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Flow Analysis
Mechanical Energy and Flow • We are interested in flow problems involving pipes, networks, and other systems.
• As we saw earlier, this will involve applica>on of the extended Bernoulli equa>on or the Mechanical Energy equa>on when pumps are involved:
€
P1γ
+V12
2g⎛
⎝ ⎜
⎞
⎠ ⎟ −
P2γ
+V22
2g⎛
⎝ ⎜
⎞
⎠ ⎟
Total−Pr essure−Difference
= z2 − z1( )Elevation−Change
+ hlosses∑System−Losses
Head Losses or Pressure Drop • The head loss or pressure drop is due to three contribu>ons:
• Head losses are categorized as either minor or major!
• Care must be taken to define the V through each appropriately. It is bePer to use mass flow rate:
Minor Losses • Minor losses are piping losses that result from components such as joints, bends, T’s, valves, fiSngs, filters, expansions, contrac>ons, etc.
• It does not imply they are insignificant!
• On the contrary, minor losses can makeup the majority of pressure drop in small systems dominated by such components.
• Minor losses are modelled two ways: – K factors – Equivalent pipe length
Minor Losses • The K factor method defines the pressure drop according to:
• The equivalent length method models the loss as an extension of pipe length for each component that yields the same pressure drop.
• K factors are more widely tabulated.
Minor Losses (Simple)
Minor Losses (Variable)
Minor Losses (Variable)
Major Losses • Major losses are due to piping and due to major components such as heat exchangers or other device for which the flow passes through.
• Piping losses are dealt with using fric>on factor models, while the major component losses are dealt with using performance data for the component or first principles, i.e. you develop a model for it!
Fric>on Factors • Fric>on factors depend on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
• Pipe geometry also effects the value of the fric>on factor: circular or non-‐circular.
• Surface roughness is also important in turbulent flows.
• Finally in laminar flows, entrance effects (boundary layer development) can be significant if the pipe is short.
• There are many models for pipe fric>on.
Fric>on Factors • There are also two defini>ons of the fric>on factor. • The Fanning fric>on factor is defined according to:
• The Darcy fric>on factor is defined according to:
• They are related through:
Fric>onal Pressure Drop • We will use the Fanning fric>on factor. The pressure drop is defined according to:
• For non-‐circular ducts and channels we use the hydraulic diameter rather than D, but D=Dh for a tube:
€
Δp =4 fLDh
12ρV 2
Pipe Fric>on
Fric>on Factor Models • Laminar Flow Re < 2300
• For non-‐circular ducts we can use:
Fric>on Factor Models • Developing Flows
L > 10Le for entrance effects to be negligible!
Fric>on Factor Models • Turbulent Flow, Re > 4000 – Blasius Model (Smooth Pipes)
– Swamee and Jain Model (Rough Pipes)
Fric>on Factor Models • Churchill Model of the Moody Diagram
Pipe Roughness
Pipe Flow Problems • There are three types of pipe flow problems: – TYPE I – Δp (unknown): Q, L, D (known) – TYPE II – Q (unknown): Δp, L, D (known) – TYPE III -‐ L or D (unknown): Δp, Q, D or L (known)
• Type I and II problems are “analysis” problems since the system dimensions are known, and the pressure/flow characteris>c is to be solved .
• Type III problems are “design” or sizing problems, since the flow characteris>cs are known, and the system dimensions are solved.
• Type II/III problems are “itera>ve” as the Reynolds number is unknown when Q or D are solu>on variables.
Example 3.1 (Problem 3.7) • Examine the system given below. The water distribu>on system is to
be designed to give equal mass flow rate to each of the two loca>ons, which are not of equal distance from the source. In order to achieve this, two pipes of different diameter are used. Determine the size of the longer pipe which yields the same mass flow rate. You may assume that all of the kine>c energy is lost at the termina>ons of the pipeline and that the pressure is atmospheric. The density of water at 20 C is = 1000 kg/m3 and the viscosity is μ = 1 x 10−3 Pa ·∙ s.
