flemish eurydice report 2001 education policy and education

FFlleemmiisshh EEuurryyddiiccee rreeppoorrtt 22000011

Education policy and education organisation in

Flanders

J.C. Verhoeven

L. Dom

Ministry of the Flemish Community

Education Department

Education Policy Coordination Division

Brussels, 2002

PREFACE

Each year, at the request and with the support of the European Commission, a review is given of the

educational policy and the educational organisation in the Member States of the European Union. This is

done in the framework of the EURYDICE campaign of the SOCRATES programme. The result is a

wide-ranging overview of the situation of education in the Member States that facilitate comparative

studies. Within this framework, the Education Department of the Ministry of the Flemish Community

had compiled already in past years a whole series of data. They can be found on the Internet at

http://www.eurydice.org/Eurybase/Application/frameset.asp?country=BN&language=EN. They are

updated by us each year since 1997. This book continues this tradition. It describes the educational

policy and the educational organisation in Flanders in 2001 as required by EURYDICE. Therefore, there

are virtually no critical reflections to be found here. The primary intention of the book is to provide

information.

As in 1997, 1998, 1999, and 2000 in the Dutch version of the book, in this English version, the

educational structure and the educational policy of 2001 is described. The structure of the book has

remained largely the same as that of the previous books. The content, of course, has been adapted to the

new situation. These adaptations required a good deal of investigative work and would have been

impossible to make without the help of the many experts of the Education Department. A number of

them have critically read and commented on one or more chapters of the English version. For this, we

thank in particular Eddy Boey, Wilfried Boomgaert, Wim Cloots, Hilde Coucke, Kaat Huylebroeck,

Renilde Reynders, Annusschka Seyssens, Jos Vanderheyden, and Johan Geentjens. Their comments have

helped us considerably. If errors still remain, they are, of course, our responsibility. In addition, we have

regularly sought advice from the staff of the Education Department, such as E. Coeckelberghs, P.

Cornelis, Y. De Coster, W. De Pelsemaeker, I. Depoorter, D. De Vogelaere, M. De Winne, E. Ghyssels

R. Standaert, and M. Vanvolsem who always could fill in the gaps. Moreover, we received advice from

B. Tsiobbel and M. Vermeulen (Gemeenschapsonderwijs), M. Verckens (VLIR), A. Laenen and K.

Meulemans (Personnel department of K.U.Leuven), and the “Federatie Steinerscholen”. Without the help

of Mrs. Micheline Scheys, and Mrs. Katty De Loof, assisted by Mrs. Mieke Stessens, who made the

contacts in the department and assisted in the entire project, this work would not have been completed on

time. To all of them, our sincere thanks.

This year, I received again the support of Leen Dom for the adaptation of the book. She did a fine job. In

addition, Carla Ons, as in the previous years, provided for the final design of the book. For all this help,

we can only be grateful.

ii Flemish Eurydice report 2001

Finally, our thanks also go to Mr. G. Monard, the former Secretary-General of the Education Department,

and Mr. L. Van Buyten, the Secretary-General of the Education Department, who entrusted us with this

task.

We hope that this work will contribute to a better insight into the structure of formal education in

Flanders.

Jef C. Verhoeven

CONTENTS

Preface i

Contents iii

List of tables xv

CHAPTER 1. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND 1

1.1. Historical overview 1

1.1.1. Toward a federal state 1

1.1.2. Levels of decision-making 2

1.1.3. Political parties in Flanders 2

1.1.4. Constitutional guarantees for education 3

1.2. Main executive and legislative bodies 3

1.3. Religion and education 4

1.4. Languages 5

1.4.1. The Dutch-speaking area 5

1.4.2. Education and migrant children 5

1.5. Child rights 7

1.6. Demographic indicators 9

1.7. Economic indicators 9

1.7.1. Flemish economic development 9

1.7.2. Flemish working population 10

1.8. Statistics 10

CHAPTER 2. GENERAL ORGANISATION OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM AND

GENERAL EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION 15

2.1. Historical overview and general principles 15

2.1.1. Historical overview 15

2.1.2. Key concepts 15

2.1.3. School pact law 16

2.1.4. School pact law after four decades 17

2.1.5. Legal provisions for grant-aided schools 18

2.1.6. Teaching methods and the educational project 19

2.1.7. Curriculum development 20

2.1.8. Educational networks 20

Flemish Eurydice report 2001 iv

2.2. Compulsory education 22


2.2.2. Compulsory education: present law 22

2.2.3. Monitoring compulsory education 23

2.3. General structure of and defining moments in educational guidance 24

2.4. General administration 27

2.4.1. General administration at national level 27

2.4.1.1. General framework 27

2.4.1.2. The ministry 27

2.4.1.3. Community education 28

2.4.1.4. Grant-aided official education 29

2.4.1.5. Grant-aided free education 30

2.4.1.5.1. Private education 30

2.4.1.5.2. Grant-aided free catholic schools 30

2.4.1.5.3. Other grant-aided free schools 31

2.4.2. General administration at regional and local level 31

2.4.3. Educational institutions, administration, and management 31

2.4.3.1. Educational institutions, administration, and management at pre-school, 31

primary and secondary level

2.4.3.1.1. Administrative posts and decision-making bodies at the 31

school level

2.4.3.1.2. Competence 32

2.4.3.1.3. Recruitment and appointment procedures 34

2.4.3.1.4. In-service training 35

2.4.3.1.5. Organisation and planning of education 35

2.4.3.2. Educational institutions, administration, and management at colleges 38

of higher education

2.4.3.2.1. General administrative structures and posts 38

2.4.3.2.2. Administrative structures and posts on a lower level 39

2.4.3.3. Educational institutions, administrations, and management at 40

universities

2.4.3.3.1. General administrative bodies at the top 40

2.4.3.3.2. General administrative posts at the top 42

2.4.3.3.3. Administrative bodies at a lower level 43

Contents v

2.5. Internal consultation within and between levels of education 44

2.5.1. Flemish education council 44

2.5.2. Consultation at tertiary education level 45

2.6. Participation by, and consultation of, various actors in society 45

2.6.1. General framework 45

2.6.1.1. Community education 46

2.6.1.2. Grant-aided official and grant-aided free education 49

2.6.1.2.1. Structures for participation 49

2.6.1.2.2. Responsibilities 50

2.6.1.3. Participation in some alternative schools 50

2.6.1.4. Conflict mediation 50

2.6.2. Teacher participation 51

2.6.3. Relation with the labour market 52

2.6.4. Parents, teachers, and student organisations 52

2.6.4.1. Parents’ associations 52

2.6.4.2. Teachers’ unions 53

2.6.4.3. Student umbrella associations 54

2.7. School guidance services 54

2.7.1. General overview 55

2.7.2. Main tasks of the Centre for Educational Guidance 57

2.7.3. Staff of the Centre for Educational Guidance 58

2.7.4. Co-ordination of guidance centres 58

2.8. School calendar 59

2.8.1. School year 59

2.8.2. Weekly and daily timetable 60

2.9. Geographical accessibility 60

2.10. Choice of school 60

2.11. Administrative monitoring and inspection 61

2.12. Financing, and education budget 61

2.12.1. Evolution of public spending 62

2.12.2. Public funding scheme after 1988 62

2.12.3. Distribution of resources 63

Flemish Eurydice report 2001 vi

2.12.4. School funding criteria 65

2.12.4.1. Conditions for funding and subsidising schools 65

2.12.4.2. Staff 67

2.12.4.3. Operating and equipment costs 67

2.12.4.4. Capital expenditures 68

2.12.5. Financial management 69

2.12.6. Funding of colleges of higher education 69

2.12.7. Funding of universities 70

2.12.8. Evolution of school funding 73

2.12.8.1. Decentralisation 73

2.12.8.2. The resource-sharing problem 73

2.12.9. Financing and education budget at various levels 74

2.13. Economic accessibility, financial aid 76

2.14. Statistics 77

CHAPTER 3. PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION 79


3.2. Specific legislative framework 80

3.3. Types of institutions 80

3.4. Admission requirements 80

3.5. Levels and age groups 81

3.6. General objectives 81

3.7. Curriculum, subjects, number of hours 82

3.8. Methods 83

3.9. Pupil evaluation 83

3.10. Special assistance for pupils 83

3.11. Organisational variations, alternative structures 85

3.12. Statistics 85

CHAPTER 4. PRIMARY EDUCATION 87



4.3. Types of institutions 88

4.4. Admission requirements 88

4.5. Levels and age groups 89


Contents vii


4.8. Methods 90


4.10. Certification 91



4.13. Statistics 93

CHAPTER 5. SECONDARY EDUCATION 97



5.3. General description of the structure of secondary education 99

5.3.1. Types of institutions 99

5.3.2. Admission requirements 100

5.3.3. Levels and age groups 101

5.3.4. Branches of study and specialisation 101

5.3.4.1. General overview 101

5.3.4.2. General secondary education 104

5.3.4.3. Technical secondary education 104

5.3.4.4. Art secondary education 105

5.3.4.5. Full-time vocational secondary education 105

5.3.4.6. Part-time vocational education 107

5.3.4.7. Industrial apprenticeship contract 108

5.3.4.8. Fourth stage of vocational secondary education 108



5.6. Methods 110


5.8. Certification 111

5.9. Openings, training-employment relationship 111



5.12. Statistics 115

Flemish Eurydice report 2001 viii

CHAPTER 6. HIGHER EDUCATION 121


6.1.1. Colleges of higher education: history 121

6.1.2. Universities and university studies: history 123


6.3. General description of the structure of higher education 125

6.3.1. Education of colleges of higher education and types of institutions 125


6.3.3. Branches of study, specialisation 126

6.3.4. General objectives 127

6.3.5. Curriculum, subjects, number of hours 128

6.3.6. Methods 128

6.3.7. Student evaluation 129

6.3.8. Certification 129

6.3.9. Openings, training-employment relationship 129

6.3.10. Special assistance for pupils 130

6.4. University education 130

6.4.1. In general 131


6.4.3. Branches of study, specialisation 132

6.4.4. General objectives 133

6.4.5. Curriculum, subjects, number of hours 133

6.4.6. Methods 134

6.4.7. Student evaluation 134

6.4.8. Certification 135

6.4.9. Special assistance for students 136


6.6. Statistics 138

CHAPTER 7. ADULT EDUCATION 145

7.1. Introduction 145

7.2. Decision-making bodies, financing 146

7.3. Participation by and consultation of various actors in social life 146

7.4. General description of main branches of study 146

Contents ix

7.4.1. Social advancement education 146

7.4.1.1. Admission requirements, target group 147

7.4.1.2. General objectives 148

7.4.1.3. Vertical and horizontal promotion 148

7.4.1.4. Curriculum, subjects, number of hours 149

7.4.1.5. Methods, evaluation of participants, certification, and trainers 149

7.4.2. Guided Individual Studying or Distance Education 150




7.4.2.4. Methods, evaluation of participants, certification, and trainers 151

7.4.3. Adult basic education 152

7.4.4. Second Chance Education 153

7.4.5. Examenination Board of the Flemish Community 154

7.4.6. Flemish Unemployment Agency 154



7.4.6.2.1. Vocational training – secondary sector 155

7.4.6.2.2. Vocational training – tertiary sector 156

7.4.6.2.3. Other programmes for unemployed persons 156

7.4.6.3. Curriculum, subjects, number of hours, methods, evaluation of 157

participants, certification, and trainers

7.4.7. Flemish Institute for Entrepreneurship 157

7.4.7.1. Types of training 158

7.4.7.1.1. Continuing education for self-employment for youngsters: 158

apprenticeship

7.4.7.1.2. For starters and growers: the entrepreneur training 159

7.4.7.1.3. For self-employed persons, managers and their close 159

collaborators: the permanent training system

7.4.7.1.4. Other courses 160


7.4.7.3. Evaluation of participants 161

7.4.8. Agriculture training 161

Flemish Eurydice report 2001 x

7.4.9. Part-time art education 162




7.4.9.4. Methods, evaluation of participants, certification 164

7.4.10. Trainers 164

7.4.11. Statistics 165

CHAPTER 8. TEACHERS AND EDUCATIONAL STAFF 169

8.1. Initial training of teachers 170

8.1.1. Initial training of teachers for pre-school, and primary education, and the 171

first stage of secondary education

8.1.1.1. Historical overview 171

8.1.1.2. Specific legislative framework 171

8.1.1.3. The organisation of initial training and admission requirements 171

8.1.1.4. Curriculum, branch of study, specialisation 171

8.1.1.5. Methods, evaluation, and certificates 173

8.1.2. Initial academic training of teachers for upper secondary education 174

8.1.2.1. Historical overview and specific legislative framework 174

8.1.2.2. Organisation 175

8.1.2.3. Curriculum, branch of study, and specialisation 175

8.1.2.4. Evaluation, certificates 175

8.1.3. Initial training of teachers for secondary education: vocational and technical 176

courses

8.1.3.1. Historical overview and specific legislative framework 176

8.1.3.2. Organisation 176

8.1.3.3. Curriculum, branch of study and specialisation 176

8.1.3.4. Evaluation, certificates 177

8.1.4. Initial training of teachers for colleges of higher education and for teachers 177

of universities

8.1.5. Complementary teacher courses in tertiary education 177

8.2. Conditions of service for teachers 178

8.2.1. Conditions of service for teachers at the pre-school, the primary school, and the 179

secondary school level

8.2.1.1. Specific legislative framework 180

8.2.1.2. Access to the profession, appointment 180

8.2.1.3. Professional status 183

Contents xi

8.2.1.4. Promotion, advancement 185

8.2.1.5. Transfers, occupational mobility 186

8.2.1.6. Dismissal, career change 186

8.2.1.7. Salary 187

8.2.1.8. Working time 188

8.2.1.9. Holiday and leave 189

8.2.1.10. Retirement pension 189

8.2.2. Conditions of service for teaching staff at colleges of higher education 190

8.2.2.1. Specific legislation framework 190





8.2.2.6. Dismissal, career change 193

8.2.2.7. Salary 194


8.2.2.9. Holiday and leave 194


8.2.3. Conditions of service for teaching staff at universities 195

8.2.3.1. Specific legislation framework 195





8.2.3.6. Dismissal 198

8.2.3.7. Salary 198


8.2.3.9. Holidays 198


8.3. In-service training 199


8.3.2. Specific legislative framework 200

8.3.3. Types of in-service trainings 200


8.4. Other staff 201

8.5. Statistics 202

Flemish Eurydice report 2001 xii

CHAPTER 9. EVALUATION OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM 205


