and 1400 cal yr CE, and to endthe LIA in the late 1800s CE (Desprat et al., 2003; Frisia et al., 2005;Lebreiro et al., 2006; Martin-Chivelet et al., 2011; Grauel et al., 2013). Inthese areas, the hydroclimate change that occurred from the MCA to theLIAwas characterized by a decrease of temperature and an increase of hu-midity patterns (Mayewski et al., 2004; Frisia et al., 2005; Grauel et al.,2013; Goudeau et al., 2015; Mensing et al., 2016; Sanchez-Lopez et al.,2016), as well as by an increase of storm-induced coastal flooding(Dezileau et al., 2011, 2016; Sabatier et al., 2012; Degeai et al., 2015)and runoff or fluvial flood frequency (Moreno et al., 2008, 2012;Wilhelm et al., 2012, 2016; Vannière et al., 2013; Benito et al., 2015a,2015b). Besides, the reconstruction of the Northern Hemispherehydroclimate variability over the past millennium shows that the

Global and Planetary Change 152 (2017) 176–186

⁎ Corresponding author.E-mail address: [email protected] (J.-P. Degeai).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2017.03.0080921-8181/© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Global and Planetary Change

j ourna l homepage: www.e lsev ie r .com/ locate /g lop lacha

hydrological activity was more intense during the colder periods in theNWMediterranean (Ljungqvist et al., 2016).

In the Western Mediterranean and surrounding areas, elementalanalyses were often used to detect the sedimentary layers depositedduring fluvial flood or rainfall runoff events (Moreno et al., 2008,2012; Martin-Puertas et al., 2010, 2011; Wilhelm et al., 2012, 2013,2016; Vannière et al., 2013; Wirth et al., 2013a, 2013b; Dezileau et al.,2014; Gonzalez-Lemos et al., 2015; Bajard et al., 2016; Sanchez-Lopezet al., 2016). Furthermore, the age model of the sedimentary sequencesused to track the fluvial activity can be validated by the compilation ofhistorical texts describing flood events, as applied to the reconstructionof past Mediterranean riverine and storm-induced flooding from fluvialor lagoonal archives (Sabatier et al., 2008; Blanchemanche, 2009; Bergeret al., 2010; Dezileau et al., 2011; Degeai et al., 2015).

In this paper, we focus on the study of the evolution of fluvial activityin coastal wetlands during the MCA and the LIA from a lagoonal sedi-mentary sequence in the NWMediterranean. The results are comparedwith sedimentary records or historical written sources of flood and run-off events in order to assess the reliability of our data. A statistical-basedcomparison with regional and global climate proxy records is then un-dertaken in order to evidence the climatic mechanisms at the origin ofthe variability of the fluvial activity in the NW Mediterraneancoastlands.

2. Geological setting

The study area is located in the region of Languedoc along the conti-nental shelf of the Gulf of Lions, which extends in the Northwestern

Fig. 1. Locationmaps of the studied area in theNorthwesternMediterranean. (A) Topographical map of the lagoons along theGulf of Lions; (B) Geological map of the Bagnas pond and thefloodplain of the Hérault River in Languedoc.

177J.-P. Degeai et al. / Global and Planetary Change 152 (2017) 176–186

Mediterranean between the Pyrenees to the Southwest and the Alps tothe Northeast (Fig. 1A). The shelf was affected by a seaward tilt from atilting zone with null subsidence along the Languedoc coastline(Rabineau et al., 2005, 2006). The western coast of the Gulf of Lionshas been tectonically stable for the last 30 kyr (Lambeck and Bard,2000). The deceleration of sea-level rise from the middle of theHolocene induced the formation of coastal sandbars and many lagoonsalong the shoreline of the Gulf of Lions (Barusseau et al., 1996; Certainet al., 2005; Tesson et al., 2005; Raynal et al., 2009; Court-Picon et al.,2010). The sea-level rise along the French Mediterranean coast waslower than 25 cm over the past 1500 years (Laborel et al., 1994;Lambeck and Bard, 2000; Vella and Provansal, 2000; Morhange et al.,2001; Vacchi et al., 2016).

Amongst the lagoons in Languedoc, the Bagnas pond is located to thesouth of the Thau Lagoon between the municipalities of Agde andMarseillan (Fig. 1B). It contains a continuous lagoonal sequence of ca.5 m thick for approximately the last millennium (Fig. 2A). This veryshallow lagoon is b1 m-depth and evolves into a maritime marsh. Itssub-elliptical surface exhibits a length of 2 km and a width of 1.5 km.The catchment of the Bagnas Lagoon is about 10 km2 and surroundedby the 4 km wide floodplain of the Hérault River to the west and the

Thau Lagoon to the east. The maximal elevation is found at 114 m inthe south of the Bagnas catchmentwhere is located the Pleistocene sco-ria cone of the Mont Saint-Loup.

Field observations and geological map show that the catchment ismainly covered with Pleistocene alluvial deposits composed of quartzand basalt gravels and pebbles in a brownish to reddish silty clayeyma-trix (Berger et al., 1978). Holocene deposits outcrop in the channel ofthe Bragues River, which drains the Bagnas catchment (Fig. 1B). Thesedimentation in the Bagnas Lagoon is supplied by the fluvial inputsfrom the Bragues River and the Hérault River.

The Hérault's riverine flux into the Bagnas occurs during floodevents by a narrow corridor between the basaltic lava flow of Agdeand the western hillside of the Bagnas catchment. The minimum eleva-tion of this corridor is at 0.9 m above sea level and its mean width is ofthe order of 250 m. The different flooding simulations in the HéraultRiver valley and surrounding areas reveal that the Bagnas is very sensi-tive to the Hérault River flood events (Fig. S1). In all tested scenarios(decadal, centennial, and millennial probability of flood), the height ofinundation in the Bagnas basin exceeds 2 m. A total of 23 floods witha height of water column higher than or equal to 2 m were recordedon the stream gauge at Agde since the mid-1800s (Table S1). The max-imum flood height of 3.65mwasmeasured in September of 1875 and inDecember of 1997 (DIREN, 2007; DDTM, 2014).

Besides, the Bagnas pond may have been affected by brief episodesof marine submersion during extreme sea storm surge events, whichcan lead to reworking of materials from the coastal barrier into the la-goon (Degeai et al., 2015). The Bagnas lagoonal sequence recordedone storm episode during the MCA and five storm episodes during theLIA (Degeai et al., 2015).

3. Material and methods

3.1. Sampling

The lagoonal sedimentary sequence of the Bagnas pond was sam-pled on a levee in the central part of the lagoon (B1 core, Fig. 1B) witha one-meter long thin wall tube equipped with a 80-mm diameter cut-ting shoe andmounted on a hydraulic piston corer. TheMCA-LIA periodis represented on the five upper meters of the Bagnas sequence(Fig. 2A). Additional sampleswere taken in the catchment of the Bagnaspond, on the coastal sandbars and in the Hérault River floodplain inorder to find geochemical tracers of detrital material deposited in theBagnas basin (Fig. 1B).

3.2. Geochronology

The age-depth model was established from Accelerator Mass Spec-trometry (AMS) 14C radiocarbon ages (CDRC Lyon) on terrestrial mate-rial (charcoal, fragment of wood) and mollusc shells (Fig. 2, Table 1). Tominimize the risk of sampling reworked shells, we have selected onlymonospecific bivalve lagoonal species (Parvicardium exiguum) in finesediments with the two valves connected. The calibration of the radio-carbon ages of mollusc shells was achieved by using a reservoir ageR(t) determined for the Bagnas Lagoon for the last 3 kyr (Fig. 2B). Thisreservoir age includes the regional reservoir age offset ΔR from theworld ocean 14C age (Stuiver and Braziunas, 1993; Siani et al., 2000;Hughen et al., 2004). It was calculated by the use of five control points(CP1–CP5, Fig. 2B). Thus the evolution of the reservoir age of the B1 se-quence is one of the best characterized in the Mediterranean basin forthe Late Holocene.

The control points CP1 and CP2 correspond to the 14C ages atrespectively 0.6 m depth (or −0.1 m asl) and 0.75 m depth(or −0.25 m asl) (Table 1). The R(t) of CP1 and CP2 was obtainedfrom the comparison of the conventional 14C age of shells at thesecontrol points with the 14C age at 0 m asl in the B1 core. This levelcorresponds to the land emergence of the drilling site that occurred

Fig. 2. Stratigraphy and chronology of the Bagnas B1 sequence. A: age-depth model; B:reservoir age R(t). M.A.R.: mean accumulation rate, MCA: Medieval Climate Anomaly,LIA: Little Ice Age. The parts of the age spectra coloured in red correspond to the 2-σranges not included in the age-depth model (see explanation in text). (Forinterpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred tothe web version of this article.)