Example 3.2 (Problem 3.3) • Examine the electronics packaging enclosure described below. Nine circuit boards
are placed in an enclosure with dimensions of W = 50 cm, H = 25 cm, and L = 45 cm in the flow direc>on. If the airflow required to adequately cool the circuit board array is 3 m/s over each board, determine the fan pressure required to overcome the losses within the system. Assume each board has an effec>ve thickness of 5 mm, which accounts for the effects of the circuit board and components. You may further assume that the roughness of the boards is 2.5 mm. The air exhausts to atmospheric pressure. In your analysis include the effect of entrance and exit effects due the reduc>on in area. The density of air at 20 C is = 1.2 kg/m3 and the viscosity is μ = 1.81 x 10−5 Pa ·∙ s.
Example 3.3 (Problem 3.9) • You are to analyze the flow through a flat plate solar collector system as
shown in class. The system consists of a series of pipes connected to distribu>on and collec>on manifolds. Make any necessary assump>ons. Predict the inlet manifold, core, and exit manifold losses for the mechanical component shown below which is to be used in a solar water pre-‐heater. The design mass flow rate through the system is to be 5 kg/s of water. The inner diameter of the pipes is 12.5 mm and there are 10 in total, each having a length of 80 [cm]. Assume a pipe roughness for copper tubing. You may neglect fric>on in the manifold. The density of water at 20 C is 998.1 kg/m3, and the viscosity is 1 x 10−3 Pa ·∙ s.
Example 3.4 • Examine the system sketched below. Water is to be pumped from a
lake at a rate of 5000 L/hr through a pipeline of 30 cm diameter, to an elevated reservoir whose free surface is 30 m above the lake surface. The pipe intake is submerged 5 m below the surface of the lake and the total length of pipe is 250 m. The pipeline contains four 90 degree flanged large radius elbows.
– Develop the mechanical energy balance which gives the pressure rise (or head) required by a pump to overcome all losses and changes in eleva>on to get the water from the lake to the reservoir.
– If the density of water is 1000 [kg/m3] and the viscosity of water is 0.001 [Pa s] at 15 C, calculate the required pump pressure rise at the given flow rate. Assume that the pipe is a commercial grade steel.
– If a pump capable of delivering a pressure rise of 350 kPa at a desired flow of 1.5 kg/s (5400 L/hr) is chosen, what diameter pipe should be used to achieve this goal. You may neglect roughness for this part only.
Pipe Networks • Pipes in series and parallel or series/parallel:
Pipes in Series
Pipes in Parallel
Piping Networks
At any junc>on: Around any loop:
Example 3.5 (Problem 3.8) • You are to design an air distribu>on system having the
following layout: main line diameter D = 50 cm and four equally spaced branch lines having diameter d = 30 cm. Each branch line is to have the same air flow. To achieve this, you propose using a damper having a well defined variable loss coefficient, to control the flow in each branch. Determine the value of the loss coefficient for each damper, such that the system is balanced. Each sec>on of duct work is 5 m in length. A total flow of 10 m3/s is to be delivered by a fan. In your solu>on consider the minor losses at the junc>ons KB = 0.8, KL=0.14, and exits K = 1.0. What fan pressure is required? Assume air proper>es to be = 1.1 kg/m3, and μ = 2 x 10−5 Pa ·∙ s. Also assume the main line has a fixed damper with a K = 25.
Example 3.6 • Consider the parallel piping system shown in the sketch provided in class. The system contains two heat exchangers with different pressure loss characteris>cs. If the system as a whole is limited to a 1 MPa pressure drop, determine the flow that occurs through each branch (and hence each heat exchanger). Consider minor losses for all piping elements and pipe fric>on. The working fluid is water at standard temperature condi>ons. Also discuss, how the “equivalent” system curve can be developed for this system. That is a the pressure drop versus total flow rate.
Example 3.7 • Consider the three reservoir pumping problem sketched in class. Develop the necessary equa>ons and solve using a direct solver and Newton-‐Raphson method.