9.2. Institutional self-evaluation 205

9.3. Evaluation of higher education 205

9.3.1. Internal quality assurance 206

9.3.1.1. Internal quality assurance in colleges of higher education 206

9.3.1.2. Internal quality assurance in universities 207

9.3.2. External quality assurance 208

9.3.2.1. External quality assurance in colleges of higher education 208

9.3.2.2. External quality assurance in universities 209

9.3.3. Quality assurance by the government 210

9.4. Evaluation at pre-school, primary and secondary level: general framework 210


9.4.2. Curriculum development and control 211

9.4.3. Attainment targets and developmental objectives 212

9.4.4. Department of educational development 213

9.4.5. The inspectorate 214

9.4.5.1. Tasks of the inspectorate 215

9.4.5.2. Monitoring procedures 216

9.4.5.3. Relation between inspectorate and school 217

9.4.5.4. Alternative monitoring procedures 217

9.4.5.5. The Inspectorate for the Centres for Educational Guidance 218

9.4.5.6. Evaluation of the inspectorate 218

9.4.6. Pedagogical support services 220

9.4.7. Special arrangements 220

9.4.7.1. Control and support in relation to moral or religious courses 220

9.4.7.2. City-based inspectorate 221

9.5. Evaluation at community level 221

9.5.1. Evaluation at community level: basic education 221

9.5.2. Evaluation at community level: secondary education 225

9.5.3. Evaluation at community level: higher education 227

9.5.4. Evaluation at the National or Community Level: Adult education 228

9.6. Educational research 229

9.7. Statistics 230

Contents xiii

CHAPTER 10. SPECIAL EDUCATION 233



10.3. Types of institutions, special arrangements, branches of study 234

10.4. Consultation with mainstream education 235

10.5. Admission requirements, diagnosis and guidance 235

10.6. Levels and age grouping 236

10.7. Integrated education 238

10.8. Teachers and other staff, specific training 240


10.10. Methods and pupil evaluation 241

10.11. Certification, openings, and training-employment relationship 241



CHAPTER 11. THE EUROPEAN DIMENSION OF EDUCATION 249

11.1. European influences in the Flemish education system 249

11.2. European and international cooperation 250

11.2.1. European programmes 250

11.2.2. Cooperation with the Netherlands 252

11.2.3. The cultural agreements 253

11.2.4. Cooperation in the framework of the Council of Europe 253

11.2.5. Cooperation in the framework of the OECD 254

11.2.6. Cooperation in the framework of the UNESCO 254

11.2.7. Flanders and the Belgian EU-presidency 254

11.3. International cooperation at different educational levels 256

11.3.1. International cooperation at the Basic Level 256

11.3.2. International cooperation at the Secondary Level 257

11.3.3. International cooperation at the tertiary education level 259

11.3.4. International cooperation in adult education and Open and Distance Education 261

11.3.4. International cooperation outside the formal education system 262


Flemish Eurydice report 2001 xiv

Bibliography 267

Glossary 279

Laws 299

Index 315

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1. Belgian and Flemish population on 1 January 2001 10

Table 1.2. Population evolution in 2000 (absolute figures) 11

Table 1.3. Population evolution in 2000 (percentages) 11

Table 1.4. Age structure of the Flemish and Belgian population on 1 January 2001 11

Table 1.5. Economic activity and professional status in Flanders and Belgium (year 2000) 11

Table 1.6. The non-active population of Flanders and Belgium (2000) 12

Table 1.7. Unemployment rate in Flanders, Belgium and Europe in 2000 (percents) 12

Table 1.8. Risk to fall into unemployment by age, educational level and sex 12

(Flanders, 2001)

Table 1.9. Economic activity in Flanders and in Belgium (2000) 13

Table 1.10. Educational priority policy (Onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid); number of pupils 13

of the target group and extra teaching periods (2000-2001)

Table 2.1. Size of schools in basic education (basisonderwijs) in February 2001 77

Table 2.2. Size of schools in secondary education in October 2001 77

Table 2.3. Number of applications and assigned study grants in 2000-2001 78

Table 2.4. Number of transported students for educational level and per onderwijsnet 78

(educational network) school year 2000-2001

Table 3.1. Number of institutions in pre-school education (school year 2000-2001) 85

Table 3.2. Evolution in the number of pupils in pre-school education (1980-2001) 86

Table 4.1. Number of institutions in primary education 93

Table 4.2. Evolution in the number of pupils in primary education (school year 1984-2001) 94

Table 4.3. School career in ordinary primary education (Belgian pupils) (2000-2001) 94

Table 4.4. School career in ordinary primary education (Foreign pupils) (2000-2001) 95

Table 4.5. Delay at school in primary education (1987-2001) 95

Table 5.1. Number of institutions in secondary education (school year 2000-2001) 115

Table 5.2. Part-time Vocational Secondary Schools (2000-2001) 115

Table 5.3. Evolution of the number of pupils in ordinary and special secondary education 116

(1984-2001)

Table 5.4. Delay at school in secondary education (1987-2001) 116

Flemish Eurydice report 2001 xvi

Table 5.5. School delay (in percents) in ordinary secondary education per grade. Belgians 117

and foreigners. School year 2000-2001

Table 5.6. School delay (in percents) in ordinary secondary education per grade and per 117

educational form. School year 2000-2001

Table 5.7. Number of pupils in secondary education broken down by branch of study 118

Table 5.8. Number of pupils in the sixt year of secondary education, broken down by 118

education type (ASO, TSO/KSO, BSO) in 1983-2001

Table 5.9. Number of pupils in the seventh year of BSO, in 1983-2001 119

Table 6.1. Evolution of the number of students in higher education of one cycle 138

(former short form) and two cycles (former long form) (1985-2001)

Table 6.2. Evolution of the number of students in university education (1993-2001) 139

Table 6.3. Number of students broken down by field of study at the colleges of higher 139

education (hogescholen) (academic year 2000-2001)

Table 6.4. Number of students broken down by field of study at the universities (male and 140

female) (academic year 2000-2001)

Table 6.5. Percentage of all students (freshmen and non-freshmen) passing a number of basic 140

courses in the first year of one-cycle colleges (1998-1999)


courses in the second and third year of one-cycle colleges (1998-1999)


courses in the first year of two-cycle colleges (1998-1999)


courses in the second, third and fourth year of two-cycle colleges (1998-1999)

Table 6.9. Pass figures of students (freshmen and non-freshmen) at the first year at Flemish 142

universities in the academic year 1998-1999

Table 6.10. Pass figures of students (freshmen and non-freshmen) at the other years (not the 143

first one) at Flemish universities in the academic year 1998-1999

Table 6.11. Pass figures of freshmen from General Secondary Education (Algemeen Secundair 144

Onderwijs) at higher education (on the basis of a sample of last year secondary

pupils in 1995-1996)

Table 6.12. Number of colleges of higher education (hogeschool) and university diplomas 144

(academic year 1998-1999)

Table 7.1. Number of students in the Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor 165

Sociale Promotie) (registration period: 1 February 2000 – 31 January 2001)

Table 7.2. Participation in the Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) 166

in 2000

Table 7.3. Number of participants in basic adult education (basiseducatie ) 166

(year 2000-2001)

List of tables xvii

Table 7.4. Obtained certificates/ diploma’s in the Examination board of the Flemish 166

Community (Examencommissie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap) for full-time

secondary education in 2000

Table 7.5. Number of completed courses at the Flemish Employment Agency (Vlaamse 167

Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) in 2000

Table 7.6. Education provided by the “Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen”: 167

courses, periods and participants in 2000-2001

Table 7.7. Number of participants in Part-time Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) 167

(DKO) on the 1st February 2001

Table 8.1. Example of a Training Programme for pre-school teachers (hours per week) 172

Table 8.2. Example of a Training Programme for primary school teachers (hours per week) 172

Table 8.3. Example of a Training Programme for the qualified secondary school teacher - 173

group 1 (geaggregeerde voor het secundair onderwijs – groep 1) (hours per week)

Table 8.4. Weekly working hours of teachers in secondary education 189

Table 8.5. Full-time teaching staff jobs according to the education budget, broken down by 202

educational level and compared in time

Table 8.6. Number of full-time staff units at the universities (1 February 2001) 202

Table 8.7. Full-time non-teaching staff jobs according to the education budget, broken down 203

by educational level and compared in time (1992-2001)

Table 8.8. Annual gross salaries of members of teaching staff (full-time) in EUR 203

(1 September 2001)

Table 8.9. Annual gross salaries of academic staff (full-time) at colleges of higher 203

education (hogescholen) in EUR (1 June 2001)

Table 8.10. Annual gross salaries of academic staff (full-time) at universities in EUR 204

(1 June 2001)

Table 9.1. Number of certificates, in ordinary secondary education (1999-2000) 230

Table 9.2. Percentages of school leavers registered as job seekers (1991-1998) 230

Table 9.3. Proportions of deregistrations in the registered population by diploma after 231

one year of leaving school (1993-1999)

Table 9.4. Number of participants in adult education per age and educational level (1999) 231

Table 9.5. Number of participants in adult education per age and statute (1999) 231

Table 9.6. Number of participants in adult education per age and sex (1999) 231

Table 10.1. Number of pupils in special pre-school and primary education according to 243

type (school year 2000-2001)

Table 10.2. Number of pupils in special secondary education according to form of 243

education (school year 2000-2001)

Flemish Eurydice report 2001 xviii

Table 10.3. Number of pupils in special secondary education according to type in form 243

of education 1 (school year 2000-2001)




of education 3 ( school year 2000-2001)



Table 10.7. Evolution in the number of pupils in special pre-school education (1980-2001) 245

Table 10.8. Evolution in the number of pupils in special primary education (Buitengewoon 246

Lager Onderwijs, BLO) (1980-2001)

Table 10.9. Evolution in the number of pupils in special secondary education (Buitengewoon 247

Secunair Onderwijs) (BuSO) (1980-2001)

Table 10.10. Number of Schools for special education in 1999-2001 247

Table 11.1. Socrates Comenius for basic education (basisonderwijs) Action 1.1. School projects 263

Table 11.2. Socrates Comenius for basic education (basisonderwijs) Action 1.3. School 263

development projects (Socrates II)

Table 11.3. Socrates Comenius for secondary education Action 3.2.c (until 1999) 263

Action 2.2.c (as from 2000)

Table 11.4. Socrates Comenius for secondary education Action 1 263

Table 11.5. Socrates Comenius for secundary education Action 3.2. (until 1999), Action 264

2.2.v (as from 2001), transition year (2000-2001)

Table 11.6. Evolution of the participants in the Erasmus-program (1988-2000) 264

Table 11.7. Participation in Socrates- Adult education/ Grundtvig 1 264



Table 11.10. Participation in Socrates- Minerva, open and distance education 265

Table 11.11. Participation in Socrates-Lingua Action B – Basic, secondary and tertiary 265

education (teacher training departments (transition year with ‘ex-Lingua B’ in

2000-2001; Comenius 2.2.c “In-service training” as from 2001-2002)

Table 11.12. Participation in Socrates-Lingua Action C – higher education (transition 265

year with ‘ex-Lingua B’ in 2000-2001; Comenius 2.2.b “Language assistants”

as from 2001-2002)

Table 11.13. Participation in Socrates-Lingua Action E – secondary and higher education, 266

(transition year with ‘ex-Lingua E’ in 2000-2001; Comenius 1.2. “Language

projects as from 2001-2002)

Table 11.14. Participation in Euroklassen 266

Table 11.15. Participation in Gros – secondary education 266

Table 11.16. Participation in Gros – Buurlandenbeleid (as from 1999) – basic education 266

(basisonderwijs)

CHAPTER 1. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND

The movement toward a federal state in Belgium has had important implications for the education. Since

1989, authority over education has been almost fully transferred to the three Communities. Though the

common roots can not be ignored, the Communities have since followed their own paths as regards

educational structures and policy. This book describes the educational system of the Flemish

Community. The first chapter presents an overview of the political and economic background of the

Flemish educational Policy.

1.1. Historical overview

1.1.1. Toward a federal state

Since the foundation of the Belgian State (1830), the Constitution, promulgated in February 1831,

established the structures of a centralised state based on the principle of unified legislation and

government for the entire country. However, there are two other powers alongside the central legislative

power (consisting of the King, the Chamber of Representatives, and the Senate) and the executive power

(consisting of the King and the Government). These two additional powers are the Provinces and the

Municipalities (local authorities). However, although the provinces and municipalities have a fairly large

degree of autonomy, their powers are restricted, and their decisions are subject to review by the central

government (MVG, 1991a).

In 1831, the Constituent Assembly created a unitary state. However, because of the diversity of regions, a

certain degree of decentralisation was provided for: the State was divided into nine provinces and each

province into local authorities. The provincial and local authorities were under the control of central

power, so the Belgian State of 1831 was centralised. This unitary and centralised State continued for 140

years (1831 to 1970). In order to meet the ever increasing pressure from the public expressed in society,

the Constitution has been amended five times since 1970, in 1970-1971, 1980, 1988, and 1993. The

revision of 1993 confirmed the new federal structure of the Belgian State. The former bilingual province

of “Brabant” was split into two provinces: “Vlaams-Brabant” (Dutch-speaking) and “Brabant-Wallon”

(French-speaking). “Brussels”, the national capital and also the geographical centre of the former

province of “Brabant”, no longer belongs to a province. Its special status as a bilingual Gewest (Region)

was reinforced (more details are included in section [1.1.2.] ). The last ammendment of 2001 is known as

the “Lambermont Agreement”. This agreement gives the Regions in Belgium more authority as well as

financial resources. For the first time now, the Regions have real fiscal autonomy and are empowered

with full authority over twelve regional taxes such as the radio and television license tax, the traffic tax,

and the registration and succession taxes. In addition, the authority over agriculture, foreign trade, and

development cooperation have been transferred to the Regions. Moreover, by the law on municipalities

2 Flemish Eurydice report 2001

and provinces, the Regions have acquired control over the subordinate governments in their territory

(Vlaams Parlement, 2002).

The five stages of the constitutional revision gradually established a federal system, with the central State

- the national power - retaining full authority for certain matters (e.g. finance, national defence, and

justice) and varying degrees of authority for other matters (e.g. foreign trade, education). The 3rd stage

(1988-89) affected education directly with the transfer of education to the control of the Communities,

which had been in a transitional stage since 1981 (Art. 127 par. 1, 2) as well as the guarantees provided in

an earlier stage by the so-called School Pact Law (Schoolpactwet) of 29 May, 1959 (Art. 24). Art. 142 of

the amended Constitution gives the right to refer to the Arbitration Court (Arbitragehof) to all citizens

who contend that a violation has taken place of the principles and guarantees laid down in Art. 24 on

education of the Constitution and who have been harmed. The contribution of the fifth constitutional

revision to education is mainly the increase of the financial resources for education.

1.1.2. Levels of decision-making

Today, besides the municipalities and the provinces, there are three levels of decision-making with their

respective structures of legislative and executive power: the central State, the Communities

(Gemeenschappen), and the Regions (Gewesten). Three cultural Communities - the Flemish, the French-

language and the German-language - and three economic Regions - Flemish, Walloon, and Brussels -

have been recognised (MVG, 1992).

The Communities as such do not have any territory but have authority over their respective language area.

In Brussels, however, the decrees of the Communities only apply to the institutions of Brussels Capital

that, due to their organisation, are considered to belong exclusively to one or the other Community (e.g.

Flemish schools). The Communities are responsible for cultural, linguistic, and “person-related” matters

(including education and training). They are also responsible for scientific research concerning these

matters and international affairs relating to these authorities.

The Regions are responsible for economic, energy, and scientific policy, public works and transport, town

and country planning, the environment and control over the municipalities and provinces.