178 J.-P. Degeai et al. / Global and Planetary Change 152 (2017) 176–186

between 1774 and 1821 CE from the historical maps of the RoyalCanal of Languedoc and the Napoleonic cadastre, i.e. between 168± 7 and 102 ± 6 14C yr BP from the IntCal13 calibration curve(Reimer et al., 2013). The R(t) of CP3 and CP4 was determined bycomparing the conventional 14C age of shells at 2.75 and 3.825 mdepth with the respective atmospheric 14C age of wood and charcoalat 2.65 and 3.65 m depth (Table 1). The control point CP5 corre-sponds to the reservoir age of 600 ± 49 yr BP at the 14C age of 2935± 35 BP found for the adjacent lagoon of Thau by Court-Picon et al.(2010). The reservoir age of the lowermost shell at 4.80 m depthwas calculated by using a linear regression between the convention-al 14C age and the reservoir age of CP4 and CP5 (Fig. 2B).

Finally, the atmospheric 14C age of shells was obtained bysubtracting the reservoir age R(t) from the conventional 14C age ofshells (Stuiver and Braziunas, 1993; Reimer and McCormac, 2002;Sabatier et al., 2010a). The atmospheric 14C ages of shells, charcoals,and woods were then calibrated using Calib 7.0.4 and the IntCal13 cali-bration curve (Reimer et al., 2013). Besides, the most recent intervals ofthe 2-σ confidence level for the six uppermost calibrated ages were nottaken into account in the age model, given that all the dated materialfrom the B1 sequence was sampled in lagoonal sediments, while theabove-mentioned historical maps show that the drilling site emergedfrom the lagoon and evolved in an aerial environment from the late17th/early 18th centuries CE.

3.3. Geochemical analyses

The geochemistry of the sediments from the B1 sequence and thedetrital source around the Bagnas Lagoon was studied from energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) analyses with the 3-beam soilanalytical mode of a Delta InnovX portable spectrometer. The parame-ters of voltage, amperage, filter, and counting times were 40 kV, 70 μA,filter #3, 15 s for the first beam, 40 kV, 40 μA, filter #2, 15 s for the sec-ond beam, and 10 kV, 45 μA, filter #5, 20 s for the third beam. The mea-surements for the B1 sequence were performed by core scanning every2 cmon average on the bulk sediment previously coveredwith an ultra-fine polyethylene film. The ±1-σ errors calculated from the EDXRFspectra for the elemental abundances measured by the Delta InnovXspectrometer are lower than ±5% for Cl, K, Ca, Ti, Mn, Fe, Zn, Rb, Sr,Zr, and between ±5 and ±15% for S, Cr, Co, As, Ba, Pb.

The age scales of the geochemical records were established usingAnalyseries v2.0.8 (Paillard et al., 1996).

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Geochemical proxies

The age-depthmodel from the Bagnas lagoonal sediments shows thatthe five upper meters of the B1 sequence encompass the MCA (or MWP)and the LIA (Fig. 2). These five upper meters are mainly composed of redto reddish brown clay to silty clay. The mean accumulation rates variedfrom 1.8 to 3.5 mm·yr−1 between ca. 800 and 1700 cal yr CE, and thenincreased at 21.2 mm·yr−1 during the 18th century CE.

A multivariate analysis of the geochemistry of detrital sources fromthe Bagnas catchment, the coastal sandbars, and the floodplain of theHérault River shows that the fluvial sedimentary inputs deposited inthe Bagnas lagoon from the Bragues River and the Hérault River arecharacterized by relative high contents of K, Rb, Ba, Zn, Zr, As, and Pb(Fig. 3). The origin of these seven elements in the sedimentary se-quences from the Western Mediterranean are discussed below inorder to select the most suitable elements to track the fluvial activityin the Bagnas lagoon.

The riverine detrital supplies in the Late Holocenemarine sedimentsfrom the Western Mediterranean are characterized by high values of Kand Rb, which are associated with common host mineral phases suchas illite, chlorite, K-feldspars, fibrous clays, or smectites (Frigola et al.,2007; Martin-Puertas et al., 2010; Nieto-Moreno et al., 2011;Rodrigo-Gamiz et al., 2011, 2014; Moreno et al., 2012; Martinez-Ruizet al., 2015). The illite mineral dominates the clay assemblage of theLast Glacial and Holocene sediments from the Gulf of Lions(Bout-Roumazeilles et al., 2007, 2013). On the continent, Sabatieret al. (2010b) evidenced that the clay minerals from the sedimentarysources around the lagoons in northern Languedoc are mainly com-posed of smectite for the riverine supply and illite for the coastalsandbars.

The K-enriched sediments from the Zonar Lake in southern Spainwere supposed to be representative of detrital inputs during theflooding episodes over the last 4000 years (Martin-Puertas et al.,2011). For the same Spanish lake, Rb was considered as an allochtho-nous component of the lacustrine sediments andwasproposed as a pos-sible proxy for erosion in the catchment area (Martin-Puertas et al.,2010). Thus, the Rb/Al ratio was interpreted as a runoff-precipitationproxy reflecting the rainfall variability (Martin-Puertas et al., 2010). Be-sides, an increase of the K content was evidenced during the Holoceneflood events from the lacustrine sequence of the Lake Ledro in theSouthern Alps in Italy (Wirth et al., 2013a).

Table 1AMS 14C ages of the Bagnas B1 lagoonal sequence. (*) range not included in the age-depth model (see explanation in text).

Laboratorycode

Material Depth(cm)

14C age(BP)

Reservoir ageR(t) in year BP

1-σ ranges of calibrated age and relative probability 2-σ ranges of calibrated age and relativeprobability

Lyon-11181 Parvicardiumexiguum

60 1620 ± 30 1483 ± 49 1679–1700, 1703–1705, 1720–1764, 1774–1776,1800–1819, 1833–1880*, 1915–1939* cal CE

1669–1781, 1797–1894, 1905–1946* cal CE


75 1720 ± 40 1580 ± 56 1677–1699, 1721–1766, 1772–1776, 1800–1817,1833–1879*, 1916–1940* cal CE

1668–1782, 1797–1893, 1906–1948* cal CE

Lyon-11169 Wood 235 120 ± 30 0 1685–1709, 1718–1731, 1808–1827*, 1831–1888*,1910–1927* cal CE

1679–1764, 1775–1775*, 1801–1939* cal CE

Lyon-11168 Wood 252.5 95 ± 30 0 1695–1726, 1814–1837*, 1843–1852*,1868–1873*, 1876–1898*, 1901–1918* cal CE

1683–1735, 1806–1930* cal CE

Lyon-11167 Wood 265 170 ± 35 0 1666–1689, 1729–1784*, 1796–1810*, 1925–1949*cal CE

1656–1706, 1719–1819*, 1824–1825*,1832–1883*, 1914–1949* cal CE


275 1370 ± 35 1162 ± 49 1651–1680, 1740–1740*, 1763–1801*, 1938–1949*cal CE

1641–1693, 1727–1812*, 1919–1949* cal CE

Lyon-11166 Charcoal 365 555 ± 35 0 1322–1347, 1392–1419 cal CE 1306–1363, 1385–1433 cal CELyon-11178 Parvicardium

exiguum382.5 1350 ± 35 728 ± 49 1298–1323, 1347–1373, 1376–1393 cal CE 1290–1401 cal CE


480 1995 ± 30 690 ± 49 659–726, 738–768 cal CE 640–781, 787–877 cal CE


The zirconium present in the Late Holocene marine or lacustrinesediments from the Western Mediterranean is usually hosted in zirconminerals transported by aeolian processes (Martin-Puertas et al.,2010; Nieto-Moreno et al., 2011, 2013a; Rodrigo-Gamiz et al., 2011,2014; Moreno et al., 2012; Martinez-Ruiz et al., 2015). The zinc is a

redox-sensitive element possibly deriving from sulphides in oxygen-poor bottom waters (Moreno et al., 2004; Nieto-Moreno et al., 2011;Rodrigo-Gamiz et al., 2011, 2014; Martinez-Ruiz et al., 2000, 2015). Ex-cess of barium was reported as an indicator of either marinepaleoproductivity (Martinez-Ruiz et al., 2000, 2015; Jimenez-Espejo

Fig. 3.Principal component analysis of the geochemistry of detrital sources around theBagnas lagoon. Eachdatasetwas transformed into a standardized andmeannormalizeddistribution.

Fig. 4. Content of K, Rb, and S, and K/S and Rb/S elemental ratios from the Bagnas B1 sequence with error bars.


et al., 2008; Rodrigo-Gamiz et al., 2011, 2014), endogenic carbonate for-mation in lacustrine ecosystems (Martin-Puertas et al., 2011), or river-ine input (Nieto-Moreno et al., 2011). Besides, arsenic and lead weredetected in the Western Mediterranean anthropogenic environmentalpaleopollutions during the last millennia (Martin-Puertas et al., 2010;Elbaz-Poulichet et al., 2011; Serrano et al., 2011).