Example 3.8 (Problem 3.6) • Water flows in a pipe network (described by a sketch in
class. The pipes forming the network have the following dimensions: L1 = 1777.7 m, D1 = 0.2023 m, L2 = 1524.4 m, D2 = 0.254 m, L3 = 1777.7 m,D3 = 0.3048 m, L4 = 914.6 m, D4 = 0.254 m, L5 = 914.6 m, and D5 = 0.254 m. If the mass flowrate entering the system is mA = 50 kg/s and mB = 25 kg/s and mC = 25 kg/s are drawn off the system at points B and C, compute the pressure drops and flow in each sec>on of pipe. Ignore minor losses and assume that each junc>on is at the same eleva>on.
Two Phase Flows • Two phase flows occur when gas/liquid, liquid/liquid, or solid/liquid flow together.
• Most calcula>ons are done with simple models, but more accurate predic>ons use phenomenological models (models for special types of flow).
• For gas/liquid two phase flows, we frequently use flow maps to determine the type of flow.
• For pressure drop calcula>ons we will use simple models.
Two Phase Flows (Ver>cal)
Two Phase Flows (Ver>cal)
Two Phase Flows (Horizontal)
Two Phase Flows (Horizontal)
Two Phase Flows: Models • Two phase flow pressure drop is composed of three contribu>ons:
– Fric>on (due to mixture shear stress at wall) – Accelera>on (due to changes in density) – Gravita>onal (due to eleva>on changes)
Two Phase Flows: Models • We must consider the basic rules of mixtures for undertaking calcula>ons:
Phase Velocity
Mass Flux
Mixture Density
Void and Liquid Frac>ons Mixture Quality
Two Phase Flows: Models • Two phase flow models u>lize the concept of a “mul>plier” to
correct a reference pressure drop or pressure gradient:
• Based on component (phase) mass flow:
• Based on an individual phase but with total mass flow:
Two Phase Flows: Models • Three common models used in prac>ce: – Lockhart-‐Mar>nelli (simplest) – Chisholm (more complex) – Freidel (even more complex)
• Other more complex models exist, but should only be used when you know the type of flow that you have, i.e. slug, stra>fied, annular, etc.
• There is great uncertainty in all models due to the complex nature of the flow. Expect +/-‐ 20 % error for a good model, +/-‐ 50% or more for a simple model
Lockhart-‐Mar>nelli Model • The simplest (and first model):
Lockhart-‐Mar>nelli Model
Chisholm Model • The Chisholm model is more complex (and accurate to some extent):
Freidel Model • The Freidel model is yet more accurate (based on 25,000+ datapoints):
Model Selec>on Criteria • Choose models based on the following for greater accuracy:
• Otherwise can use other models to es>mate limits or bounds on parameters. (see notes)
Example 3.9 • Air and water flow in a three inch diameter pipe. The mass flux is G = 500 kg/s/m2 and the quality is x = 0.1. Determine the fric>onal pressure gradient required to move the flow using the Lockhart-‐Mar>nelli, Chisolm, and Friedel models. Assume T = 30 C.
Example 3.10 • Oil and gas flow in a ver>cal oil well approximately 1000 m deep
and roughly 4 inches in diameter. Once at the surface the mixture is separated and it is determined that the oil flow rate is 150,000 L/hr (roughly 1300 barrels/hr) and the gas flow rate is 285,000 L/hr (roughly 10,000 {3/hour). The density and viscosity of the oil phase are approximately 920 [kg/m3] and 0.12 [Pa s] while the density and viscosity of the gas phase at surface condi>ons are approximately 0.68 [kg/m3] and 0.0001027 [Pa s]. Determine:
– the phase quality of the mixture, i.e. “x” – the mixture density – the fric6onal pressure gradient of the two phase mixture in the well – the pressure at the boPom of the well assuming that the quality
remains constant throughout the flow to the surface and the pressure in the separator is 300 kPa