1.1.3. Political parties in Flanders

The political landscape in Flanders has eight political parties that are represented in the Flemish

Parliament. First, there are the parties that are the inheritors of the former main traditional parties: the

Christian democratic CD&V (“Christen-Democratisch en Vlaams”) and the NCD (“Nieuwe Christen-

Democratie”), the social democratic SP.A (“Sociaal Progressief Alternatief”), and the liberal VLD

(“Vlaamse Liberalen en Democraten”). There are also the N-VA (“Nieuw-Vlaamse Alliantie”), Spirit

and the VB (“Vlaams Blok”). This three parties regularly call for an autonomous Flemish State. The VB,

however, is more right wing and extremist. AGALEV (“Anders Gaan Leven”) is the Flemish green party.

There is one representative in Parliament, who was elected in 1999 from the list of the French-speaking

Political and Economic Background 3

UF (“Union des Francophones”) in Brussels. The NCD (a recent scission of the Christian Democratic

CVP), the N-VA and Spirit (a recent split of the Flemish nationalist party VU-ID) are not yet recognised

as separate fractions in the Flemish Parliament.

At the municipal level, there are sometimes local parties. In relation to education, their influence is

limited and only of local importance. Sometimes these local parties have links with the major parties.

1.1.4. Constitutional guarantees for education

The Constitution, after the revision of 15 July 1988, turned over all responsibilities (Art. 127 par. 1, 2) in

relation to the education system to the Communities (Gemeenschappen) with the exception of three:

- fixing the beginning and end of the compulsory school attendance period;

- establishing the minimum conditions for granting diplomas;

- maintaining the pension system.

These first two exceptions were made to safeguard a minimum degree of coherence in the educational

systems of the three Communities. For the (pension system), the case is different. The pensions are still

part of the national social security system for which there still is a national funding system based on

solidarity of the Communities and the Regions. As a consequence, the responsibility for educational

matters has been effectively in the hands of the Flemish Parliament (Vlaams parlement) and the

Community Minister since 1 January 1989. Therefore, the Flemish Community governs its own

education system (MVG, 1991a, 1991c, 1992; Platel, 1993).

1.2. Main executive and legislative bodies

The legislature of Flanders is the Flemish Parliament (Vlaams parlement), which is the parliament of the

Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) and the Flemish Region (Vlaams Gewest). Before the

general elections of 1995, the Flemish Parliament consisted of 186 Dutch-speaking members of the

Belgian Parliament (124 Representatives and the directly elected Senators). This temporary arrangement

disappeared after the general elections. At a further stage in the State Reform Process, the present

national bicameral system was changed. The ‘double mandate’ (whereby each member of the Flemish

Parliament was also a member of the national Parliament) was abolished, and the Flemish Parliament

directly elected. This new Flemish Parliament now has 124 members: 118 directly elected by the

residents of the Flemish Region and 6 elected from among the Dutch-speaking representatives of the

Council of the Brussels Region (Platel, 1993).

The Flemish Parliament has the three classic functions of a parliament: legislation, formation of

governments, and supervision. The Flemish Parliament exercises its legislative powers by means of

decrees, which have the same legal force as a law of the national Parliament. The Executive power rests

with the Flemish Government. By decree it has a maximum of 11 members, at least one of whom must

reside in the bilingual area of Brussels Capital. The ministers are elected from and appointed by the


Flemish Parliament. The Flemish Government decides collegialy: all decisions are taken by the entire

government, unless delegation is expressly granted to an individual minister.

At present the majority in the Flemish Parliament and Government is composed of four parties: the liberal

VLD (27 seats), Social Democrats (SP.A) (20 seats), the Flemish green party AGALEV (12 seats) and

the Flemish-nationalist VU-ID (11 seats). The opposition is made up of the Christian Democrats

(CD&V) (30 seats), the ultra-right-wing VB (22 seats), a Francophone party (1 seat) and one independent

representative (Johan Sauwens).

A number of new political parties came recently into being in Flanders as scissions of former parties

(NCD from the Christian Democrats and N-VA and Spirit from the Flemish Nationalists). As these

parties are not yet elected in their separate forms, they still belong to their former fractions in the Flemish

Parliament.

Besides the national level and the Community (Gemeenschap) and Regional level (Gewesten), there are

also executive and legislative bodies at the provincial and municipal levels. At the provincial level, there

is a province council (Provincieraad) and a provincial government (Bestendige deputatie), headed by the

provincial governor (Provinciegouverneur). At the municipal level, there is a “Gemeenteraad” (local

council) and a board of mayor and aldermen (College van burgemeester en schepenen), the local

executive body. Although the provinces and the municipalities have a fairly large degree of autonomy,

their powers are restricted, and their decisions are subject to state review.

1.3. Religion and education

The Belgian Constitution guarantees the separation of Church and State. In addition, many social,

cultural, and educational matters are governed by the principle of subsidiarity. This explains why the

Government in Flanders has no direct influence on the curricula. The Government only has a well-

defined right to review those curricula (detailed information is included in section 9.4.1.). Consequently,

there is no ‘official religion’, although the State does recognise several religions by law. The recognised

religions are: Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, Anglican, Islamic, and Orthodox Christian.

The Constitution (Art. 24) guarantees the right of all children in primary and secondary education to

attend a philosophical or religious course (2 periods a week) at state expense. The official educational

establishments (community schools (gemeenschapsscholen) and grant-aided official schools

(gesubsidieerde officiële scholen)) must respect the philosophical options of all the parents, and offer a

choice between a religion-based course and a philosophical (moral) one. The government has no

authority over the content of these courses as long as they do not contravene the democratic principles of

society (see 9.4.7.1.). A choice can be made for one of the recognised religions mentioned above or for a

non-confessional ethics course. In special cases, pupils can be excused from these courses (e.g. Jehovah’s

Witnesses). In grant-aided free schools (vrij gesubsidieerde scholen), there is no choice. The majority of

these schools are Catholic, with the Protestant, Jewish, and Steiner schools constituting a small minority


group. A special arrangement has been made for alternative method schools, such as the Steiner and the

Freinet schools.

1.4. Languages

1.4.1. The Dutch-speaking area

Belgium has four language areas: Dutch, French, German, and the bilingual region Brussels Capital

(Dutch and French). The language border was fixed in 1963. Each Community (Gemeenschap) belongs

to a language region whose borders can only be changed by a specific law requiring a special majority in

the national parliament. Bilingualism applies for the area making up the 19 boroughs of the capital city of

Brussels with a majority of French-speakers, which is surrounded by the Flemish region, but the majority

of the residents are French-speaking. Around this bilingual Region, there are a number of Dutch-

speaking municipalities with administrative facilities for their French-speaking residents.

The only official language of the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) is Dutch. Many people in

Flanders have a good working knowledge of at least one or two other European languages (English,

French, German, Spanish, Italian). Officially, there are no legally recognised minority languages in

Flanders, with the exception of French in certain communities along the language border (administrative

facilities). In the Flemish Community the teaching language is Dutch. French is taught as a second

language starting in the fifth year of primary education (in the region of Brussels it starts in the third

year). English is taught as a third language starting in the second year of secondary education.

Depending on educational choices, other languages can be learned at school.

1.4.2. Education and migrant children

Languages spoken by the migrant population are not legally recognised as minority languages.

Nevertheless, a special policy has been instituted within the education system to provide for adequate

learning opportunities, especially for children within compulsory education. This policy is called the

educational priority policy (onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid). This policy is applied at the primary and

secondary levels in municipalities with a significant number of migrant or refugee children. Three main

lines of action are presented. First, there is a scheme that promotes equal representation of these children

in all schools of a region (at the secondary level this is not always possible because not all courses of

study are available or organised in every school). Second, special attention is given to the quality of the

teaching of Dutch as well as to the teaching of the native language and culture of the pupils involved.

Third, for those pupils who have insufficient knowledge of Dutch, special language classes are organised.

The Centre for Educational Guidance (Centrum voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLB), is an important

partner in all of this, particularly at the secondary level. Extra teaching periods are provided to the

schools for the realisation of this project (Eurydice European Unit, 1992b; Vlaamse Onderwijsraad,

1995). Moreover, schools who receive foreign speaking newcomers, can be supported by the Centre for


Dutch as Second Language (Steunpunt Nederlands Tweede Taal) and the Centre for Intercultural

Education (Steunpunt Intercultureel Onderwijs).

Concerning the problems of discrimination in education, the representatives of the organising bodies

(inrichtende machten) signed a ‘non-discrimination statement’ on 15 July 1993. It is based on the

recognition that there is structural discrimination in the education of foreign children with respect to that

of native children. Concrete arrangements are made: the schools are encouraged to work out a non-

discrimination code that covers all the aspects of the provision of education where discrimination is

possible. There also has to be an active admission policy at the local school level in order to guarantee all

young persons the freedom of school choice and to promote the presence of foreign pupils in all the

schools and all the courses of study in a certain area. A proportional presence of foreign young people

will be striven for by means of local agreements between schools on admission policy. Measures have

been taken by the government to support such a policy. For basic education (basisonderwijs), schools in

28 municipalities are involved in such agreements; for secondary education, schools in 18 municipalities

have concluded one (Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education

Department, 2000).

From the very outset, there was a lot of scepticism about the intentions of the ‘non-discrimination

statement’. The critical point is the admission and distribution of the ‘target pupils’ in different schools.

Some say that the consequence is a discriminatory policy towards foreigners because schools would refer

or refuse pupils on the basis of colour, culture, religion or other subjective criteria.

Research in primary schools of the five municipalities that were the first to sign the agreement proves that

segregation is not yet been overcome. The importance of the non-discrimination statement is substantial,

however, because it opened a public debate and this is a step towards a solution (De Meester & Mahieu,

2000).

In the meantime, research has been conducted to evaluate the non-discrimination policy. The aim of

this evaluation was to examine the effects of the non-discrimination statement in the municipalities and

schools. The municipalities were checked for possible changes in pupil flows between schools, and the

schools were investigated to see if there were more mixed populations of pupils of different ethnic

background. The research also determined how much local consultation took place and the degree of

interculturalisation in schools.

The main conclusions of the study are that the original aim of the non-discrimination policy has not been

met and that this policy has even been contraproductive.

Because of this and other problems, a new integrated policy for equal opportunities will be implemented

in the school year of 2002-2003. This policy is based on an integral view on the problem of poverty of

opportunities and will be based on three important principles:


- A fundamental and free attendance right in any school. Each pupil who meets the general conditions

of entry (concerning age and ability) has the right to attend any school chosen by the parents. Every

refusal to accept a pupil has to be justified by the school. Refusals based on skin colour, national or

ethnic origin or sex are prohibited. Thus, immigrant children are guaranteed entry to all schools.

- The development of a local equal opportunity policy. Local consultation platforms will be formed.

These platforms will have education providers and local actors such as representatives of migrant and

poor communities and of the socio-economical partners. The schools will be obliged to participate in

this consultation.

- The combination of the existing support measures educational priority policy

(onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid) and extending care (zorgverbreding) in one transparent and integrated

support system. Schools can receive extra support for three consecutive school years if a certain

number if their pupils correspond to a number of indicators: living from income support, being

homeless, belonging to a travelling population, having a mother with a low educational level, or

speaking a foreign language (other than Dutch). There is a significant chance that pupils who

manifest to these indicators will have educational problems. The schools will be classified on the

basis of the features of their pupil population. These features will determine the extent of extra

resources the schools receive. The schools will decide, after an analysis of the environment,

the concrete objectives they will aim for, the way they will try to reach these objectives, and the way

they will evaluate themselves. The objectives can be chosen from the following themes: prevention

and remedy of developmental and learning disabilities, language education, intercultural education,

flow and orientation, socio-economic development, and pupil and parent participation.

The government will be able to test whether the objectives are reached through external evaluations by

sample testing of the pupils and by evaluation of the school by the Inspectorate. These tests will decide

whether the schools will qualify for a new period of three school years (MVG, departement Onderwijs,

2000c; Persdienst Minister Vanderpoorten, 2001).

1.5. Child rights

The Flemish government is pursuing an active child rights policy. The starting point of this policy is the

International Convention on the Rights of the Child, which was signed by Belgium on 26 January 1990

and went into effect on 16 January 1992. The main objective of the Flemish child rights policy is to

assure the state takes appropriate measures to guarantee the realization of all the rights stated in the

Convention. The fundamental principles of the Convention are the following:

1) Concern for the child needs to be the first priority in all measures concerning children;

2) The principle of non-discrimination implies that no difference can be made between children based on

origin, sex, etc..The child rights policy also needs to identify, expose, and eliminate all illegal

discrimination between minors and adults;


3) The fundamental right to life and development is, for instance, concretized in the right to health care

and education;

4) Children have the right to give their opinion and to participate in all matters or procedures that

concern children.

In a further development of this policy, Flanders has appointed, by the Decision of the Flemish

Government of 18 January 1997, a coordinating minister of child rights. This minister coordinates all

Flemish policy concerning child rights. The Decree of 15 July 1997 established a child rights

commissionership and a child rights commissioner was appointed. The commissioner defends and

protects the rights and concerns of children. For this purpose, the commissioner monitors the strict

observance of the Convention. The commissioner is also charged with the follow-up, analysis,

evaluation, and reporting of the living conditions of children and acts as the translator of the rights,

concerns, and needs of the children. The commissioner gives special attention to:

- dialogue with children and organisations concerning children;

- social participation of the child and access to all services and organisations for children;

- monitoring the conformity all legislation with the Convention;

- spreading of information about the content of the Convention.

The commissioner is appointed by the Flemish Parliament for a term of five years. This term is

renewable once. The commissioner reports to the Parliament each year.

24 points for addressing ‘Child Rights’ give form to the policy of the Flemish government towards child

rights. These points were developed in 1998 by the administration and institutions of the Flemish

government. When the third annual report was presented, a website was launched by the ‘Family and

Social Work’ Administration of the ‘Welfare, Public Health and Culture’ Departement. This website

presents information about the Convention, the report on the results on children, the Child’s Rights

Coalition, and the points themselves (see: http://www.wvc.vlaanderen.be/kinderrechten).

The report of the Child Rights Commissioner of 2001 concludes that children and youngsters mainly

complain about rights in the family but increasingly about rights at school. The Commissionership

received 1,056 reports between 1 October 2000 and 30 September 2001. These reports include questions

(more or less two thirds), complaints (more or less one third), and suggestions. The reports concerned in

all 1,357 persons, mainly minors.

In September 2001, the Child Rights Commissionership launched a sensitization campaign about

children’s rights in primary schools. This campaign runs until March 2002. The campaign is intended to

inform children about their rights to participate at school and encourage them to use these rights.


The Decision of the Flemish Government of 13 July 2001 requires the Flemish government to test all bills

concerning children for their pro-children stance. Concerning education, this means that a report on

the effects on children must be submitted for all decrees. Moreover the government has to report each

year to the Parliament and the Child Rights Commissioner about the child rights policy (MVG, 2001;

Kinderrechtencommissariaat, 2001).

1.6. Demographic indicators

Flanders is an extremely densely populated region, and the number of inhabitants has doubled over the

past 100 years. In 2001, the population count was 5,952,552 or 58.0% of the total Belgian population.

The density has now (in 2000) reached 437 inhabitants per square kilometer. The urbanised zones in

Flanders clearly predominate, the densest concentration being in the centre, within the polygon formed by

Antwerp, Leuven, Brussels, and Ghent (829 inhabitants per square kilometer in 2000) (NIS, 2001a).