From the above considerations, only K and Rb were used in order toevidence the fluvial inputs into the Bagnas Lagoon (Fig. 4). The other el-ements were discarded because they cannot unambiguously record thefluvial input owing to their potential aeolian, authigenic, or anthropo-genic origin in the Western Mediterranean.

The elemental concentrations in marine sediments are generally Al-normalized in order to minimize the effects of dilution by calcium car-bonate (Thomson et al., 1999; Moreno et al., 2004; Martinez-Ruizet al., 2015), although some cautions have to be taken when using thiscommon divisor in such normalizations (Van der Weijden, 2002). Incoastal lagoons, the sulphur content of sediments was included in ele-mental ratios used as paleosalinity proxies (Lopez-Buendia et al.,1999; Chagué-Goff et al., 2002). An increase to high S-values can indi-cate change from freshwater to brackish or saltwater in the lagoonal se-quences (Chagué-Goff et al., 2002; Haenssler et al., 2013). Besides,Martin-Puertas et al. (2011) showed that the S-rich sediments in a la-custrine sequence from southern Spain were deposited in a saline lakewith gypsum, while sediments enriched in elements associated withalumina-silicates such as K reflect freshwater conditions. Consequently,the high values of the K/S and Rb/S ratios from the Western Mediterra-nean lagoonal sequences are thought to be representative of freshwaterinputs into the lagoon during periods of higher fluvial activity.

4.2. Comparison with historical floods

The K/S and Rb/S elemental ratios are highly correlated (r = 0.98)and show similar patterns (Fig. 4). Both ratios were used to calculatethe Bagnas fluvial index (BFI) (Fig. 5). The BFI corresponds to the stan-dard scores of the average of the K/S and Rb/S ratios. A positive BFI indi-cates a higher than average fluvial activity. Major fluvial periods can bedemarcatedwhen there is no overlap of the 2-σ ranges of the calibratedradiocarbon age model associated with the positive values of the BFI.

The BFI were compared with historical flood events for rivers inLanguedoc in order to validate the radiocarbon age model of the B1 se-quence (Fig. 5). The riverine flooding in Languedocwas documented for

the last centuries from historical written sources (Blanchemanche,2009; Berger et al., 2010; Larguier, 2011). Amongst these historical ar-chives, the financial cost of flood damage can be considered as an indi-cator of the occurrence of flood events for the period of1300–1600 CE, but not of the intensity of floods, given that the valueof currency may have changed during this period (Larguier, 2011).

The period of high fluvial activity evidenced from the Bagnas lagoonalsequence between 1660 and 1780 cal yr CE approximately matches themajor phase of riverine flooding in Languedoc between 1680 and1770 CE. The minor peaks of the BFI between 1590 and 1630 cal yr CEare supposed to be related with the peaks of flood frequency and cost offlood damage around 1600 CE. The short episode of high fluvial activityrecorded in the Bagnas lagoonal sequence at ca. 1510–1525 cal yr CEcould be linked to the brief period of high cost of flood damage between1530 and 1540 CE. Finally, although the historical data are incompletefor the second half of the 14th century CE (Larguier, 2011), we suggestthat the period with a positive BFI between 1350 and 1430 cal yr CE istied to the period of increase in flood damage between 1350 and1450 CE.

This comparative analysiswithhistoricalfloods shows amaximum lagof 20 years between the radiocarbon age model and the calendar years.Hence, the robustness of the age model used for the BFI record wouldbe sufficient to identify the multi-centennial variability of fluvial activityin the Bagnas basin, at least for the five centuries from 1300 to 1800 CE.

4.3. Regional comparison

The fluvial activity recorded in the Bagnas lagoonal sequence(Fig. 6a) was compared with other records in South of France (Fig. 6b–c), northern Italy (Fig. 6d), and Spain (Fig. 6e–g).

Overall, the fluvial activity in the Bagnas pond seems to have beenhigher during the LIA than during the MWP (Fig. 6a). In the meantime,an increase of riverine input in themarine sediments from thewestern-mostMediterraneanwas evidenced during the LIA, while drier environ-mental conditionswith lowflood frequency anddecreasingfluvial inputto marine basins were recognized in the Iberian Peninsula during theMWP (Martin-Puertas et al., 2010; Nieto-Moreno et al., 2011, 2013a;Moreno et al., 2012).

The longest fluvial flood records in South of France (Fig. 6a andc) and northern Italy (Fig. 6d) show a dominant period of low fluvial ac-tivity during the MWP from the 9th to the 12th centuries CE. The short

Fig. 5. Comparison of the Bagnas fluvial index (BFI) with historical data relative to flood events in Languedoc. a) Bagnas fluvial index (this study), b) cost of damage flood at the city of Sallèlesd'Aude (Larguier, 2011), c) river flood frequency in Languedoc (Blanchemanche, 2009). Sites with historical archives of flood events: 1) Le Cailar, 2) Marsillargues, 3) Montpellier, 4) Gignac,5) Aniane, 6) Saint-André de Sangonis, 7) Bessan, 8) Montblanc, 9) Pézenas, 10) Montagnac, 11) Sète, 12) Azillanet, 13) Villeneuve-les-Maguelone, 14) Sérignan, 15) Lattes. The parts of theBFI curve coloured in blue and the vertical blue bands correspond to the positive values of the BFI. Horizontal bold blue line: BFI N 0 with the 2-σ intervals of the cal 14C age model. Dashedarrow: possible match. FP: fluvial period. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)


period of higher than average fluvial activity in the Bagnas basin at theend of the first millennium CE (FP3) seems to be concomitant with aslight increase of the flood frequency and runoff events in the SouthernAlps and northern Spain (Fig. 6c–e).

The major fluvial period FP2 began in the late MWP and ended inthe mid-1500s CE. During this period, multidecadal to centennial pe-riods of increased flooding occurred at ca. 1150, 1350–1400, and1450–1500 cal yr CE in the southern French Alps (Fig. 6c), at 1250 and


1500 cal yr CE in Northern Italy (Fig. 6d), and at 1200 cal yr CE in centralSpain (Fig. 6f). In northern Spain, a general increase in runoff eventsstarted from 1300 cal yr CE (Fig. 6e).

The fluvial dynamics show a spatial variability in the NWMediterra-nean around 1600 cal yr CE, with a high flood frequency in the southernFrench Alps (Fig. 6c) and central and northern Spain (Fig. 6f–g), but alow flood frequency and fluvial activity in Languedoc (Fig. 6a), thelower Rhône (Fig. 6b), and northern Italy (Fig. 6d). During thefluvial pe-riod FP1 (ca. 1650–1800 cal yr CE), most flooding records from the NWMediterranean show an increase in flood events, except for the south-ern French Alps (Fig. 6c) and the northeastern Spanish coast (Fig. 6g).

Besides, the Ca/Ti and K/Ti ratios of fluvial-derived sediments depos-ited on the inner shelf of the Gulf of Lions recorded two episodes of in-creased riverineflux from the Rhone River during the lastmillennium at935–950 and 1230–1305 cal yr CE (Bassetti et al., 2016). These hydro-logical events occurred respectively during the fluvial period FP3 andin the first half of FP2.

4.4. Climate vs. anthropogenic forcing

The Late Holocene lacustrine sequences in southwestern Europeshow that the variability of the runoff or fluvial activity and the conse-quent soil erosion was potentially caused by climate and vegetationchange or by anthropogenic forcing (Macaire et al., 1997; Degeai andPastre, 2009; Simonneau et al., 2013; Vannière et al., 2013; Wirthet al., 2013b; Joannin et al., 2014; Schwörer et al., 2014; Beffa et al.,2016;Wilhelm et al., 2016). In the case of the Bagnas lagoon, these forc-ing mechanisms have been tentatively deciphered from paleobotanicaland geochemical data (Fig. S2). In Languedoc, the variations in the seedconcentration of grassland or cultivated plants can reflect vegetationchange and human impact on the environment (Bouby et al., 2013;Figueiral et al., 2015). The content of these plants is very low in theBagnas B1 sequence, except for the samples at the turn of the 17thand 18th centuries CE, which occurred, however, during years of lowor moderated fluvial activity (Fig. S2). Besides, the lead anomalies re-corded in the lagoonal sequences from Languedoc during the lastmillennia could be related to anthropogenic pollutions caused byhuman activities (Elbaz-Poulichet et al., 2011). The curve of lead con-centration in the B1 sequence shows sharp peaks at 1250, 1450–1500,and 1600 cal yr CE. These Pb anomalies also arose during years of lowor moderated fluvial activity.

Consequently, the fluvial activity recorded from the Bagnas lagoonalsequence would result mainly from climate change and variability ofprecipitation patterns rather than anthropogenic forcing and vegetationchange due to human land use,which probably plays a secondary role inthis case.

4.5. Climate mechanisms

Mostmodern rivers from Languedoc have a typical Mediterranean re-gime characterized by flash flood events due to large amounts of precip-itation that can accumulate over several days (Dezileau et al., 2014). Theatmospheric disturbances created by warm air from the Mediterranean

Sea and cold air from the Atlantic or northern Europe are reinforced bythe relief of the Massif Central (Fig. 1A).