The Flemish Region has a foreign population of 4.7% (in 2001) (about 9.5% in the Walloon Region and

about 27% in the Brussels Region). About a fourth of the foreign population is Dutch, more or less 15%

is Marrocan, 13% is Turkish and about 9% is Italian (NIS, 2001a).

In recent years Flanders, in common with the rest of Europe, has been confronted with the problem of the

increased ageing of its population. In 2001, 16.9% of the population was older than 65 years of age, and

a bit more had not reached the age of 20 years old (22.8%). The birth rate has decreased significantly,

while the average life expectancy has increased (78.9 in Flanders in 1999). In 2000, the birth rate in

Belgium reached the level of 1.12% and 1.04% in Flanders (MVG, departement Algemene Zaken, 2001,

NIS, 2001a).

There are three cities in Flanders with more than 100,000 inhabitants: Antwerp (445,570 inhabitants),

Ghent (224,685 inhabitants), and Bruges (116,559 inhabitants). On average, there is a village every 5

kilometers, and a city or town every 20 kilometers. Almost 25 percent of the total space in Flanders are

built-on areas. Of this 25 percent, 10 percent are residential areas (NIS, 2001a).

1.7. Economic indicators

1.7.1. Flemish economic development

A growing and better performing economy is one of the policy effects the Flemish government wants to

reach. The Gross Regional Product (GRP) is an indicator of this trend. The Flemish GRP has grown

strongly during the last years. Only in 1998-1999 there was a slight weakening of economy. In 1999, the

Flemish GRP has increased with 2.5 percent. This GRP accounted for 61.0 percent of the Belgian GNP

(Gross National Product) (MVG, departement Algemene Zaken, 2001).

The backbone of the Flemish economy is the great number of small and medium-sized firms (KMO’s),

which often operate in the industrial sector and provide at least 40% of the employment in that sector.

Only about 1.3% of the Flemish GRP (Gross Regional Product) is provided by agriculture (MVG,


Departement Algemene zaken, 2000). This share is continually declining, as it is in the other

industrialised countries. The dominant sectors are steel production with almost 10% of the GRP, the

chemical sector (about 5%), and the textile sector. The trade and service sectors together represent

approximately 60% of the Flemish GRP.

The Flemish economy is extremely open: approximately 70% of the GRP is exported. Around three

quarters of Flemish exports go to neighbouring Germany, France, and the Netherlands. In the period of

1985-1997, the exports of Flanders has doubled (MVG, Departement Algemene zaken, 2000). More than

two thirds (69.5%) of Belgian industrial exports to foreign countries are of Flemish origin.

Economic development in Flanders is not equally distributed over the various parts of the region. Some

areas suffer from the large-scale transfer from outdated industries to a modern, diversified economy, such

as the Limburg coal mines area in the East.

1.7.2. Flemish working population

In 1999, the active working population was 2,476,124. The activity rate of the population from 15 until

64 years of age in 1999 was 66.2% (74.6% for men and 57.5% for women). In the European Union, it

was 68.6% (78.0% for men and 59.1% for women). The activity rate increased from 38.2% for the age

category of 15 to 24 years old to 87.4% for the age category 25 to 49 years old, and then decreased

(39.9% for the category of 50 to 64 years). Up to 1990, unemployment rapidly decreased in Flanders.

Youth unemployment (persons <25 years old) decreased in Flanders from 1985 to 1990, but increased

again in 1993. In 1996, the Flemish unemployment rate again started to decrease.

In 2001, for the first in a long time, a less favourable evolution on the job market were anounced in

Flanders. The decrease of unemployment stopped and the number of vacancies was less than the year

before.

Unemployment decreases especially in the categories of young and less educated people partly because of

special reintegration programs. The situations of unemployed persons of 50 years and older and non-

European unemployed persons are problematical. The unemployment rates for men and women are

becoming more equal for the younger generations (Steunpunt WAV, 2001).

1.8. Statistics

Table 1.1. Belgian and Flemish population on 1 January 2001

Population Flanders Belgium % Flanders % Belgium

Total 5,952,552 10,170,226 58.0 -

Men 2,934,940 4,971,780 49.3 48.9

Women 3,017,612 5,198,446 50.7 51.1

Belgians 5,671,590 9,308,541 95.1 91.2

Foreigners 280,962 861,685 4.9 8.7

(NIS, 2001a)


Table 1.2. Population evolution in 2000 (absolute figures)

Flanders Belgium %

Births 61,877 114,883 53.9

Deaths 57,502 104,903 54.8

Natural Growth 4,375 9,980 43.8

Migration balance 12,152 25,129 48.4

Total Growth 16,527 35,109 47.1

Change of nationality: from foreigner to Belgian 24,814 61,980 10.0

Change of nationality: from Belgian to foreigner 42 102 41.1

Total 5,952,552 10,263,414 58.0

(NIS, 2001a)

Table 1.3. Population evolution in 2000 (percentages)

Flanders Belgium

Birth rate 1.04 1.12

Mortality rate 0.97 1.02

Natural growth 0.07 0.10

Migration balance 0.20 0.24

Total Growth 0.28 0.34

(NIS, 2001a, our own calculation)

Table 1.4. Age structure of the Flemish and Belgian population on 1 January 2001

Age Flanders (N) Flanders (%) Belgium (N) Belgium (%)

0-19 year 1,359,547 22.8 2,412,224 23.5

20-64 year 3,584,121 60.2 6,121,455 59.8

65+ 1,008,884 16.9 1,729,735 16.9

Total 5,952,552 100 10,263,414

(NIS, 2001a)

Table 1.5. Economic activity and professional status in Flanders and Belgium (year 2000)

Active population Flanders Belgium %

Employers 115,624 182,179 63.5

Self-employed 221,987 379,495 58.5

Blue-collar workers 761,166 1,141,130 66.7

White-collar workers 795,415 1,307,609 60.8

Civil servants 575,453 996,824 57.7

Assistants 58,150 85,431 68.1

Total 2,527,795 4,092,668 61.8

% men 57.8% 57.8% -

% women 42.2% 52.2% -

% total population 42.5% 40.2% -

(NIS, 2001b)


Table 1.6. The non-active population of Flanders and Belgium (2000)

Non-active population Flanders Belgium %

Unemployed (1) 113,341 308,478 36.7

Students (>15 years old) 431,467 768,974 56.2

Non-active (15-64 years old) 874,156 1,574,674 55.5

Non-active (65 years and older) 980,724 1,689,505 58.0

Non-active (<15 years old) 1,012,768 1,804,787 56.1

Total 3,412,456 6,146,418 55.5

(1) People who have no work, are available to work and actively search for work.

(NIS, 2001b)

Table 1.7. Unemployment rate in Flanders, Belgium and Europe in 2000 (percents)

Flanders Belgium Euro 3

Total (15-64 y) 4.3 7.0 8.2

15-24 y 11.3 17.5 11.7

25-49 y 3.7 6.4 7.4

50-64 y 2.7 3.7 9.0

Low educated persons 6.8 11.1 12.9

Women 5.8 8.7 9.2

(Steunpunt WAV, 2001)

Table 1.8. Risk to fall into unemployment by age, educational level and sex (Flanders, 2001)

Men Women

Age % % % % % %

Low Middle High Low Middle High

< 25 y 12.7 5.1 6.9 22.8 8.8 5.6

25-39 y 3.2 0.8 0.6 6.2 2.1 0.8

40-49 y 1.6 0.5 0.3 3.5 1.2 0.4

> 50 y 1.4 0.7 0.4 2.3 1.1 0.3

Total 2.9 1.3 0.8 5.2 2.6 1.1



Table 1.9. Economical activity in Flanders and in Belgium (2000)

Occupation Flanders Belgium %

Managers and executive staff 268,902 429,186 62.7

Intellectual and scientific occupations 432,815 778,107 55.6

Intermediary functions 294,014 459,003 64.1

Employees in administrative functions 390,801 646,300 60.5

Service personnel and salesmen 276,973 450,352 61.5

Agriculturists 48,479 76,461 63.4

Craftsmen 313,087 498,900 62.8

Machine and installations operators and assembly workers 178,252 268,351 66.4

Unskilled workers and employees 294,867 439,566 67.1

Handicapped persons in sheltered industries 6,861 7,920 86.6

Armed forces 22,744 38,417 59.2


Table 1.10. Educational priority policy (Onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid); number of pupils of the target

group and extra teaching periods (2000-2001)

Number of pupils of the target

group (1) Extra teaching periods

Pre-school education 11,026 4,348

Primary education 17,960 8,118

Special basic education (2) 1,765 824

Secondary education 5,963 2,471

Special secondary education 1,429 668

(1) A pupil of the target group is officially defined as a pupil:

- whose mother attended school at most till the age of 18 years;

- whose maternal grandmother was not born in Belgium or in the Netherlands.

(2) Special basisonderwijs (Basic Education)

(Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department)

CHAPTER 2. GENERAL ORGANISATION OF THE

EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM AND GENERAL EDUCATIONAL

ADMINISTRATION

2.1. Historical overview and general principles

2.1.1. Historical overview

Freedom of education has been included in Article 24 of the Constitution since the very beginning of the

Belgian State and has been the cause of much conflict and struggle. They are referred to as ‘school wars’

and constitute a significant part of the cultural and political history of Belgium, both in the 19th century,

with major flare-ups around 1850 and 1879, and in the 20th century, particularly from 1951 onwards.

This century of confrontation ended with the signing of the School Pact (Schoolpact) (6 November 1958).

It was a pact between the political parties to ensure a sort of distributive justice between the different

educational networks (onderwijsnetten). By virtue of the principle of freedom of education, the

organisation of educational establishments may not be subjected to any restrictive measure. Schools can

be created and organised without being in any way connected with the official authorities. However,

schools wishing to grant recognised diplomas and obtain subsidies from the State or, since the revision of

the Constitution, from the Community (Gemeenschap) must comply with legal and statutory provisions.

Since the signing of the School Pact, a law of 29 May 1959, referred to as the School Pact Law, has

formed the basis for the organisation of all educational establishments, with the exception of universities,

in an educational system organised and grant-aided by the State. Other articles (Art. 127 Par. 1, 2 and

142) regulate the general authority of the Communities in relation to education (De Groof , 1989; Laridon

& Mertens, 1988).

2.1.2. Key concepts

The Belgian Constitution guarantees the principle of freedom of education (vrijheid van onderwijs)

(Art.24). This principle consists of two pillars: free choice of school (vrije schoolkeuze) and educational

freedom (pedagogische vrijheid), namely the right to establish schools autonomously. The concept of

educational freedom regulates to a very large extent the relations between, and the responsibilities of, the

various partners in educational administration (the Education Department, the organising bodies

(inrichtende machten), the public and private schools). Another important concept is that of organising

body. This notion is, together with pedagogical freedom, another fundamental notion for the organisation

of education in Belgium. By organising body is meant the following (Article 2, Par. 3 of the Law of 29

May 1959): The organising body of an educational establishment shall be the authority, that is to say the

individual or collective person or persons who accept(s) full responsibility with respect to that


establishment. A while ago, the term school board (schoolbestuur) has been introduced as a synonym for

the organising body by the government in the legislation on the basic education (basisonderwijs1).

The Law of 29 May 1959 authorised the State to organise pre-school, primary, secondary, and higher

education and to create for this purpose the necessary establishments or sections of establishments where

such facilities are needed, in particular to ensure freedom of school choice for parents. Moreover, the

State (now the Community) (Gemeenschap) is obliged to subsidise or grant-aid educational

establishments and sections of educational establishments organised by educational networks

(onderwijsnetten) other than the official network that meet legal and statutory standards regarding the

organisation of studies and the application of the language laws.

2.1.3. School pact law

In the past, the definition of the overall curriculum and the development of the concrete content of

subjects for basic and secondary education were centralised by means of a formal governmental approval

of all the initiatives from the organising bodies (inrichtende machten). ‘Centralisation’ was

institutionalised when, in 1958 and 1959, the School Pact (Schoolpact) and the School Pact Law

(Schoolpactwet) came into force (De Groof, 1990). The agreements of the School Pact essentially meant

that education that was not organised by the State - thus, mainly free education - would accept a form of

state control in exchange for partial subsidisation but that each organising body (inrichtende macht)

would have the right to exercise in complete autonomy what has come to be known as pedagogical

freedom. This freedom was defined and governed by Article 6 of the Law of 29 May 1959 on the School

Pact: ‘On condition that a minimum, legally fixed syllabus and schedule are respected, each organising

body (inrichtende macht) has the freedom in its educational network (onderwijsnet), and even in each

educational institution, to organise its own schedules, and, subject to ministerial approval in order to

guarantee educational standards, to work out its own syllabuses’. Each organising body (inrichtende

macht) enjoys total freedom as regards teaching methods. The Decree of 24 July 1996 replaced the text

of this article. The basic principles were maintained and confirmed. However, a new text was introduced

to meet the technical requirements related to establishing clearly defined wordings of the attainment

targets (eindtermen) and developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) adopted by Parliament and

since implemented.

1 This term (Basic Education) refers in Flanders both to pre-school and primary education.

General organisation 17

2.1.4. School pact law after four decades

More recent legislation on the colleges of higher education (hogescholen) and basic education

(basisonderwijs) changed some principles of the School Pact Law. The Decree on basic education

(basisonderwijs) and recent legislation on the colleges of higher education (hogescholen) granted more

autonomy to the schools. The principle of decentralisation has enhanced the autonomy of the school.

In addition to the increased local autonomy of the schools, there is an evolution from the free choice for

parents between confessional versus non-confessional education as stated in the School Pact Law

(Schoolpactwet) to choice between free (based on a recognized religion or philosophy of life) versus

official education - whether a private or a public legal person is providing education - which can be

considered a response to the sociological reality of plurality in Flemish society. In the School Pact Law

(Schoolpactwet), a school was considered as confessional/non-confessional when at least three fourths of

the personnel had a certificate of the denominational/non-denominational education. In the Decree on

basic education (basisonderwijs), this rule was deleted. Over almost four decades, grant-aided official

schools (gesubsidieerde officiële scholen) have developed from predominantly denominational education

to ‘open education’ that stands open to pupils and parents regardless of their religious, ideological, or

political convictions. Because of this change the legislator defined ‘official education’ as education

organized by a public institution (i.e. the community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs), a municipality,

or a province), and the schools organized by these public institutions should be open for all kind of

religious or philosophical opinions of parents and children. Grant-aided free education (gesubsidieerd

vrij onderwijs) is education organized by private legal bodies or natural persons, that are recognized by

qualified agency of a recognized religion or philosophy of life. Since the state has the obligation to offer

a free choice of a basic school (basisschool) within a distance of 4 kilometers from home for all parents,

the state has to support the establishment of either official or free schools, depending on the demand of

the parents. Nevertheless, this does not mean that all grant-aided official schools (gesubsidieerde

officiële scholen) are automaticaly recognized as official education. They have to show that they are

open for all kind of religions and opinions (Pauwels, 1999; Van Craeymeersch, 1997; Offeciers, 1996 &

Decree on basic education of 25 February 1997).