The main periods of high fluvial activity in the NW Mediterraneancoastlands were generally synchronous with the periods of high pro-duction of ice-rafted debris (IRD) in the North Atlantic (Fig. 6h–i),which signal the occurrence of cooling events in the Northern hemi-sphere (Bond et al., 1997, 2001). Frigola et al. (2007) suggested that arapid response of the Mediterranean thermohaline circulation to cli-mate change in the North Atlantic could be confirmed by the synchro-nism between the abrupt events recorded from the Minorca sedimentdrift in the Western Mediterranean and the Holocene cooling eventsin theNorth Atlantic. In particular, the lastMinorca abrupt eventM0 oc-curred during the LIA synchronously with the last Holocene cold eventevidenced by the North Atlantic drift-ice record from Bond et al.(1997, 2001).

In parallel to the evolution toward higher fluvial dynamics duringthe LIA, the NW Mediterranean lagoonal sequences recorded a lower(higher) storminess activity during the MCA (LIA) (Dezileau et al.,2011; Sabatier et al., 2012; Degeai et al., 2015). In the centralMediterra-nean, the LIA was a relatively humid and cool period with humid sum-mers and winters (Goudeau et al., 2015), while periods with high floodfrequency coincided with cool summer temperature in the EuropeanAlps over the last 2500 years (Glur et al., 2013). The consecutive coldwinters in Europe during the LIA seem to be related to an anomaloushigh SLP system in the eastern North Atlantic, which corresponds to anegative phase of the East Atlantic (EA) pattern (Moffa-Sanchez et al.,2014; Sanchez-Lopez et al., 2016). These frequent and persistent atmo-spheric blocking eventsmodified theflowof thewesterlywinds (Moffa-Sanchez et al., 2014).

The negative state of the EA mode enhances the heat loss across theMediterranean basin and generates a cold and dry northerly airflowfrom continental Europe, which leads to amean air temperature coolingof around 1 °C close to the NWMediterranean coast (Josey et al., 2011).In the Gulf of Lions, a northerly cold and dry wind, the so-called Mistral(Fig. 1A), blows at all seasons and causes an intense surface watercooling (Sicre et al., 2016). The Mistral is favoured by anticyclonicblocking over the northeastern Atlantic, i.e. a synoptic configuration de-scribed by a negative EA pattern (Najac et al., 2009; Sicre et al., 2016).

Sicre et al. (2016) and Jalali et al. (2016) evidenced that the sea sur-face temperature (SST) in the Gulf of Lions were on average warmerduring the MCA then fluctuated strongly during the LIA from cold ex-tremes to abrupt warming (Fig. 6j). Sicre et al. (2016) suggested thatthe coldest decades of the LIAwere likely caused by phases of prevailingnegative EAmode associated with atmospheric blocking over the NorthAtlantic leading to an intensified and coldMistral wind to blow over theNW Mediterranean.

The study of instrumental data for the last decades evidenced that theEA pattern has a dominant influence on the heat budget of the WesternMediterranean Sea while the NAO plays only a secondary role (Joseyet al., 2011). Moreover, the relationship between the δ18O precipitationand the NAO was affected by the concomitant state of the EA pattern(Comas-Bru et al., 2016). In theWesternMediterranean, previous studiesevidenced that drier (wetter) periods during the MCA (LIA) were syn-chronous with positive (negative) phases of the NAO (Nieto-Moreno

Fig. 6. Comparison of fluvial flooding and runoff proxy records from the NWMediterranean. (a) Bagnas fluvial index (BFI) from K/S and Rb/S ratios (this study), (b) number of month perdecadewith aminimumflood height of 4mon the lower RhôneRiver, South of France (Pichard andRoucaute, 2014), (c) 31-yr running sumof theflood deposit occurrence frequency fromtheAllos Lake in the southern FrenchAlps (Wilhelmet al., 2012), (d) 30-yrmoving sumofflood events from the Lake Ledro in theNorth of Italy (Wirth et al., 2013a), (e) runoff events fromthe Si content in counts per second (cps) fromBasade laMora Lake innorthern Spain (Moreno et al., 2012), (f) 30-yrmoving average of the number of floods per decade in the Tagus Basin,Central Spain (Benito et al., 2003), (g) 31-yrmoving average of the zero-based value generalmean for ten series of catastrophicfloods frequency in the SpanishMediterranean coastal area(Barriendos Vallve andMartin-Vide, 1998), (h) hematite-stained grains (HSG) from theMC52andVM29-191 coring sites (Bondet al., 1997, 2001), (i) stacked ice-rafteddebris (IRD) index(Bond et al., 1997, 2001), (j) SST reconstructed from the U37

K′ index of C37 alkenones from the Gol-Ho1B_KSGC-31 sediment core on the inner shelf of the Gulf of Lions (Sicre et al., 2016),(k) NAOPCA3 index from redox parameters of the Lake SS1220 in southwestern Greenland (Olsen et al., 2012), (l) winter NAOms index from the difference between a winter precipitationrecord for Scotland and a February-to-June Palmer Drought Severity Index for Morocco (Trouet et al., 2009), (m) NAO index based on a set of 48 annually resolved proxy records distrib-uted around the Atlantic Ocean (Ortega et al., 2015). The parts of the BFI curve coloured in blue and the vertical blue bands correspond to the positive values of the BFI. Vertical bold blueline: BFI N 0 with the 2-σ intervals of the cal 14C age model. FP: fluvial periods in the Bagnas catchment. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader isreferred to the web version of this article.)


et al., 2011, 2013a, 2013b; Moreno et al., 2012; Wassenburg et al., 2013;Mensing et al., 2016; Sanchez-Lopez et al., 2016), based on the NAOprox-ies from Trouet et al. (2009), Olsen et al. (2012), and Baker et al. (2015).The Bagnas record shows a general increase in fluvial activity from theMCA to the LIA, which agrees with the above relationship betweenhumid climatic conditions in theWestern Mediterranean and a predom-inant negative phase of the NAO during the LIA. However, the period ofhigh fluvial activity between ca. 1200 and 1400 cal yr CE appears to be as-sociated with positive values of NAO indexes (Fig. 6k–m), which couldsupport the hypothesis of a complex interplay between the EA and NAOclimate modes.

5. Conclusion

Environmental change can impact the variability and intensity ofriver flood events, and it is challenging to assess the origin of fluvialdynamics in order to evidence the respective role of external forcingand internal mode of climate variability driving the continental hy-drological activity. The multi-centennial oscillation of fluvial activityin the NWMediterranean coastlands during the last millenniumwasstudied from the sediments deposited in the Bagnas lagoon in Lan-guedoc. The investigated period highlights the variation in fluvial ac-tivity during the transition from the Medieval Climate Anomaly tothe Little Ice Age, also known as the last Holocene rapid climatechange.

A principal component analysis of the detrital sources in the Bagnascatchmentwas used to decipher the riverine andmarine inputs into thelagoon. Geochemical analyses of the Bagnas lagoonal deposits was thenundertaken in order to determine the episodes of strengthened fluvialinputs into the lagoon. A fluvial index was calculated from the K/S andRb/S ratios. The sedimentary sources around the Bagnas lagoon, aswell as the marine or lacustrine sequences in the NW Mediterranean,show that the high values of K and Rb are associated with terrigenoussupply from fluvial fluxes, while the variation of the S content may berepresentative of the water salinity in the lagoon. Consequently, thehigh values of the Bagnas fluvial index (BFI) are indicative of an increaseof the riverine fluxes in the Bagnas catchment, which led to freshwatersupplies in the lagoon.

The BFI reveals three periods of higher than average fluvial activity atca. 900–950, 1150–1550, and 1650–1800 cal yr CE. The comparisonwithother records in Spain, Italy, and South of France suggests that therewasa general increase in floods in the NWMediterranean from theMedievalClimate Anomaly to the Little Ice Age. This evolution is in agreementwith the good correspondence between the periods of high fluvialactivity evidenced from the BFI and the phases of high production ofice-rafted debris during cooling events in the North Atlantic.

Besides, the variability of the fluvial activity in the NW Mediterra-nean coastlands during the last Holocene rapid climate change mayhave been driven by internal modes of atmospheric and oceanic chang-es such as the East Atlantic pattern, the North Atlantic Oscillation, andthe thermohaline circulation. Nevertheless, further studies of fluvial se-quences will be needed to firmly establish a link between the hydrolog-ical activity in the Mediterranean coastlands and coupled ocean-atmosphere dynamics.