The Decree concerning Education XIII- Mosaic of 13 July 2001 introduced the notion of careful

administration (Zorgvuldig Bestuur). This notion replaces the notion of ‘reprehensible practices’

(‘laakbare praktijken’), which was introduced by the decree on basic education (basisonderwijs). Careful

administration mandates a kind of control or supervision over the organising body (inrichtende macht) or

school board (schoolbestuur). A school board may give information about its own educational offering

but is forbidden to compete unfairly with other school boards. Political propaganda at school is also

forbidden. Furthermore, an organising body (inrichtende macht) or school board (schoolbestuur) may

engage in business insofar as these activities are not acts of commerce and are compatible with the

educational mission. Finally, the Mosaic Decree permits a conditional form of advertisement and

sponsoring in secondary education, the Centres of Educational Guidance (Centra voor

Leerlingenbegeleiding), adult education, and Part-Time Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs).


Advertising is also permitted in basic education (but sponsoring is not permitted). The strict conditions

for advertising and sponsoring are:

- it is prohibited for educational resources supplied by the organising body (inrichtende macht) or the

school board (schoolbestuur) or during obligatory activities in basic education (basisonderwijs);

- optional activities in basic education (basisonderwijs) and normal activities in secondary education,

adult education and Part-Time Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) should be free of publicity

except the mention that the activity or part of the activity was organised thanks to a gift or a service;

- the advertising and sponsoring should be compatible with the pedagogical and educational tasks and

objectives of the school;

- the advertising and sponsoring may not hinder the objectivity, credibility, reliability, and

independence of the school.

A committee for careful government (Zorgvuldig Bestuur) is established to judge complaints of a party

with standing concerning such practices. This committee consists of two chambers, one for basic

education (basisonderwijs) and one for secondary education, Centres of Educational Guidance (Centra

voor Leerlingenbegeleiding), adult education and Part-Time Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs).

On the basis of the advice of the committee, the minister decides on the sanction of the school board

(schoolbestuur ).

2.1.5. Legal provisions for grant-aided schools

The intentions expressed in Article 6 of the School Pact Law (Schoolpactwet) (29 May 1959), as

amended (Decree of 24 July 1996 (b)), were specified in Article 24, Par. 2. This article stipulates that a

school or a section of an establishment for pre-school, primary, or secondary education is grant-aided if it

conforms to the legal and statutory provisions concerning the organisation of studies and the application

of the language laws. Moreover, it must comply with 10 criteria:

1) adopt a structure such as already exists within the State ((Community) (Gemeenschap)) educational

system or one approved by the Minister;

2) conform to a programme that satisfies the legal requirements or that is approved by the Minister;

3) submit to official supervision and inspection;

4) be organised by a natural or legal person who accepts complete responsibility;

5) meet student-number requirements as laid down by decree;

6) be housed in premises that meet the hygiene and health standards;

7) possess sufficient teaching and general school equipment to satisfy educational requirements;

8) employ staff who will in no way constitute a health hazard to the pupils;


9) accept the school holiday system as laid down by law;

10) organise participation structures as laid down by decree.

2.1.6. Teaching methods and the educational project (Pedagogisch project)

As regards teaching methods or the educational project (pedagogisch project), the various educational

networks (onderwijsnetten) and schools remain largely autonomous. Every school board (schoolbestuur)

defines its mission autonomously. Community control is thus excluded as long as the projects do not

contradict the democratic principles upon which the Belgian State is based. This is why several

‘onderwijsnetten’ (educational networks) and schools have detailed their educational projects in writing

and published them. In the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap), the Community Education

(Gemeenschapsonderwijs) (previously ARGO) published the Educational Project of Community

Education (Pedagogisch Project van het Gemeenschapsonderwijs) on 1 September 1989. Catholic

education, in turn, regularly publishes detailed documents in which its own educational project is

explained. The last such document was published in 1993: “Opdrachtsverklaring van het Katholiek

Onderwijs” (Mission Statement of Catholic Education).

While respecting the legal and statutory provisions in force, each organising body (inrichtende macht)

may determine its own programmes, its pedagogical methods (including the assessment of pupils), and its

organisation. Nowadays, most schools have their own educational project (pedagogical project).

Most schools are co-educational in accordance with the official provisions aimed at providing equal

treatment for both sexes. Community schools (gemeenschapsscholen) and grant-aided official schools

(gesubsidieerde officiële scholen) are obliged to offer mixed education. Being a public institution, they

can not refuse someone on the base of sex. Schools of the grant-aided free education (gesubsidieerd vrij

onderwijs) can refuse pupils in certain cases if they motivate with a written refusal and if the educational

offer of schools in the neighbourhood is sufficient. That’s why a small number of boy-only and girl-only

schools remain in grant-aided free education (gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs). In ordinary primary

education 15 out of 2,189 schools are boy-only schools and 19 out of 2,189 schools are girl-only schools2.

In ordinary secondary education 6 out of 924 schools are not mixed (2 girl-only schools and 4 boy-only

schools) (MVG, Departement Onderwijs, 2001b). A proposal to generalise mixed schooling has not yet

been adopted by the Flemish Parliament. The discussion and evolution, however, is towards

coeducational schooling (also as a consequence of EU regulations on profession-oriented education).

2 The total number of schools includes the autonomous primary schools (221) as well as the basic

schools with primary and pre-school education (1,968). The number of autonomous schools of pre-

school education is not included (182) (Statistisch Jaarboek).


2.1.7. Curriculum development

Articles 6 and 24, Par. 2 of the School Pact Law of 29 May 1959 imply that the responsibility for

developing the syllabus falls on the organising body of the local school but that this syllabus must be

approved by the authorities (MVG, 1995b). In this context, we note that Article 24, Par. 3, actually does

provide for a certain degree of control by the authorities. But one must bear in mind that Article 24 of the

Belgian Constitution regarding education (approved on 15 June 1988) does not explicitly mention powers

of the authorities with regard to control or supervision, which has been transferred to the legislative power

of the Communities. The initial version of the article, drawn up in 1831, provided for supervision. The

debates at the time indicate that explicit control by the authorities according to the Dutch model was

rejected. In Belgium, opposition to attempts to impose control by the authorities has led to political

controversy on several occasions. The supervision carried out by the authorities of education remains a

very delicate issue. Bearing in mind that the importance of Catholic education is undeniable and that

most schools have their own organising body (inrichtende macht) - just as in municipal and provincial

education and soon also in community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs) with the newly created school

groups (scholengroepen) as organising bodies (inrichtende machten) - one might assume that there is

quite a large diversity of syllabuses.

In practice, however, this is not the case. Nevertheless, the differences between the basic options of some

curricula developed by the organising bodies of the different educational networks (onderwijsnetten)

cause great difficulties in the development of the attainment targets (eindtermen) and developmental

objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) (see Decree of 24 July 1996(b)).

2.1.8. Educational networks

Schools, which may be owned by different organising bodies (inrichtende machten) are grouped in

educational networks (onderwijsnetten) on the basis of their legal status. By virtue of the constitutional

liberty guaranteed in education, an educational network may be organised by the Communities, the

Provinces, and the Municipalities (public authorities), and private individuals, free associations, or non-

profit organisations (private persons).

The educational facilities organised by the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) (former state

schools) are known as community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs), those organised by municipalities

and provinces as grant-aided official education (gesubsidieerd officieel onderwijs), whereas educational

facilities organised by free associations or non-profit organisations are known as grant-aided free

education (gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs). The education organised by the provincial and local authorities

and the organisations in the third category are grant-aided by the Communities. Consequently, reference

is generally made to three educational networks in the legal and statutory provisions:


- the network of community schools (formerly State schools); this system must conform to special

regulations concerning neutrality, (the definition of which is negatively formulated, i.e., it lists things

not be done) as laid down in the Constitution. They are called community schools

(gemeenschapsscholen);

- the network of provincial and local authority schools. They are called grant-aided official schools

(officieel gesubsidieerde scholen);

- the network of grant-aided free schools (gesubsidieerde vrije scholen). This network consists of

schools of which the organising bodies are based on religion (free confessional schools), schools

where education is based on the principles of rational enquiry, and schools that are not founded on any

confessional or philosophical basis. The vast majority of them accept the legal provisions of Article

24 of the School Pact Law (Schoolpactwet) described in section 2.1.3. They are called grant-aided

free schools (vrij gesubsidieerde scholen).

One important difference in addition to differences in resources and educational projects (pedagogisch

project) between the grant-aided free schools and the other schools is the right to refuse pupils who want

to enrol, in contrast to the community schools and the grant-aided official schools who have to accept

everybody who applies. In 1997, however, the Decree on the basic education (basisonderwijs) restricted

this ‘freedom to refuse’. It says that a pupil cannot be refused ‘on the basis of criteria that are improper

and that violate human dignity. So the ‘right to refuse’ can be justified on the basis of the educational

project (pedagogisch project). It is argued that this of itself does not conflict with the freedom of choice

guaranteed by the Constitution because of the presence of educational provisions organised by other

educational networks who do not have this ‘right to refuse’.

The draft of decree concerning equal educational opportunities-I contains regulations that implement

“Guideline 2000/43/EG of the Council of Europe of 29 June 2000 concerning the application of the

principle of equal treatment of persons regardless of race or ethnic origin” in the sector of education. The

regulations are a step in the implementation of Articles 5 and 6 of the “International Convention on the

Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination”. It is the objective of the Minister to assure a

guaranteed free right of admission in any school in basic education as well as in secondary education.

This fundamental right of admission is coupled with an obligation of the school to accept every pupil.

This means that each pupil that meets the general conditions of entry (age and ability) has the right to

attend any school chosen by the parents. Only in a very few cases can the school refuse or refer a pupil.

The reasons for not accepting a pupil in the future will be regulated restrictively, namely when:

- a pupil does not meet the general conditions of admission;

- the material circumstances of the school are insufficient or the school cannot accept a pupil for safety

reasons;


- the pupil or his parents do not subscribe to the educational project (pedagogisch project) of the school;

- there are objective reasons why the school cannot offer special education for a pupil with a severe

handicap.

Official as well as grant-aided free schools will handle these conditions of non-admission. This

integrated equal opportunity policy still needs to be confirmed by a decree. This may happen in the

course of the year 2002 (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2000c; Pletinck, 2000).

A small minority of schools do not accept these legal provisions and are not allowed to grant officially

recognised certificates or diplomas. They are called free schools (vrije scholen).

Catholic schools are by far the most numerous of the grant-aided free educational establishments. The

relative share of all pupils for the three major networks in 2000-2001 (ordinary and special primary and

secondary education) was as follows: 14.6% in the community schools, 16.9% in the grant-aided official

schools (gesubsidieerde officiële scholen), and 68.5% in the grant-aided free schools (gesubsidieerde vrije

scholen) (Statistisch Jaarboek).

Regularly debates about the use of the continuation of separate educational networks (onderwijsnetten)

and the cooperation between networks take place in Flanders. At present there are two primary schools in

Flanders in which the first three grades are organised by the grant-aided free education (gesubsidieerd vrij

onderwijs) and the last three by the grant-aided official education (officieel gesubsidieerd onderwijs)

(Tegenbos, 2001).

2.2. Compulsory Education


The Law of 19 May 1914 introduced compulsory education for all children between the ages of 6 and 12

and stipulated that the upper age limit of the period of compulsory education would be extended to 13 and

then 14 years of age. However, this law, passed after ‘impassioned debate’, was not implemented until

after the First World War, in 1919. Officially, Belgium has a period of compulsory education, not

compulsory school attendance (schoolplicht). In 1953, a bill was introduced by the Government to extend

the period of compulsory school attendance to the age of 15. During the 1970s, various other bills were

introduced to extend compulsory education to the age of 16 following studies that showed a link between

the level of education and unemployment. In 1970, the average school leaving age was 15 years 8

months (the number of female pupils in school being higher at the ages of 14 and 15 than that of male

pupils).

2.2.2. Compulsory education: present law

The Law of 28 June 1983 prescribes that minors, Belgians and foreigners alike, are subject to compulsory

school attendance for a period of 12 years, starting in the school year during which the child reaches the

age of 6 and ending at the end of the school year during which the youngster reaches the age of 18


(Dewaele, e.a., 1985; TORB, 1995). In special circumstances, it can be decided to keep a child for one

more year at the pre-school level instead of entering primary school at the age of 6. Compulsory school

attendance is full-time up to the age of 15 or 16 years old, depending on the individual case. It consists of

primary education (six or seven years depending on the needs of the child, and even eight years in

exceptional cases) and at least the first two years of full-time secondary education. Full-time compulsory

attendance never extends beyond the age of 16 (Law of 28 June 1983).

For the school year 1999-2000, for example, pupils born after 1 January 1982 must complete at least the

first two years of full-time secondary education. If they have completed the first two years they can leave

full-time education when they reach their 15th birthday. If they have not completed these first two years,

they may only leave full-time education on reaching their 16th birthday. In both these cases, they must

follow part-time education consisting of at least 360 hours per year until 30 June of the year of their 16th

birthday and at least 240 hours per year until 30 June of the year of their 18th birthday.

Part-time compulsory school attendance requirements can also be satisfied by continuing full-time

education, by participating in a part-time programme at a centre created for this purpose, or by

participating in a recognised training course that fulfils the compulsory school-attendance requirements.

‘The recognised training courses’ are those defined in Article 2 of the Compulsory School-Attendance

Act. These are primarily training courses offered by the Flemish Institute for Entrepreneurship (Vlaams

Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO).

Pupils can also meet the compulsory education requirements through home teaching. This includes

education offered by private persons as well as education in private schools and independent study. There

are no specific stipulations for home teaching, although the following regulation concerning compulsory

education also applies to home teaching: “the education and training offered to the pupil needs to

contribute to his or her education as well as to the preparation for the practice of an occupation” (Circular

Letter of 1 March 2000).

However, home teaching does not lead to legal certificates. To obtain an official diploma, one needs to

take an examination for the Examination Board of the Flemish Community (Examencommissie van de

Vlaamse Gemeenschap).

It has to be mentioned that this law on compulsory education has not settled the debate on the legally

accepted school leaving age.

2.2.3. Monitoring compulsory education

Young people may also satisfy the compulsory education requirement by being taught at home on

condition that the teaching provided satisfies the requirements fixed by the law. Some time ago, rules for

monitoring compulsory education have been included in legislation (Decision of the Flemish Community

of 16 September 1997). Based on the registration numbers assigned to each citizen from the day of birth

on, a monitoring system has been set up that assigns special responsibility to the school head. The


registration number of pupils enrolled can be compared easily with those of all young Belgians in the

State Register (Rijksregister).

Parents are responsible for the enrolment of their children. If the administration determines that a child is

not enrolled, the parents have to justify themselves and are reminded of their responsibility. Judicial

measures are available if they do not fulfil their responsibility (Decree of 25 February 1997).

There are no specific stipulations for home teaching. The following regulation of the law concerning

compulsory education applies also to home teaching: “the education and training offered to the pupil

needs to contribute to his or her education as well as to the preparation for the practice of an occupation”

(Circular Letter of 1 March 2000).

The Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLB’s) are by the

government assigned with the task to counsel youngsters who have problems concerning compulsory

education. The centres’ aim is to re-involve these youngsters in the educational process (Decree of 1

December 1999).

2.3. General structure of and defining moments in educational guidance

In general, one could say that there are three defining moments in guidance of pupils. The first one is

after the primary school (age 12): pupils have to choose a secondary school. Although theoretically the

first stage of secondary education focuses on a core curriculum, the options offered already reflect

choices to be made after the first stage. Second, after the second year of secondary education, pupils have

to choose general academic, art, technical, or vocational secondary education. The third moment is, of

course, at the transition between secondary and higher education. Pupils can opt for part-time education

after the fourth year of secondary education.