Acknowledgements

This work was funded by a grant from the Labex ARCHIMEDE (pro-gram “Investissements d'Avenir” ANR-11-LABX-0032-01). The B1 corewas undertaken by the ArcheoEnvironnement technical platform(CNRS UMR5140). The ADENA association authorized the drill core inthe protected nature reserve of the Bagnas pond. TheAMS 14C ageswereperformed by the Centre de Datation par le RadioCarbone (CDRC, CNRSand Université Lyon 1, ARTEMIS program). We thank Dr. F. Marret-Davies (editor) and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful remarksand suggestions.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2017.03.008.

References

Bajard, M., Sabatier, P., David, F., Develle, A.-L., Reyss, J.-L., Fanget, B., Malet, E., Arnaud, D.,Augustin, L., Crouzet, C., Poulenard, J., Arnaud, F., 2016. Erosion record in Lake LaThuile sediments (Prealps, France): evidence of montane landscape dynamicsthroughout the Holocene. The Holocene 26 (3), 350–364.

Baker, A., Hellstrom, J.C., Kelly, B.F.J., Mariethoz, G., Trouet, V., 2015. A composite annual-resolution stalagmite record of North Atlantic climate over the last three millennia.Sci. Rep. 5 (10307), 1–8.

Barriendos Vallve, M., Martin-Vide, J., 1998. Secular climatic oscillations as indicated bycatastrophic floods in the Spanish Mediterranean coastal area (14th–19th centuries).Clim. Chang. 38, 473–491.

Barusseau, J.-P., Akouango, E., Bâ, M., Descamps, C., Golf, A., 1996. Evidence for short termretreat of the barrier shorelines. Quat. Sci. Rev. 15, 763–771.

Bassetti, M.-A., Berné, S., Sicre, M.-A., Dennielou, B., Alonso, Y., Buscail, R., Jalali, B., Hebert,B., Menniti, C., 2016. Holocene hydrological changes in the Rhône River (NW Medi-terranean) as recorded in the marine mud belt. Clim. Past 12, 1539–1553.

Beffa, G., Pedrotta, T., Colombaroli, D., Henne, P.D., van Leeuwen, J.F.N., Süsstrunk, P.,Kaltenrieder, P., Adolf, C., Vogel, H., Pasta, S., Anselmetti, F.S., Gobet, E., Tinner, W.,2016. Vegetation and fire history of coastal north-eastern Sardinia (Italy) underchanging Holocene climates and land use. Veg. Hist. Archaeobotany 25, 271–289.

Benito, G., Diez-Herrero, A., De Villalta, M.F., 2003. Magnitude and frequency of floodingin the Tagus Basin (Central Spain) over the last millennium. Clim. Chang. 58,171–192.

Benito, G., Macklin, M.G., Zielhofer, C., Jones, A.F., Machado, M.J., 2015a. Holocene floodingand climate change in the Mediterranean. Catena 130, 13–33.

Benito, G., Macklin, M.G., Panin, A., Rossato, S., Fontana, A., Jones, A.F., Machado, M.J.,Matlakhova, E., Mozzi, P., Zielhofer, C., 2015b. Recurring flood distribution patternsrelated to short-term Holocene climatic variability. Sci. Rep. 5 (16398), 1–8.

Berger, G., Ambert, P., Mazier, J., Gèze, B., Aubert, M., Lénat, J.-F., Aloïsi, J.-C., Got, H.,Monaco, A., 1978. Carte géologique de la France à 1/50000, Agde XXVI-45. Notice ex-plicative 1040. Minières, Orléans, Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et (31 p.).

Berger, J.-F., Blanchemanche, P., Reynès, C., Sabatier, P., 2010. Dynamiques fluviales enbasse vallée du Vidourle au cours des six derniers siècles: confrontation des donnéespédosédimentaires à haute resolution temporelle à l'analyse fréquentielle des crueshistoriques. Quaternaire 21 (1), 27–41.

Blanchemanche, P., 2009. Crues historiques et vendanges en Languedoc méditerranéenoriental: la source, le signal et l'interprétation. Archéologie du Midi Médiéval 27,225–235.

Bond, G., Showers, W., Cheseby, M., Lotti, R., Almasi, P., DeMenocal, P., Priore, P., Cullen, H.,Hajdas, I., Bonani, G., 1997. A pervasive millennial-scale cycle in North Atlantic Holo-cene and glacial climates. Science 278, 1257–1266.

Bond, G., Kromer, B., Beer, J., Muscheler, R., Evans, M.N., Showers, W., Hoffmann, S., Lotti-Bond, R., Hajdas, I., Bonani, G., 2001. Persistent solar influence on North Atlantic cli-mate during the Holocene. Science 294, 2130–2136.

Bouby, L., Figueiral, I., Bouchette, A., Rovira, N., Ivorra, S., Lacombe, T., Pastor, T., Picq, S.,Marinval, P., Terral, J.-F., 2013. Bioarchaeological insights into the process of domesti-cation of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) during Roman times in Southern France. PLoSOne 8 (5), 1–13.

Bout-Roumazeilles, V., Combourieu Nebout, N., Peyron, O., Cortijo, E., Landais, A., Masson-Delmotte, V., 2007. Connection between South Mediterranean climate and NorthAfrican atmospheric circulation during the last 50,000 yr BP North Atlantic coldevents. Quat. Sci. Rev. 26, 3197–3215.

Bout-Roumazeilles, V., Combourieu Nebout, N., Desprat, S., Siani, G., Turon, J.-L., Essallami,L., 2013. Tracking atmospheric and riverine terrigenous supplies variability duringthe last glacial and the Holocene in central Mediterranean. Clim. Past 9, 1065–1087.

Certain, R., Tessier, B., Barusseau, J.-P., Courp, T., Pauc, H., 2005. Sedimentary balance andsand stock availability along a littoral system. The case of the western Gulf of Lionslittoral prism (France) investigated by very high resolution seismic. Mar. Pet. Geol.22, 889–900.

Chagué-Goff, C., Dawson, S., Goff, J.R., Zachariasen, J., Berryman, K.R., Garnett, D.L.,Waldron, H.M., Mildenhall, D.C., 2002. A tsunami (ca. 6300 years BP) and other Holo-cene environmental changes, northern Hawke's Bay, New Zealand. Sediment. Geol.150, 89–102.

Comas-Bru, L., McDermott, F., Werner, M., 2016. The effect of the East Atlantic pattern onthe precipitation δ18O–NAO relationship in Europe. Clim. Dyn. 47 (7), 2059–2069.

Court-Picon, M., Vella, C., Chabal, L., Bruneton, H., 2010. Paléo-environnements littorauxdepuis 8000 ans sur la bordure occidentale du Golfe du Lion: le lido de l'Etang deThau (carottage SETIF, Sète, Hérault). Quaternaire 21 (1), 43–60.

Dawson, A.G., Eliot, L., Mayewski, P., Lockett, P., Noone, S., Hickey, K., Holt, T., Wadhams,P., Foster, I., 2003. Late-Holocene North Atlantic climate ‘seesaws’, storminess chang-es and Greenland ice sheet (GISP2) palaeoclimates. The Holocene 13 (3), 381–392.

Dawson, A.G., Hickey, K., Mayewski, P.A., Nesje, A., 2007. Greenland (GISP2) ice core andhistorical indicators of complex North Atlantic climate changes during the fourteenthcentury. The Holocene 17 (4), 427–434.

DDTM, 2014. Projet de plan de prévention des risques naturels d'inondation, communed'Agde. Rapport de la Direction Départementale des Territoires et de la Mer del'Hérault, Montpellier (81 p.).


Debret, M., Bout-Roumazeilles, V., Grousset, F., Desmet, M., McManus, J.F., Massei, N.,Sebag, D., Petit, J.-R., Copard, Y., Trentesaux, A., 2007. The origin of the 1500-year cli-mate cycles in Holocene North-Atlantic records. Clim. Past 3, 569–575.

Debret, M., Sebag, D., Crosta, X., Massei, N., Petit, J.-R., Chapron, E., Bout-Roumazeilles, V.,2009. Evidence from wavelet analysis for a mid-Holocene transition in global climateforcing. Quat. Sci. Rev. 28, 2675–2688.

Degeai, J.-P., Pastre, J.-F., 2009. Impacts environnementaux sur l'érosion des sols au Pléis-tocène supérieur et à l'Holocène dans le cratère de maar du Lac du Bouchet (Massifcentral, France). Quaternaire 20 (2), 149–159.

Degeai, J.-P., Devillers, B., Dezileau, L., Oueslati, H., Bony, G., 2015. Major storm periods andclimate forcing in the Western Mediterranean during the Late Holocene. Quat. Sci.Rev. 129, 37–56.

Desprat, S., Sanchez-Goni, M.F., Loutre, M.-F., 2003. Revealing climatic variability of thelast three millennia in northwestern Iberia using pollen influx data. Earth Planet.Sci. Lett. 213, 63–78.

Dezileau, L., Sabatier, P., Blanchemanche, P., Joly, B., Swingedouw, D., Cassou, C., Castaings,J., Martinez, P., Von Grafenstein, U., 2011. Intense storm activity during the Little IceAge on the French Mediterranean coast. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol.299, 289–297.

Dezileau, L., Terrier, B., Berger, J.F., Blanchemanche, P., Latapie, A., Freydier, R., Bremond, L.,Paquier, A., Lang, M., Delgado, J.L., 2014. A multidating approach applied to historicalslackwater flood deposits of the Gardon River, SE France. Geomorphology 214, 56–68.

Dezileau, L., Pérez-Ruzafa, A., Blanchemanche, P., Degeai, J.-P., Raji, O., Martinez, P., Marcos,C., Von Grafenstein, U., 2016. Extreme storms during the last 6500 years from lagoonalsedimentary archives in the Mar Menor (SE Spain). Clim. Past 12, 1389–1400.

DIREN, 2007. Atlas des zones inondables sur le bassin versant de l'Hérault. Rapport de laDirection Régionale de l'Environnement Languedoc-Roussillon, Montpellier (113 p.).

Elbaz-Poulichet, F., Dezileau, L., Freydier, R., Cossa, D., Sabatier, P., 2011. A 3500-year re-cord of hg and Pb contamination in a Mediterranean sedimentary archive (the PierreBlanche Lagoon, France). Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 8642–8647.

Figueiral, I., Pomarèdes, H., Court-Picon, M., Bouby, L., Tardy, C., Terral, J.-F., 2015. New in-sights into Mediterranean Gallo-Roman farming: a closer look at archaeological wellsin Southern France. Archaeol. Anthropol. Sci. 7, 201–233.

Fletcher, W.J., Zielhofer, C., 2013. Fragility of Western Mediterranean landscapes duringHolocene rapid climate changes. Catena 103, 16–29.

Fletcher, W.J., Debret, M., Sanchez-Goni, M.F., 2013. Mid-Holocene emergence of a low-frequency millennial oscillation in western Mediterranean climate: implications forpast dynamics of the North Atlantic atmospheric westerlies. The Holocene 23 (2),153–166.

Frigola, J., Moreno, A., Cacho, I., Canals, M., Sierro, F.J., Flores, J.A., Grimalt, J.O., Hodell, D.A.,Curtis, J.H., 2007. Holocene climate variability in the western Mediterranean regionfrom a deepwater sediment record. Paleoceanography 22, PA2209.

Frisia, S., Borsato, A., Spötl, C., Villa, I.M., Cucchi, F., 2005. Climate variability in the SE Alpsof Italy over the past 17,000 years reconstructed from a stalagmite record. Boreas 34,445–455.

Glur, L., Wirth, S.B., Büntgen, U., Gilli, A., Haug, G.H., Schär, C., Beer, J., Anselmetti, F.S.,2013. Frequent floods in the European Alps coincide with cooler periods of the past2500 years. Sci. Rep. 3 (2770), 1–8.

Gonzalez-Lemos, A., Müller, W., Pisonero, J., Cheng, H., Edwards, R.L., Stoll, H.M., 2015. Ho-locene flood frequency reconstruction from speleothems in northern Spain. Quat. Sci.Rev. 127, 129–140.

Goosse, H., Renssen, H., Timmermann, A., Bradley, R.S., 2005. Internal and forced climatevariability during the last millennium: a model-data comparison using ensemblesimulations. Quat. Sci. Rev. 24, 1345–1360.

Goudeau,M.-L.S., Reichart, G.-J.,Wit, J.C., DeNooijer, L.J., Grauel, A.-L., Bernasconi, S.M., De Lange,G.J., 2015. Seasonality variations in the Central Mediterranean during climate changeevents in the Late Holocene. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 418, 304–318.

Grauel, A.-L., Goudeau,M.-L.S., De Lange, G.J., Bernasconi, S.M., 2013. A high-resolution cli-mate reconstruction based on δ18O and δ13C of Globigerinoides ruber (white). The Ho-locene 23 (10), 1440–1446.

Grove, J.M., 2001. The initiation of the “Little Ice Age” in regions round the North Atlantic.Clim. Chang. 48, 53–82.

Haenssler, E., Nadeau, M.-J., Vött, A., Unkel, I., 2013. Natural and human induced environ-mental changes preserved in a Holocene sediment sequence from the Etoliko Lagoon,Greece: new evidence from geochemical proxies. Quat. Int. 308–309, 89–104.

Hughen, K.A., Baillie, M.G.L., Bard, E., Beck, J.W., Bertrand, C.J.H., Blackwell, P.G., Buck, C.E.,Burr, G.S., Cutler, K.B., Damon, P.E., Edwards, R.L., Fairbanks, R.G., Friedrich, M.,Guilderson, T.P., Kromer, B., McCormac, G., Manning, S., Ramsey, C.B., Reimer, P.J.,Reimer, R.W., Remmele, S., Southon, J.R., Stuiver, M., Talamo, S., Taylor, F.W., Vander Plicht, J., Weyhenmeyer, C.E., 2004. Marine04marine radiocarbon age calibration,0–26 cal kyr BP. Radiocarbon 46 (3), 1059–1086.

Jalali, B., Sicre, M.-A., Bassetti, M.-A., Kallel, N., 2016. Holocene climate variability in theNorth-Western Mediterranean Sea (Gulf of Lions). Clim. Past 12, 91–101.

Jimenez-Espejo, F.J., Martinez-Ruiz, F., Rogerson, M., González-Donoso, J.M., Romero, O.E.,Linares, D., Sakamoto, T., Gallego-Torres, D., Rueda Ruiz, J.L., Ortega-Huertas, M., PerezClaros, J.A., 2008. Detrital input, productivity fluctuations, and water mass circulationin the westernmost Mediterranean Sea since the last glacial maximum. Geochem.Geophys. Geosyst. 9 (11), 1–19.

Joannin, S., Magny, M., Peyron, O., Vannière, B., Galop, D., 2014. Climate and land-usechange during the late Holocene at Lake Ledro (southern Alps, Italy). The Holocene24 (5), 591–602.

Josey, S.A., Somot, S., Tsimplis, M., 2011. Impacts of atmospheric modes of variability onMediterranean Sea surface heat exchange. J. Geophys. Res. 116, C02032.

Laborel, J., Morhange, C., Lafont, R., Le Campion, J., Laborel-Deguen, F., Sartoretto, S., 1994.Biological evidence of sea-level rise during the last 4500 years on the rocky coasts ofcontinental southwestern France and Corsica. Mar. Geol. 120, 203–223.

Lambeck, K., Bard, E., 2000. Sea-level change along the FrenchMediterranean coast for thepast 30,000 years. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 175, 203–222.

Larguier, G., 2011. Inondations et cycles de crues de l'Aude, XIVe-XXe siècles. In: Fort, M.,Oge, F. (Eds.), Risques naturels en Méditerranée occidentale, pp. 15–22 PRODIGUMR8586 CNRS, Paris.

Lebreiro, S.M., Francés, G., Abrantes, F.F.G., Diz, P., Bartels-Jonsdottir, H.B., Stroynowski,Z.N., Gil, I.M., Pena, L.D., Rodrigues, T., Jones, P.D., Nombela, M.A., Alejo, I., Briffa,K.R., Harris, I., Grimalt, J.O., 2006. Climate change and coastal hydrographic responsealong the Atlantic Iberian margin (Tagus Prodelta and Muros Ria) during the last twomillennia. The Holocene 16 (7), 1003–1015.

Ljungqvist, F.C., Krusic, P.J., Sundqvist, H.S., Zorita, E., Brattström, G., Frank, D., 2016.Northern hemisphere hydroclimate variability over the past twelve centuries. Nature532, 94–98.

Lopez-Buendia, A.M., Bastida, J., Querol, X., Whateley, M.K.G., 1999. Geochemical data asindicators of palaeosalinity in coastal organic-rich sediments. Chem. Geol. 157,235–254.

Macaire, J.-J., Bossuet, G., Choquier, A., Cocirta, C., De Luca, P., Dupis, A., Gay, I., Mathey, E.,Guenet, P., 1997. Sediment yield during Late Glacial and Holocene periods in the LacChambon watershed, Massif Central, France. Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 22, 473–489.

Mann, M.E., Zhang, Z., Rutherford, S., Bradley, R.S., Hughes, M.K., Shindell, D., Ammann, C.,Faluvegi, G., Ni, F., 2009. Global signatures and dynamical origins of the Little Ice Ageand Medieval Climate Anomaly. Science 326, 1256–1260.

Martin-Chivelet, J., Munoz-Garcia, M.B., Edwards, R.L., Turrero, M.J., Ortega, A.I., 2011.Land surface temperature changes in Northern Iberia since 4000 yr BP, based onδ13C of speleothems. Glob. Planet. Chang. 77, 1–12.

Martinez-Ruiz, F., Kastner, M., Paytan, A., Ortega-Huertas, M., Bemascon, S.M., 2000. Geo-chemical evidence for enhanced productivity during S1 sapropel deposition in theeastern Mediterranean. Paleoceanography 15 (2), 200–209.