2.4. General administration

2.4.1. General administration at national level

Belgium is a small country, so indications such as ‘national level’ or ‘regional level’ must always be

taken in context. Educational policy results mainly from interaction between the national or ‘community’

level and local schools represented by their organising bodies (inrichtende machten).

2.4.1.1. General framework

The general framework of educational administration in Flanders, besides the Flemish Parliament and the

Minister of Education (and his cabinet of advisors), consists of three major levels: the Education

Department of the Ministry of the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap), the networks, and the

local schools. This is somewhat different than what is common in other countries with a hierarchical

structure with ‘national’, ‘regional’, and ‘local’ powers. As far as the educational networks

(onderwijsnetten) are concerned, two of them have a public character (community education and grant-

aided official education), and the third one is what is called the non-state sector.

2.4.1.2. The ministry

The Education Department (departement Onderwijs) of the Ministry of the Flemish Community (Vlaamse

Gemeenschap) itself works under the authority of a Secretary General. The Education Department itself

is organised into five directorates: the Logistics and Support Administration (Administratie

Ondersteuning), Elementary Education Administration (Administratie basisonderwijs), Secondary

Education Administration (Administratie Secundair Onderwijs), Higher Education and Scientific

Research Administration (Administratie Hoger onderwijs & Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek), and the

Continuing Education Administration (Administratie Permanente Vorming). At present, nearly all of

these services are located in Brussels. Some continuing training is also under the responsibility of the

Education Minister: Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP), Part-time

Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO), distance learning (Afstandsonderwijs), part-time

vocational education (Deeltijds Beroepsonderwijs) (DBSO), and industrial apprenticeship contract

(Industrieel leercontract).

Continuing training for employees and the unemployed is the responsibility of various bodies under the

Community and regional authorities. The same applies for the training of the self-employed. For those

sectors, the Flemish Minister of Employment and Tourism, the Flemish Minister of Economy, Town and

Country Planning, and Media, and the Flemish Minister of Environment and Agriculture have some

authority as well. The Flemish Minister of Education is co-ordinating the various sectors.


2.4.1.3. Community education

Up until the 1 January 1989, State education was organised in the same way in all three Communities

(Magits & Veny, 1993). The Minister of Education was the organising body (inrichtende macht) and

made most of the decisions for State education. At the local level in the Flemish Community (Vlaamse

Gemeenschap), there were a few consultative committees for each education centre and each school.

However, their activities were mainly of an advisory nature. After 1989, this structure was changed in the

Flemish Community but not in the other two Communities. In the Flemish part of the country,

“gemeenschapsonderwijs” (community education) is now organised by the Community Education

(Gemeenschapsonderwijs) (previously the Independent Council for Community Education (Autonome

Raad voor het Gemeenschapsonderwijs) (ARGO) organised by the Special Decree of 19 December

1988). The organising body is, therefore, no longer the Community Minister, but the

“Gemeenschapsonderwijs” (Community Education). The “Centrale Raad” (Central Council) within the

Community Education (Gemeenschapsonderwijs) receives and manages the financial resources required

to provide education. It determines, among other things, the pedagogical framework and the content of

the subjects and concerns itself with staff recruitment for community schools, the management of the

annual appropriations for buildings and infrastructure in the community schools, and overall educational

planning. The consultative bodies in schools and education centres were supposed to remain the same as

those in the former State system up until 1 April 1991. But after that date, the local school councils

(lokale schoolraden) (LORGO’s) took over these consultative duties. This represented a further step

towards decentralisation in the sense that the school councils became entitled to make temporary

appointmentsand submit lists of candidates for permanent posts to the Central Council and to conduct

local material and financial management and educational policy under the supervision of the Central

Council (Centrale Raad) (Devos et. al., 1999).

To enable community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs) to adapt itself to the renewed concept of

school communities (scholengemeenschappen) in secondary education (Decree of 14 July 1998), a

Special Decree on the Community Education of 14 July 1998 was enacted. This Special Decree contains

a change from a two-level structure to a three-level structure. At the local level, the school head

(directeur) is responsible for school matters. The school head is the school’s central figure. These school

heads have taken up their duties since 1 january 2000. The school councils (schoolraden) include

representatives of parents and teaching staff and representatives of local social, economic and cultural

circles.

They have advisory and consultative duties and also the right to information concerning all decisions that

influence school life, however, they have no decision-making authority. On 1 january 2000, the old local

school councils (lokale schoolraden) disappeared.

The decision-making authority pertains largely to the school groups (scholengroepen) at the meso-level.

These school groups (scholengroepen) are governed by a General Council (Algemene Vergadering), a

Governing Body (Raad van Bestuur), a Board of Head Masters (College van Directeurs) and a General


Director (Algemeen Directeur). The school groups will serve as the organising bodies (inrichtende

machten) of the assigned schools, the boarding schools, and the Centre for Educational Guidance

(Centrum voor Leerlingenbegeleiding). The General Council (Algemene Vergadering) confirms the

budget, approves the accounts, and confirms the appointment of the General Director of the school group.

The Governing Body (Raad van Bestuur) is responsible for the general policy, the educational policy, the

personnel policy, and the material and financial management of the school group. At the central level, the

present Central Council (Centrale Raad) within the Community Education (Gemeenschapsonderwijs) will

be replaced by the Council for Community Education (Raad van het Gemeenschapsonderwijs and a

Governor (Afgevaardigd-Bestuurder) on 1 January 2003.

The implementation of these reformations develops in a number of phases and is spread out over a period

up to 2003.

Up till the present, the following reforms have taken place (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2001; MVG,

Departement Onderwijs, 1998f):

- At the local level the school heads have taken up their authority since 1 January 2000. The school

heads of the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) are responsible

since 1 September 2000. The new school councils (schoolraden) are elected and composed as from

April 2001.

- At the meso-level, the college of directors has been composed and has taken up its full authority on 1

January 2000. In addition, the Central Council has composed in total 29 school groups. Since

January 2000, provisional Governing Bodies (Raden van Bestuur) and General Council (Algemene

Vergadering) have been composed that exercise the authority of, respectively, the Governing Bodies

and the General Council and will later be elected definitely.

2.4.1.4. Grant-aided official education

The provinces and municipalities have founded schools in many areas. Just as in free education, these

schools have separate organising bodies, namely the local council and provincial councils, which are

allowed full autonomy in conducting their local policy as long as they keep within the limits of the laws

and regulations. This network also has a few co-ordinating bodies in which the organising bodies can

consult with each other. They include the “Onderwijssecretariaat van de Vlaamse Steden en Gemeenten”

(Educational Secretariat for Flemish Cities and Municipalities) (OVSG) and the “Cel voor het Vlaams

Provinciaal Onderwijs” (Group for Flemish Provincial Education) (CVPO). These bodies are also

charged with helping to conduct educational experiments.


2.4.1.5. Grant-aided free education

2.4.1.5.1. Private education

The term ‘private education’ as used in many other European countries does not fit at all into what is

meant by free education in Belgium (Eurydice European Unit, 1992a). It would be more precise to speak

of ‘non-public authority education’. This sector is legally labelled grant-aided free education

(gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs). This ‘non-state, grant-aided’ sector is divided into three categories:

- denominational schools, in which Catholic schools are by far the most numerous, although, some

schools are run by Protestant and Jewish religious authorities;

- non-denominational schools, including schools based on rationalist/humanist principles;

- independent schools applying specific theories, such as the Freinet or Steiner schools (although some

of them belong to the Community network as well).

Theoretically, each organising body (inrichtende macht) of each of these ‘non-state’ schools enjoys

complete autonomy in applying policies to the school or schools that come under its responsibility.

2.4.1.5.2. Grant-aided free catholic schools

As stated in other sections, the large majority of the grant-aided free network are Catholic schools.

Catholic education has been unified in the “Vlaams Secretariaat van het Katholiek Onderwijs” (Flemish

Secretariat for Catholic Education) (VSKO), a co-ordinating body founded to represent Catholic

education in the national and Community debates and to defend the interests of this system when dealing

with the authorities. This additional central organisation for Catholic education is not, however, entitled

to act in place of the various organising bodies. The VSKO does, nevertheless, exert a great deal of

influence over the policies of the organising bodies.

The Catholic educational network (onderwijsnet) also has decentralised consultative bodies, the decisions

of which are generally heeded by the organising bodies, although these bodies may not act in the place of

the organising bodies. For each diocese (area under the jurisdiction of a Catholic bishop within the

organisational structure of the Catholic Church), there is a “Diocesane Planificatie- en Coördinatie

commissie” (Diocesan Planning and Co-ordination Committee) (DPCC) that has authority over planning

and co-ordinating decisions within the diocese. There are several “Regionale Coördinatiecommissies”

(Regional Co-ordination and Planning Committees) (RCC) in each diocese, and they consult with each

other about pastoral and organisational problems specific to their regions. The organising body, the

pastorate, the school staff, and parents are represented in all these committees. Finally, in the case of

secondary education, there are several secondary education centres that represent several schools covered

by the same organising body or different organising bodies. They provide the various forms of education

(general academic, vocational, technical, etc) in a region. The effectiveness of these consultative

committees varies from region to region. They may under no circumstances act in the place of the

organising bodies, which, legally speaking, are the only authorities entitled to represent their school or


schools in dealing with the Community Minister. Although the organising bodies are legally responsible

for school policy, most of them give considerable authority to the school heads, who remain accountable

to them.

2.4.1.5.3. Other grant-aided free schools

The denominational Protestant schools are grouped in the “Vereniging voor Protestants-Christelijk

Onderwijs in België” (Association of Protestant Christian Schools in Belgium).

The non-denominational and independent schools come together under the aegis of the “Vlaams

Onderwijs Overleg Platform” (Flemish Education Deliberation Board) (VOOP), the “Federatie van

Onafhankelijke Pluralistische Emancipatorische Methodescholen” (Federation of Independent, Pluralistic,

Emancipatory Method schools) (FOPEM), and the “Federatie van Rudolf Steiner Scholen” (Federation of

Rudolf Steiner Schools). Among the independent schools, the Steiner Schools (officially recognised

since 1984) are the most numerous, with a number of basic and secondary schools and 3,269 pupils (811

at the pre-school level, 1,216 in ordinary primary education, 124 in special primary education, 1,074 in

ordinary secondary education and 44 in special secondary education), (figures of 1 February 2001;

source: OKO). Another, smaller group is formed by the Freinet schools. All those groups try to work

together nowadays within the framework of the “Overlegplatform Kleine Onderwijsverstrekkers”

(Review Board for Small Organising Bodies) (OKO).

The three Jewish or Yeshiva schools in Antwerp do not have a formal representative association. One of

the directors acts as their spokesman.

2.4.2. General administration at regional and local level

The Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) is not a large territory, which is certainly one of the

reasons why regional and local levels of decision-making are not well developed. In some cases, more

consultative bodies are operational at the regional and the local level in addition to the organising bodies

(inrichtende machten) within the educational networks. In community education

(gemeenschapsonderwijs), the school groups (scholengroepen) function (from 1 April 2000) as organising

bodies at the intermediate level and the school communities (scholengemeenschappen) function as

management organisations in both the official and grant-aided educational networks.

2.4.3. Educational institutions, administration, and management

2.4.3.1. Educational institutions, administration, and management at pre-school, primary and

secondary level

2.4.3.1.1. Administrative posts and decision-making bodies at the school level

The School Pact Law gives the school governing bodies (inrichtende machten) the responsibility for the

organisation of education. However, their function is not described in more specific terms by law. The


management function of the organising body is mostly shared with, or even executed to a large extent by

the school head (directeur). Furthermore, there are Participation Councils (Participatieraden) in the grant-

aided education and school councils (schoolraden) in the community education (Heyvaert & Janssens,

2001).

The school head is called “directeur”. Most of the pre-school level institutions are, however, a section of

a basic school (basisschool), which has a primary level section as well. Many of these school heads still

have teaching duties. Only in schools with at least 180 pupils does the school head have no teaching

duties. In secondary education the school head has no teaching duties. Resources for additional policy

support are provided depending on the number of pupils at school. In the case of a merger between

schools, a deputy school head (adjunct-directeur) is appointed (Decree of 25 February 1997). In the

community education, the the school councils are composed from April 2001. The school groups

function (from 1 April 2001) as organising bodies (inrichtende machten) at an intermediate level and have

all the duties which are necessary or useful for their assignment.

In secondary school there are furthermore the functions of the executive secretary (directiesecretaris), the

educator-caretaker (opvoeder-huismeester), the deputy head (onderdirecteur), technical advisor-co-

ordinator (technisch adviseur-coördinator), technical advisor (technisch adviseur) and internal educational

guides (interne pedagogische begeleiders). The functions of school head, administrator (beheerder) and

technical advisor-co-ordinator (technisch adviseur-coördinator), are officially called promotion posts

(bevorderingsambten); the others are officially called selection posts (selectieambten). There are also the

recruitment posts (wervingsambten), namely the teachers (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2001). General

descriptions of these posts are provided by law only for community education and not for grant-aided

education. As the result of consultation, general descriptions of these administrative positions have been

established in the grant-aided education, but they are not binding (Devos, et al., 1987).

2.4.3.1.2. Competence

The organising body is seen by law as the initiator of the school and is responsible for its operation. It is

also responsible for the establishment of the educational project (pedagogisch project) of the school. Its

freedom concerning educational methods and educational concept is guaranteed. On the condition that a

minimum timetable is used and the curriculum is approved, the school can be funded or grant-aided. The

organising bodies are also responsible for the recruitment and appointment of personnel and receive funds

from the State. They own or rent their facilities (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2001).

In the community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs), the authority of organising body (inrichtende

macht) is divided between the central level (Council for Community Education (Raad van het

Gemeenschapsonderwijs)) and the intermediary level (school groups (scholengroepen)). On local level

the school head has decisive authority, assisted by the schoolraad (school council). The school council

has consultative duties and is, for example, entitled to give advice about the general organisation of the

school, the recruitment of pupils or students, the school’s budget, the school development plan


(schoolwerkplan), ... However, the school councils (schoolraden) have no decision making authority.

The decision-making authority resides largely in the intermediate level of the school groups

(scholengroepen). The General Council (Algemene Vergadering) and the Governing Body (Raad van

Bestuur) of the school groups are seen as the organising body (inrichtende macht) of the concerned school

groups (scholengroepen). At the local level the school head is responsible for school related matters.

Furthermore, there is a Participation Council (Participatieraad) in grant-aided schools consisting of

representatives of the school board (inrichtende macht), the personnel, and the parents. This council has

at least ‘advisory authority’ as regards the general organisation and operation of the school, planning, and

the general criteria involved in supporting and evaluating pupils. It has ‘consultative authority’ (to strive

for consensus) at least for the criteria for applying the teaching periods, the determination and

modification of the school regulations, pupil transport, and pupil safety and health. Additional rights and

authority can be assigned and are determined by law, like the policy concerning the recruitment of pupils,

the provision of information to parents, and the infrastructure of the school (Decree of 23 October 1991

(a)).

The school head is responsible for the administration of the school and directs the small administrative

staff. He is responsible for the registration of pupils, their administrative records, and the records of each

member of his staff. He is, by delegation, co-responsible for decisions on the use of funds. Regularly, at

least once a year, he informs the school board on the school’s financial situation and proposes a budget

for the next year. He is also responsible for the school’s material situation, for maintenance and repairs,

for the purchase of furnishings and equipment, for the establishment of regulations concerning personnel

and pupils, for the order and discipline at school, and other such matters (Devos et al., 1987).

He takes responsibility for co-ordination in the educational area by, for example:

- maintaining personal contact with the staff;

- class visits;

- organisation of staff meetings on educational issues, the selection of learning materials, and teaching

methods;

- taking part in or organising the mentoring of new teachers;

- evaluating teaching plans and course preparation;

- developing and promoting in-service training activities;

- chairing the Participation Council (Participatieraad);

- supervising the administrative personnel.

He plays a central role in selecting new teachers and other staff members to be appointed by the

organising body. He is responsible for all external contacts (with the Inspectorate, the pedagogical

support services, the parents, the local community, etc.) and the public relations of the school in general

(Michielsen, 1998).


The deputy school head (adjunct-directeur) is the direct collaborator of the school head and assists him in

accordance with his qualifications, concerning, among other things, the co-ordination of the education

and the curricula, the time tables for classes and duties, and various activities of the personnel. He

replaces the school head when he is absent and organises the supervision of pupils outside the classes. He

also may be responsible for the library and so on. The executive secretary (directiesecretaris) is

responsible for the paperwork and other administrative tasks that the school head entrusts him with

(Belgian Royal Decree of 15 July 1969 and of 23 November 1970).

The administrator (beheerder) is responsible for the material and financial management in an educational

institution that contains a boarding school. The educator-caretaker (opvoeder-huismeester) carries out the

tasks concerning the material and financial management that the administrator entrusts to him with or he

has the tasks of the administrator in the schools where there is no administrator (Belgian Royal Decree of

15 July 1969). In vocational and technical education, the technical advisor-co-ordinator co-ordinates and

supervises the activities of the teaching staff in charge of the vocational exercises. He is responsible for

such things as the management of the technical equipment. A technical advisor-co-ordinator (technisch

adviseur-coördinator) co-ordinates the activities of the technical advisor in schools with at least three

technical advisors (adviseur) (Decree of 14 July 1998).

The tasks of the internal educational guide (interne pedagogische begeleider) are determined by the

educational project (pedagogisch project) and the school development plan (schoolwerkplan) of the

school. His assignment relates to the didactic facets of education and the related organisational tasks. He

monitors the realisation of the educational project of the school and the quality of the education. Thus, he

participates in the educational policy and the management of the school, and he fosters the development

of the school culture (for example, by promotion of internal and external communication at school level).

Every school will specify these general tasks. He may co-ordinate pupil guidance, and he may have an

important responsibility concerning the preparation of and follow-up after the meetings of the class

council (klassenraad), which consists of the teaching staff and is responsible for the evaluation of the

pupils. He may also be an important contact person for parents and members of the Centres for

Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLB’s). Other possible tasks are guidance

of new teachers, the organisation of work groups of teachers, and the preparation of educational activities

(VVKSO, 1994).

2.4.3.1.3. Recruitment and appointment procedures

The new school heads will no longer be permanently appointed. Instead, they will be appointed for fixed

terms. The modalities are determined in the Decree concerning Education XI of 18 May 1999. The

starting date was originally set at 1 September 2000 but has meanwhile been postponed except for the

Centres for Educational Guidance where every new school head has been appointed by mandate since 1

September 2000 (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2001).


Recruitment procedures can differ considerably, depending on the policy of a particular organising body

(inrichtende macht). Sometimes formal examinations are organised (oral and written). Legally, an

appointment in kindergarten and primary school is possible if two conditions are met: the candidate must

have the diploma of pre-school teacher (kleuterleid(st)er) or primary school teacher (onderwijzer) and

have 10 years of service (Devos, et al., 1987). In secondary education the candidate has to be holder of a

required qualification (vereist bekwaamheidsbewijs) or a qualification deemed to be sufficient (voldoende

geacht bekwaamheidsbewijs) and the last evaluation may not be “insufficient”. Some organising bodies

require proof of having attended in-service training programmes as well. Except in the community

education, no additional specific qualifications have been formulated, such as having attended preparatory

courses or holding a specific certificate (Michielsens, 1998).

For the other selection posts (selectieambten) and promotion posts (bevorderingsambten), similar

requirements are established: the required diploma and permanent appointment in another recruitment

post (wervingsambt), selection post (selectieambt), or promotion post (bevorderingsambt ).

With the transitional arrangements for the school years 1999-2000 to 2005-2006, the staff members of the

category educational assistant and administrative personnel are changed to the category of support staff

on the basis of the new norms (according to a weighting system of the students, positions may be

allocated in a school).

2.4.3.1.4. In-service training

In-service training is gradually being established for a broad range of topics such as educational methods,

management, social skills. Institutions for tertiary education are involved in the development of such

courses. Especially for primary school teachers and heads, voluntary, three-year part-time courses were

organised in collaboration with the former Teacher Training Institutes. These courses are integrated into

the new higher education institutes and lead to the diploma of higher pedagogical studies (Diploma van

Hoger Opvoedkundige Studiën) (DHOS). Holders of the diploma receive a small increase in salary.

2.4.3.1.5. Organisation and planning of education

In pre-school institutions and primary schools the school head (directeur) must draw up a school

development plan (schoolwerkplan) and a curriculum. In special education, an individual educational

plan (handelingsplan) is also required. A curriculum is a plan that formulates the objectives for the pupils

on the basis of the educational project (pedagogisch project) in general and the conception of the subject

content of the school in particular. An individual educational plan consists of the educational and didactic

plan for one or more pupils in a special education programme for a specific period of time. It integrates

the social, medical, psychological, and orthopedagogical assistance in education (Decree of 25 February

1997). In the school development plan, the educational project is described. In fact, it deals with all

aspects that are important to realise the vision on education of the school such as the organisation of the

school, the division of the pupils, the mode of assessing and reporting, in-service training, and school


rules. Facilities for pupils with a handicap or learning difficulties are defined as well as the forms of co-

operation with other schools for ordinary or special education. In addition, it also has a variable part that

consists of a schedule for a certain period whereby certain priorities are specified ‘that have to be worked

on’ (VSKO, 1998).

There is no longer any division in year groups, subjects, or degrees, and imposed timetables are history.

So, apart from the obligation to establish a school development plan (schoolwerkplan), the school board

(schoolbestuur) has a good deal of freedom to organise the education it provides. For example, it is

possible to work with another division than the year-group system with the result that the provision of

education can be more differentiated and adapted to specific groups of pupils.

In the reorganisation of secondary education, the local autonomy of the school has been further enhanced;

the centrally imposed timetables are abolished, so there is more room for adaptation to the needs of the

pupils and more scope for integrating subjects and curricula in relation to an entire stage. Only the

attainment targets (eindtermen) and the minimum timetable for the core curriculum are established by the

government (Van Den Bossche, 1996).

In special education, there are more possibilities for differentiation because of the replacement of the

year-group system by a flexible system of groups of pupils to permit more attention to the individual

needs of the pupils. In special education, too, an educational plan (groepswerkplan) has to be integrated

into the school development plan (schoolwerkplan). It plans the education for a group of pupils with

similar handicaps. A number of hours for paramedical, medical, social, psychological, and

orthopedagogical personnel are also provided.

Furthermore, each school defines the school rules regulating the relations between the school and the

pupils and parents. It consists, for example, of disciplinary rules, arrangements concerning homework,

agendas, and reports.

A school can also participate in temporary projects (tijdelijke projecten) organised by the government

both in special and ordinary education. In 1998, a school started to receive extra teaching periods and/or

extra hours and/or extra subsidies for two years on the condition the school presents an application plan.

Every year, the projects are evaluated by the inspection service, and the government decides on the basis

of the reported results on the continuation of the projects. Projects funded under this statute are, for

example, special needs programme (zorgbreedte), educational priority policy (onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid),

the non-discrimination policy and the policy on the reception of immigrants for foreign speaking

newcomers. These projects are intended to assure equal opportunities for pupils at school. As of the

2002-2003 school year, these projects will be brought together in an integrated equal opportunity policy.

Another example of a temporary project (tijdelijk project) is the PC/KD programme. This programme

has already existed in primary and secondary education since 1998. For the 2001-2002 school year, the

original target group was extended to the three lower grades of primary education and to pre-school

children of 4 years and older. The objective of this programme is to promote innovation in education

through the use of information and communication technology (Circular Letter of 2 July 2001).


Especially in part-time vocational secondary education (deeltijds beroepssecundair onderwijs) the

temporary project ‘guidance’ (trajectbegeleiding) was introduced (Decision of the Flemish Government

of 14 August 2001).

Finally, agreements may be made for co-operation between schools in ordinary and special basic

education (basisonderwijs) and even between schools in ordinary or special secondary education. These

agreements can concern, for example, the joint organisation of educational activities, the exchange or

guidance of personnel, and the joint use of infrastructure (Decree of 25 February 1997).

The Decree of 14 July 1998 relating to secondary education re-introduced the concept of communities of

schools (scholengemeenschappen) between schools. These are voluntary co-operative arrangements

between secondary educational institutions to provide multi-sector education at least of the general

academic, technical, and vocational education kind. A school community (scholengemeenschap) contains

one or more educational institutions, which may or may not belong to the same organising body

(inrichtende macht) or same educational network (onderwijsnet). This article concerns all schools of full-

time General Secondary Education (algemeen secundair onderwijs) (ASO), part-time Vocational

Secondary Education (Deeltijds Beroepssecundair Onderwijs) (DBSO), and the part-time secondary

fishing education. The schools of a school community (scholengemeenschap) are located within the same

educational area (onderwijszone). The Decree of 4 May 1999 stipulates 44 educational areas

(onderwijszones) or geographic regions in which the school communities can be established. There are

no minimum standards for the number of pupils in a school community (scholengemeenschap).

However, the number of school communities of each educational network is restricted. If the schools of a

school community (scholengemeenschap) belong to different networks, then the school community

(scholengemeenschap) is located in the educational area in which the majority of the schools of the school

community is located.

The objective of this concept of school communities (scholengemeenschappen) is to rationalise and

structure transparently the provision of education at the local level. This is seen to be necessary for more

objective development of and choice-making in the school career of the pupils. The competence of a

school community (scholengemeenschap), as established by Decree of 14 July 1998, is the following: it is

responsible for the rational and multi-sectoral provision of education, and to make agreements related to

the provision of education of each school and concerning personnel policy (the criteria for recruitment,

functioning, and evaluation of staff members). It also has an advisory role in matters related to school

accommodations and infrastructure. Additional authority may be arranged concerning, for example, the

transfer of teaching periods between the schools and co-operation with other educational levels or with

institutions of other school networks. The administrative advantages of participating in a school

community (scholengemeenschap) are, among other things, additional financial resources, the possibility

of transferring teaching periods between the schools, the assignment of specific tasks to the level of the

school community (scholengemeenschap), and the shared use of administrative personnel.


In all, 119 school communities (scholengemeenschappen) were formed since 1 September 2000: 35 for

the community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs), 9 for the Grant-aided Official Education

(Gesubsidieerd Officieel Onderwijs) and 75 for the Grant-aided Free Education (Gesubsidieerd Vrij

Onderwijs) (Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department,

2000).

2.4.3.2. Educational institutions, administration, and management at colleges of higher education

(hogescholen)

The Decree of 13 July 1994 relating to the colleges of higher education (hogescholen) prescribes the

administrative organisation of higher non-university educational institutions. The Decree distinguishes

between funded colleges (public institutions) and grant-aided colleges (private institutions).

2.4.3.2.1. General administrative structures and posts

A funded educational institution is governed by a Board of Directors (Raad van Bestuur), consisting of

the representatives of the different categories of the personnel elected for 4 years by the personnel,

representatives of the students, elected for 2 years by the students, and the representatives of organising

body and/or the representatives of the socio-economic and cultural sectors (also for a term of 4 years).

The General Manager (Algemeen directeur), the school head of a college of higher education, has an

advisory voice in this council. The Board of Directors determines the regulations concerning

administration, examinations, and discipline, establishes the budget, appoints the personnel, establishes

the framework for the organisation and co-ordination of the tasks of the educational institution and so on.

The Directorate (Bestuurscollege) consists of the chairman of the Board of Directors, the General

Manager (Algemeen Directeur), and 3 representatives of the personnel appointed for 4 years by the Board

of Directors. The Directorate (Bestuurscollege) is responsible for the daily administration and the

preparation, announcement, and execution of the decisions of the Board of Directors, the financial

management within the framework established by the Board of Directors, the appointment of non-

executive administrative and technical personnel, and many other matters that are not explicitly assigned

by law to other administrative organs or posts (Decree of 13 July 1994).

The General Manager is appointed (and may be dismissed) by the Board of Directors and is responsible

for the administration of the institute. He directs the administrative and other (e.g. international relations

officer) staff. He is responsible for the registration of students, their administrative records, as well as the

records of each member of his staff. By delegation, he shares responsibility for decisions on the use of

funds. Regularly, at least once a year, he informs the organising body of the school’s financial situation

and proposes for the budget for the coming year. He is also responsible for the school’s material

situation, for maintenance and repairs, and for the purchase of furnishings and equipment. He plays a

central role in selecting new teachers and other staff members to be appointed by the organising body. He

is responsible for all external contacts (with the pedagogical support services, the local community,

guidance centre, labour market, etc.) and the public relations of the school in general.


The institutes have to organise their own recruitment procedures for the post of General Manager. The

position may be filled by a member of the regular teaching staff with a permanent appointment.

Appointment conditions are similar to those of the teaching staff.

The Decree provides the grant-aided colleges of higher education administrative bodies with mainly

advisory tasks towards the board of directors of the college (hogeschoolbestuur) - which are not further

defined by law, such as an Academic Council (Academische Raad). The board of directors of the college

must inform the Academic Council about all matters concerning the educational institution. The

Academic Council consists of elected representatives of the board of directors of the college (4 years), of

the personnel (4 years), and of the students (2 years). This council is entitled to receive information and

to advise (it issues an advice when asked to do so by the board of directors of the college or on its own

initiative) for at least the educational aspects concerning certain matters (such as the research policy).

Third, the Academic Council has the ‘competence of consultation’ (the taking of a decision on its own

initiative or when asked by the board of directors of the college that, when consensus is reached, will be

carried out by the board of directors of the college) for at least the educational aspects of certain matters

such as the financial policy, the policy concerning education and examinations, and organisation of study

guidance. If there is no consensus, the board of directors of the college will make the decision. Each

college of higher education (hogeschool), both grant-aided or funded, is divided into departments (see

next section).

Each college of higher education must also establish a Council of Students (Studentenraad), consisting of

at least 8 and at most 16 elected students. The Board of Directors and the Directorate (Bestuurscollege)

(at funded colleges) or the board of directors of the college (at grant-aided colleges) must consult

beforehand the council of students on all matters that have direct relevance for the students (e.g.

regulations concerning education and examinations, and the evaluation of the teaching staff). The council

of students may also take advisory initiatives (Decree of 13 July 1994).