Martinez-Ruiz, F., Kastner, M., Gallego-Torres, D., Rodrigo-Gamiz, M., Nieto-Moreno, V.,Ortega-Huertas, M., 2015. Paleoclimate and paleoceanography over the past20,000 yr in the Mediterranean Sea basins as indicated by sediment elemental prox-ies. Quat. Sci. Rev. 107, 25–46.

Martin-Puertas, C., Jiménez-Espejo, F., Martinez-Ruiz, F., Nieto-Moreno, V., Rodrigo, M.,Mata, M.P., Valero-Garcés, B.L., 2010. Late Holocene climate variability in the south-western Mediterranean region: an integrated marine and terrestrial geochemical ap-proach. Clim. Past 6, 807–816.

Martin-Puertas, C., Valero-Garcés, B.L., Mata, M.P., Moreno, A., Giralt, S., Martinez-Ruiz, F.,Jiménez-Espejo, F., 2011. Geochemical processes in a Mediterranean Lake: a high-resolution study of the last 4,000 years in Zonar Lake, southern Spain.J. Paleolimnol. 46, 405–421.

Mayewski, P.A., Meeker, L.D., Twickler, M.S., Whifiow, S., Yang, Q., Lyons, W.B., Prentice,M., 1997. Major features and forcing of high-latitude northern hemisphere atmo-spheric circulation using a 110,000-year-long glaciochemical series. J. Geophys. Res.102 (C12), 26345–26366.

Mayewski, P.A., Rohling, E.E., Stager, J.C., Karlén, W., Maasch, K.A., Meeker, L.D., Meyerson,E.A., Gasse, F., van Kreveld, S., Holmgren, K., Lee-Thorp, J., Rosqvist, G., Rack, F.,Staubwasser, M., Schneider, R.R., Steig, E.J., 2004. Holocene climate variability. Quat.Res. 62, 243–255.

Meeker, L.D., Mayewski, P.A., 2002. A 1400-year high-resolution record of atmosphericcirculation over the North Atlantic and Asia. The Holocene 12 (3), 257–266.

Mensing, S., Tunno, I., Cifani, G., Passigli, S., Noble, P., Archer, C., Piovesan, G., 2016. Humanand climatically induced environmental change in the Mediterranean during the Me-dieval Climate Anomaly and Little Ice Age: a case from central Italy. Anthropocene 15,49–59.

Moffa-Sanchez, P., Born, A., Hall, I.R., Thornalley, D.J.R., Barker, S., 2014. Solar forcing ofNorth Atlantic surface temperature and salinity over the past millennium. Nat.Geosci. 7, 275–278.

Moreno, A., Cacho, I., Canals, M., Grimalt, J.O., Sanchez-Vidal, A., 2004. Millennial-scalevariability in the productivity signal from the Alboran Sea record, Western Mediter-ranean Sea. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 211, 205–219.

Moreno, A., Valero-Garcés, B.L., Gonzalez-Sampériz, P., Rico, M., 2008. Flood response torainfall variability during the last 2000 years inferred from the Taravilla Lake record(Central Iberian Range, Spain). J. Paleolimnol. 40, 943–961.

Moreno, A., Pérez, A., Frigola, J., Nieto-Moreno, V., Rodrigo-Gámiz, M., Martrat, B.,González-Sampériz, P., Morellón, M., Martín-Puertas, C., Corella, J.P., Belmonte, A.,Sancho, C., Cacho, I., Herrera, G., Canals, M., Grimalt, J.O., Jiménez-Espejo, F.,Martínez-Ruiz, F., Vegas-Vilarrúbia, T., Valero-Garcés, B.L., 2012. The Medieval Cli-mate Anomaly in the Iberian Peninsula reconstructed from marine and lake records.Quat. Sci. Rev. 43, 16–32.

Morhange, C., Laborel, J., Hesnard, A., 2001. Changes of relative sea level during the past5000 years in the ancient harbour of Marseilles, Southern France. Palaeogeogr.Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 166, 319–329.

Najac, J., Boé, J., Terray, L., 2009. A multi-model ensemble approach for assessment of cli-mate change impact on surface winds in France. Clim. Dyn. 32, 615–634.

Nieto-Moreno, V., Martinez-Ruiz, F., Giralt, S., Jiménez-Espejo, F., Gallego-Torres, D.,Rodrigo-Gamiz, M., Garcia-Orellana, J., Ortega-Huertas, M., de Lange, G.J., 2011. Track-ing climate variability in the western Mediterranean during the Late Holocene: amultiproxy approach. Clim. Past 7, 1395–1414.

Nieto-Moreno, V., Martinez-Ruiz, F., Giralt, S., Gallego-Torres, D., Garcia-Orellana, J.,Masqué, P., Ortega-Huertas, M., 2013a. Climate imprints during the ‘Medieval ClimateAnomaly’ and the ‘Little Ice Age’ in marine records from the Alboran Sea basin. TheHolocene 23 (9), 1227–1237.

Nieto-Moreno, V., Martinez-Ruiz, F., Willmott, V., Garcia-Orellana, J., Masqué, P.,Sinninghe Damsté, J.S., 2013b. Climate conditions in the westernmost Mediterraneanover the last two millennia: an integrated biomarker approach. Org. Geochem. 55,1–10.


Olsen, J., Anderson, N.J., Knudsen, M.F., 2012. Variability of the North Atlantic oscillationover the past 5,200 years. Nat. Geosci. 5, 808–812.

Ortega, P., Lehner, F., Swingedouw, D., Masson-Delmotte, V., Raible, C.C., Casado, M., Yiou,P., 2015. A model-tested North Atlantic oscillation reconstruction for the past millen-nium. Nature 523, 71–74.

Paillard, D., Labeyrie, L., Yiou, P., 1996. Macintosh program performs time-series analysis.EOS Trans. AGU 77 (39), 379.

Pichard, G., Roucaute, E., 2014. Sept siècles d'histoire hydroclimatique du Rhône d'Orangeà la mer (1300−2000), climat, crues, inondations. Méditerranée 122, 31–42.

Rabineau, M., Berné, S., Aslanian, D., Olivet, J.-L., Joseph, P., Guillocheau, F., Bourillet, J.-F.,Ledrezen, E., Granjeon, D., 2005. Sedimentary sequences in the Gulf of Lion: a recordof 100,000 years climatic cycles. Mar. Pet. Geol. 22, 775–804.

Rabineau, M., Berné, S., Olivet, J.-L., Aslanian, D., Guillocheau, F., Joseph, P., 2006. Paleo sealevels reconsidered from direct observation of paleoshoreline position during GlacialMaxima (for the last 500,000 yr). Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 252, 119–137.

Raynal, O., Bouchette, F., Certain, R., Séranne, M., Dezileau, L., Sabatier, P., Lofi, J., Bui XuanHy, A., Briqueu, L., Pezard, P., Tessier, B., 2009. Control of alongshore-oriented sandspits on the dynamics of a wave-dominated coastal system (Holocene deposits,northern Gulf of Lions, France). Mar. Geol. 264, 242–257.

Reimer, P.J., McCormac, F.G., 2002. Marine radiocarbon reservoir corrections for the Med-iterranean and Aegean seas. Radiocarbon 44 (1), 159–166.

Reimer, P.J., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J.W., Blackwell, P.G., Ramsey, C.B., Buck, C.E., Cheng,H., Edwards, R.L., Friedrich, M., Grootes, P.M., Guilderson, T.P., Haflidason, H., Hajdas,I., Hatté, C., Heaton, T.J., Hoffmann, D.L., Hogg, A.G., Hughen, K.A., Kaiser, K.F., Kromer,B., Manning, S.W., Niu, M., Reimer, R.W., Richards, D.A., Scott, E.M., Southon, J.R., Staff,R.A., Turney, C.S.M., Van der Plicht, J., 2013. Intcal13 and Marine13 radiocarbon agecalibration curves 0–50,000 years cal BP. Radiocarbon 55 (4), 1869–1887.

Rodrigo-Gamiz, M., Martinez-Ruiz, F., Jiménez-Espejo, F.J., Gallego-Torres, D., Nieto-Moreno, V., Romero, O., Ariztegui, D., 2011. Impact of climate variability in the west-ern Mediterranean during the last 20,000 years: oceanic and atmospheric responses.Quat. Sci. Rev. 30, 2018–2034.

Rodrigo-Gamiz, M., Martinez-Ruiz, F., Rodriguez-Tovar, F.J., Jimenez-Espejo, F.J., Pardo-Iguzquiza, E., 2014. Millennial- to centennial-scale climate periodicities and forcingmechanisms in the westernmost Mediterranean for the past 20,000 yr. Quat. Res.81, 78–93.

Sabatier, P., Dezileau, L., Condomines, M., Briqueu, L., Colin, C., Bouchette, F., Le Duff, M.,Blanchemanche, P., 2008. Reconstruction of paleostorm events in a coastal lagoon(Hérault, South of France). Mar. Geol. 251, 224–232.

Sabatier, P., Dezileau, L., Blanchemanche, P., Siani, G., Condomines, M., Bentaleb, I., Piquès,G., 2010a. Holocene variations of radiocarbon reservoir ages in a Mediterranean la-goonal system. Radiocarbon 52 (1), 1–12.

Sabatier, P., Dezileau, L., Briqueu, L., Colin, C., Siani, G., 2010b. Clayminerals and geochem-istry record from northwest Mediterranean coastal lagoon sequence: implications forpaleostorm reconstruction. Sediment. Geol. 228, 205–217.

Sabatier, P., Dezileau, L., Colin, C., Briqueu, L., Bouchette, F., Martinez, P., Siani, G., Raynal,O., Von Grafenstein, U., 2012. 7000 years of paleostorm activity in the NWMediterra-nean Sea in response to Holocene climate events. Quat. Res. 2012, 1–11.

Sanchez-Lopez, G., Hernandez, A., Pla-Rabes, S., Trigo, R.M., Toro, M., Granados, I., Saez, A.,Masqué, P., Pueyo, J.J., Rubio-Inglés, M.J., Giralt, S., 2016. Climate reconstruction forthe last two millennia in central Iberia: the role of East Atlantic (EA), North AtlanticOscillation (NAO) and their interplay over the Iberian Peninsula. Quat. Sci. Rev. 149,135–150.

Schwörer, C., Kaltenrieder, P., Glur, L., Berlinger, M., Elbert, J., Frei, S., Gilli, A., Hafner, A.,Anselmetti, F.S., Grosjean, M., Tinner, W., 2014. Holocene climate, fire and vegetationdynamics at the treeline in the Northwestern Swiss Alps. Veg. Hist. Archaeobotany23, 479–496.

Serrano, O., Mateo, M.A., Dueñas-Bohórquez, A., Renom, P., López-Sáez, J.A., MartínezCortizas, A., 2011. The Posidonia oceanica marine sedimentary record: a Holocene ar-chive of heavy metal pollution. Sci. Total Environ. 409, 4831–4840.

Siani, G., Paterne, M., Arnold, M., Bard, E., Métivier, B., Tisnerat, N., Bassinot, F., 2000. Ra-diocarbon reservoir ages in the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. Radiocarbon 42(2), 271–280.

Sicre, M.-A., Jalali, B., Martrat, B., Schmidt, S., Bassetti, M.-A., Kallel, N., 2016. Sea surfacetemperature variability in the North Western Mediterranean Sea (Gulf of Lion) dur-ing the Common Era. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 456, 124–133.

Simonneau, A., Chapron, E., Vannière, B., Wirth, S.B., Gilli, A., Di Giovanni, C., Anselmetti,F.S., Desmet, M., Magny, M., 2013. Mass-movement and flood-induced deposits in

Lake Ledro, southern Alps, Italy: implications for Holocene palaeohydrology and nat-ural hazards. Clim. Past 9, 825–840.

Stuiver, M., Braziunas, T.F., 1993. Modeling atmospheric 14C influences and 14C ages ofmarine samples to 10,000 BC. Radiocarbon 35 (1), 137–189.

Tesson, M., Labaune, C., Gensous, B., 2005. Small rivers contribution to the Quaternaryevolution of a Mediterranean littoral system: the western gulf of Lion, France. Mar.Geol. 222–223, 313–334.

Thomson, J., Mercone, D., de Lange, G.J., van Santvoort, P.J.M., 1999. Review of recent ad-vances in the interpretation of eastern Mediterranean sapropel S1 from geochemicalevidence. Mar. Geol. 153, 77–89.

Trouet, V., Esper, J., Graham, N.E., Baker, A., Scourse, J.D., Frank, D.C., 2009. Persistent pos-itive North Atlantic Oscillation mode dominated the Medieval Climate Anomaly. Sci-ence 324, 78–80.

Trouet, V., Scourse, J.D., Raible, C.C., 2012. North Atlantic storminess and Atlantic meridi-onal overturning circulation during the last millennium: reconciling contradictoryproxy records of NAO variability. Glob. Planet. Chang. 84–85, 48–55.

Vacchi, M., Marriner, N., Morhange, C., Spada, G., Fontana, A., Rovere, A., 2016. Multiproxyassessment of Holocene relative sea-level changes in the western Mediterranean:sea-level variability and improvements in the definition of the isostatic signal. EarthSci. Rev. 155, 172–197.

Van der Weijden, C.H., 2002. Pitfalls of normalization of marine geochemical data using acommon divisor. Mar. Geol. 184, 167–187.

Vannière, B., Magny, M., Joannin, S., Simonneau, A., Wirth, S.B., Hamann, Y., Chapron, E.,Gilli, A., Desmet, M., Anselmetti, F.S., 2013. Orbital changes, variation in solar activityand increased anthropogenic activities: controls on the Holocene flood frequency inthe Lake Ledro area, northern Italy. Clim. Past 9, 1193–2013.

Vella, C., Provansal, M., 2000. Relative sea-level rise and neotectonic events during the last6500 yr on the southern eastern Rhône delta, France. Mar. Geol. 170, 27–39.

Wanner, H., Beer, J., Bütikofer, J., Crowley, T.J., Cubasch, U., Flückiger, J., Goosse, H.,Grosjean, M., Joos, F., Kaplan, J.O., Küttel, M., Müller, S.A., Prentice, I.C., Solomina, O.,Stocker, T.F., Tarasov, P., Wagner, M., Widmann, M., 2008. Mid- to Late Holocene cli-mate change: an overview. Quat. Sci. Rev. 27, 1791–1828.

Wanner, H., Solomina, O., Grosjean, M., Ritz, S.P., Jetel, M., 2011. Structure and origin ofHolocene cold events. Quat. Sci. Rev. 30, 3109–3123.

Wassenburg, J.A., Immenhauser, A., Richter, D.K., Niedermayr, A., Riechelmann, S., Fietzke,J., Scholz, D., Jochum, K.P., Fohlmeister, J., Schröder-Ritzrau, A., Sabaoui, A.,Riechelmann, D.F.C., Schneider, L., Esper, J., 2013. Moroccan speleothem and treering records suggest a variable positive state of the North Atlantic Oscillation duringthe Medieval Warm Period. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 375, 291–302.

Wassenburg, J.A., Dietrich, S., Fietzke, J., Fohlmeister, J., Jochum, K.P., Scholz, D., Richter,D.K., Sabaoui, A., Spötl, C., Lohmann, G., Andreae, M.O., Immenhauser, A., 2016. Reor-ganization of the North Atlantic Oscillation during the early Holocene deglaciation.Nat. Geosci. 9, 602–605.

Wilhelm, B., Arnaud, F., Sabatier, P., Crouzet, C., Brisset, E., Chaumillon, E., Disnar, J.-R.,Guiter, F., Malet, E., Reyss, J.-L., Tachikawa, K., Bard, E., Delannoy, J.-J., 2012.1400 years of extreme precipitation patterns over the Mediterranean French Alpsand possible forcing mechanisms. Quat. Res. 78, 1–12.

Wilhelm, B., Arnaud, F., Sabatier, P., Magand, O., Chapron, E., Courp, T., Tachikawa, K.,Fanget, B., Malet, E., Pignol, C., Bard, E., Delannoy, J.-J., 2013. Palaeoflood activityand climate change over the last 1400 years recorded by lake sediments in thenorth-west European Alps. J. Quat. Sci. 28 (2), 189–199.

Wilhelm, B., Vogel, H., Crouzet, C., Etienne, D., Anselmetti, F.S., 2016. Frequency and inten-sity of palaeofloods at the interface of Atlantic and Mediterranean climate domains.Clim. Past 12, 299–316.

Wirth, S.B., Gilli, A., Simonneau, A., Ariztegui, D., Vannière, B., Glur, L., Chapron, E., Magny,M., Anselmetti, F.S., 2013a. A 2000 year long seasonal record of floods in the southernEuropean Alps. Geophys. Res. Lett. 40 (15), 4025–4029.

Wirth, S.B., Glur, L., Gilli, A., Anselmetti, F.S., 2013b. Holocene flood frequency across theCentral Alps e solar forcing and evidence for variations in North Atlantic atmosphericcirculation. Quat. Sci. Rev. 80, 112–128.

Zielhofer, C., Fletcher, W.J., Mischke, S., De Batist, M., Campbell, J.F.E., Joannin, S., Tjallingii,R., El Hamouti, N., Junginger, A., Stele, A., Bussmann, J., Schneider, B., Lauer, T., Spitzer,K., Strupler, M., Brachert, T., Mikdad, A., 2017. Atlantic forcing of Western Mediterra-nean winter rain minima during the last 12,000 years. Quat. Sci. Rev. 157, 29–51.


fluvial response to the last holocene rapid climate change ... · fluvial response to the last...

Documents