Concerning the conditions of employment, each college of higher education and each department of that

institute has a negotiation committee (onderhandelingscomité) to regulate the relations between the

employer and the unions of the personnel (see also next section). The Negotiation Committee of the

College (Hogeschoolonderhandelingscomité) (HOC) consists of the representatives of the Board of

Directors (Raad van Bestuur) and of the personnel at a funded college of higher education. At grant-

aided colleges of higher education, this council is composed of the representatives of the board of

directors of the college and those of the personnel (Decree of 13 July 1994).

2.4.3.2.2. Administrative structures and posts on a lower level

For each department in a financed educational institution, there is a Departmental Council

(Departementsraad) composed of the same parties as the Board of Directors (Bestuursraad) (with the

same terms, but with another proportional composition). This council elects the head of the department,

who serves as chairman of the council for a 4-year term. The Departmental Council is responsible for the


establishment of educational programmes and examinations, the establishment of the research

programmes, the use of the funds and personnel, the recruitment of temporary personnel, the nomination

of personnel for permanent appointment, the internal organisation of the departement, the yearly drawing

up of budget proposals, and other matters (Decree of 13 July 1994).

At grant-aided educational institutions, a Departmental Council has to be established for each department

consisting of the head of the department as the chairman of the council and elected representatives of the

teaching staff, the students, and the socio-economic and cultural sectors. This council has the right of

information for all matters concerning the department and may advise on the departmental level when

asked by the board of directors of the college or on its own initiative on a range of matters concerning the

department (Decree of 13 July 1994).

At funded colleges of higher education, the Departmental Negotiation Committee (Departementaal

Onderhandelingscomité) (DOC) consists of representatives of the Department Council

(Departementsraad) and of the personnel. At grant-aided colleges of higher education, it consists of the

representatives of the Board of Directors of the Department (Departementsbestuur) - not further defined

by law - and of the personnel (see also the previous section) (Decree of 13 July 1994).

2.4.3.3. Educational institutions, administration, and management at universities

Each individual university is, in principle, responsible for the establishment of its own internal

organisation. The administrative structure of the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven) is taken

here as an example in the following sections. In addition, the main administrative organs and posts of the

“Universiteit Gent” (RUG) (Special Decree of 26 June 1991) and the “Universiteit Antwerpen” (UA)

(Decree of 22 December 1995) are presented.

2.4.3.3.1. General administrative bodies at the top

First of all, at the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven), there is the organising body

(inrichtende macht), which approves the mission of the university and establishes the organic regulations

of the university, both upon the advice of the Academic Council (Academische Raad). Moreover, it is

responsible for the establishment, statute, and preservation of the Faculty of Theology and Religious

Sciences. The organising body appoints and dismisses the Vice-chancellor (see next section) and the

General Administrator (Algemeen Beheerder) (K.U.Leuven, 1996). The special decree concerning the

“Universiteit Gent” (RUG) and the “Universitair Centrum Antwerpen” (UCA) (now “Universiteit

Antwerpen” (UA)) (Decree of 22 December 1995) transfers the inrichtende macht (organising body) from

the Flemish Government to both university institutes.

At the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven), the Board of Directors (Raad van Beheer)

administers the university and represents the university outside the university institution. This council

prepares the budget and the accounts and issues the structural regulations and the regulations concerning

personnel and students upon the advice of the Academic Council. It is responsible for the financial


management of the university and the personnel policy (appointments, recruitment etc.) and supervises

over the fulfilment of the mission the university. This council consists of the Vice-chancellor, the

General Administrator, the members of the General Bureau (Gemeenschappelijk Bureau) and other

members, who are appointed for terms of 5 years. Furthermore, there is the Academic Council, which

determines and co-ordinates the policy on education, scientific research, and scientific services. It also

organises the election of the vice-chancellor and appoints the members of the General Bureau. The

Academic Council advises the Board of Directors on its own initiative or when requested on matters for

which the Board of Directors is competent, e.g. personnel policy, financial management, and regulations.

In addition to the Vice-chancellor, the General Administrator, and the members of the General Bureau,

the deans of the Faculties are also members of the Academic Council. This council also includes the

representatives of the auxiliary academic personnel and of the students and possibly members of the

independent academic personnel (K.U.Leuven, 1996).

The General Bureau consists of the vice-chancellor, the General Administrator, and other members. This

organ is responsible for the daily administration of the university and prepares the meetings of the

Academic Council and the Board of Directors, submits proposals, and is responsible for the execution of

their decisions (K.U.Leuven, 1996).

The Board of Directors is the most important administrative organ at the “Universiteit Gent” (RUG). It

consists of the vice-chancellor, the deputy vice-chancellor (vice-rector), representatives of the academic

personnel and the administrative and technical personnel, representatives of the students, and

representatives of public agencies, political, socio-economical and cultural circles, taken into account the

university’s profile (Special Decree of 18 May 2001).

At the “Universiteit Antwerpen” (UA) (Decree of 22 December 1995) the most important administrative

organ is the “Raad van de Universiteit Antwerpen” (Board of the university of Antwerp). This board

consists of the Rector-Voorzitter (chair-person-vice-chancellor), the members of the “Bureau”,

representatives of the academic and administrative and technical personnel (equal representation of the

three separate parts of the UA, namely the “Universitair Centrum Antwerpen” (RUCA), the

“Universitaire Faculteiten St. Ignatius” (UFSIA) and the “Universitaire Instelling Antwerpen” (UIA)),

representatives of the students and representatives of the public, socio-economical and cultural-social

environment. The terms of the members of this council is 4 years and 1 year for the students.

These two councils are responsible for matters comparable with those of the “Raad van Beheer” (Board

of Directors) of the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven”, e.g. the establishment of administrative and

disciplinary regulations and regulations concerning examinations, financial management, personnel

policy, and the establishment of the election procedure of the Vice-chancellor.

Furthermore, at the “Universiteit Gent” (RUG) there is a Administrative Board (Bestuurscollege)

consisting of the vice-chancellor, the deputy vice-chancellor and elected representatives of the different

groups within the Board of Directors (Raad van Bestuur). This organ is entrusted with all matters

concerning the university that are by decree not assigned to the Board of Directors. For example, it


prepares the meetings of the Board of Directors, and publishes and carries out its decisions. It is also

responsible for the assignment of auxiliary academic personnel, the use of the financial resources within

the framework of the financial plan established by the Board of Directors, and the establishment of

vacancies. The Administrative Board (Bestuurscollege) has to justify its decision to the Board of

Directors (Decree of 13 July 1994).

At the “Universiteit Gent” (RUG) administrators and other appointed members form a Directorate

(Directiecollege) under the direction of the vice-chancellor and the deputy vice-chancellor. This board is

entrusted with the daily administrative, technical, and financial management of the university and the co-

ordination of the administrative services (Decree of 13 July 1994).

The decree on the universities guarantees participation of students in the decision-making of a university.

Every university has to establish a Council of Students (Studentenraad) as in the colleges of higher

education (hogescholen) if the students are not already represented in the highest organ of the university

that discuss matters that directly concern them (Decree of 13 July 1994).

Finally, concerning conditions of employment, in accordance with national labour legislation (Ministry of

Labour and Employment) grant-aided (non-official) universities have a Works Council (minimum 100

persons employed) and/or a Committee for Prevention and Protection on the Workplace (minimum 50

persons employed), just like all other companies. The Belgian Royal Decree of 25 May 1999 determines

that the elections for the new representatives of the personnel from the committees for safety at work had

to take place during a period that started on 8 May 2000 and ended on 21 May 2000.

2.4.3.3.2. General administrative posts at the top

The vice-chancellor is responsible for the administration of the university and heads the administrative

and other (e.g. international relations officer) staff. He is responsible for the registration of students and

their administrative records, and the records of each member of his staff. By delegation, he shares

responsibility for decisions on the use of financial allocations. Regularly, and at least once a year, he

informs the organising body (inrichtende macht) of the university’s financial situation and proposes the

budget for the coming year. He plays a central role in selecting new teachers and other staff members to

be appointed by the organising body. Ultimately he is responsible for all external contacts and the public

relations of the university in general.

The vice-chancellor is elected from among the members of the regular academic staff with the position of

full professor (gewoon hoogleraar). At the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven), he is elected

by the members of the Faculty Councils (Faculteitsraden) every five years. The post of vice-chancellor

(Rector) can be renewed once. Ultimately, however, he is appointed by the organising body. At the

“Universiteit Gent” (RUG) the vice-chancellor is elected by the members of the Faculty Councils, but

ultimately appointed by the Flemish Government for a term of 4 years. This term can be renewed twice

(Decree of 26 July 1991). At the “Universiteit Antwerpen” (UA) the chair-vice-chancellor is elected by

the Board. This mandate is incompatible with a mandate of vice-chancellor of the three Antwerp


university institutions (UIA, RUCA and UFSIA). The term of chair-vice-chancellor lasts for 4 years and

cannot be renewed (Decree of 22 December 1995).

2.4.3.3.3. Administrative bodies at a lower level

In this section the organisation of the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven), the “Universiteit

Gent” and the “Universitair Centrum Antwerpen” will be taken as an example. The Special Decree

concerning the “Universiteit Gent” (RUG) and the “Universitair Centrum Antwerpen” (now “Universiteit

Antwerpen (UA)) gives the Board of Directors (Raad van Bestuur) (see previous section) the power to

establish (in addition to the faculties) departments, subject groups, faculty and interfaculty centres,

schools, institutes, and other organs considered necessary for the realisation of the mission of the

university. In general terms, the co-ordination of the provision of education and scientific research is

situated at the level of the faculties. The administrative organs and posts that are shared by the three

universities have similar tasks (Decree of 26 June 1991).

At the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven), there are three groups (humanities, pure science,

and biomedical science), which are intended to encourage co-operation among the faculties. The

chairman of the group and the concerned deans form a Group Council (Groepsraad). For the

“Universiteit Gent” (RUG) and the “Universitair Centrum Antwerpen” (UCA) (now “Universiteit

Antwerpen” (UA)) similar subject groups are provided for by the Special Decree.

At the level of the faculties of the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven), there is the faculty

Council (Faculteitsraad) composed by the Independent Academic Personnel (Zelfstandig Academisch

Personeel), the representatives of the Auxiliary Academic Personnel (Aanvullend Academisch Personeel),

and the representatives of the students. At the “Universiteit Gent” (RUG) the representatives of the

administrative and technical personnel are also included. The representatives are elected. At the

“Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven), the faculty Council is entitled to draw up educational

programmes, to organise and evaluate the provision of education, to organise and evaluate study

guidance, to organise, supervise and evaluate examinations, to co-ordinate and encourage the departments

as regards scientific research and scientific services, to draw up budgets, to allocate the resources granted

by the Board of Directors (Raad van Beheer) for personnel, operation, and accommodation, and so on

(K.U.Leuven, 1996). The bureau of the faculty provides for the everyday administration of the faculty. It

consists of the dean, the academic secretary, and some members of the faculty Council. At the

“Universiteit Gent” (RUG), the Board of Directors (Raad van Bestuur) has the power to determine the

working and competence of the faculty council, which is chaired by the dean. The dean is elected from

among the professors (hoogleraren) for two years by the faculty Council.

At the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven), the faculty Council also establishes for each

course programme a permanent educational committee (permanente onderwijscommissie) that consists of

academic personnel and representatives of the students and advises the faculty Council on educational


matters (evaluation of the curriculum, programmes, teaching methods, methods of examination, etc.).

The other universities have similar councils (K.U.Leuven, 1996).

Every faculty of the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven) contains one or more departments,

which are responsible for the organisation and co-ordination of scientific research and scientific services.

They are mandated by the faculty to provide academic education. They draw their own budgets, are

responsible for the internal personnel policy in accordance with the regulations concerning academic

personnel (for example, advising on the appointment or recruitment of independent or auxiliary

personnel), organise logistical services and infrastructure, and so on. On this level, there is also a

Departmental Council (Departementsraad) with a similar composition as the faculty council but restricted

to the members of the department. The chairman of the department, elected for three or more years by the

Departmental Council (Departementsraad), supervises the execution of the tasks of the department, and is

responsible for the use of the resources (K.U.Leuven, 1996).

At the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven), the chairman of the group as member of the

General Bureau (Gemeenschappelijk Bureau) supervises the decisions of the organs at the faculty and

departmental level concerning the internal distribution of accommodations, personnel, and resources. In

exceptional cases, he has the power to overrule those decisions. The dean, elected from among the

professors (hoogleraren) for three years (at the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” (K.U.Leuven)) or for

two years (at the “Universiteit Gent” (RUG) and the “Universiteit Antwerpen” (UA)) by the faculty

Council (Faculteitsraad), provides the general leadership and representation of the faculty outside the

faculty and supervises the decisions of the departments (K.U.Leuven, 1996; Decree of 26 June 1991).

2.5. Internal consultation within and between levels of education

Over the last few years attempts have been made to concentrate all internal consultation within one

organisation as much as possible. At the tertiary education level, the structures are more complex for

historical reasons (Eurydice European Unit, 1996).

2.5.1. Flemish education council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) (VLOR)

Prior to the federalisation of education, the consultation at all levels of education as well as with the

socio-economic world was organised in a series of Higher Councils. All these councils have been merged

into the Flemish Education Council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) (VLOR) by the Decree of 31 July 1990:

The Flemish Education Council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) consists of:

- a General Council (Algemene Raad);

- a Section for Part-time Art Education (Afdeling voor Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs);

- a Council for Basic Education (Raad voor het basisonderwijs), which has a section for Special

Primary Education (Buitengewoon Lager Onderwijs);


- a Council of Secondary Education (Raad voor het Secundair Onderwijs), which has four sections: one

for General Secondary Education (Algemeen Vormend Secundair Onderwijs), one for Art Secondary

Education (Kunstsecundair Onderwijs), one for technical secondary education (Technisch Secundair

Onderwijs) and vocational secondary education (Beroepssecundair Onderwijs), and one for Special

Secondary Education (Buitengewoon Secundair Onderwijs); there are also special commissions for

consultation with representatives of socio-economic sectors;

- a Council for Higher Education (Raad voor het Hoger Onderwijs), which has two sections: one for

University Education and one for education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs);

- a Council for Adult Education (Raad voor het Volwassenenonderwijs) which has a section for the

Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie).

The General Council is composed of 39 active members, including representatives of the organising

bodies, unions, and parents, university experts, students, civil servants from the Education Department,

and members representing economic and social sectors, proposed by the Flemish Socio-Economic

Council (Sociaal-Economische Raad van Vlaanderen) (SERV). The composition of the councils and

sections for each level of education are to be established by the Flemish Government by decree.

The remit for the Flemish Education Council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) is set out by law as follows. The

Council has a general competence for study, concerted action, and consultation, on its own initiative or at

the request of the Minister of Education, as regards all educational matters for which the Flemish

Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) is responsible. More in particular, the Minister of Education has to

seek, prior to the discussion in the Flemish Parliament, the opinion of the Council on all preliminary draft

decrees on educational matters (with the exception of the education budget) and on policy reports and

papers addressed to the Flemish Parliament.

2.5.2. Consultation at tertiary education level

In 1976, the Flemish Interuniversity Council (Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad) (VLIR) was established as

an autonomous body of public utility with its own corporate status. It acts as a defender of the

universities and as an advisor to the Flemish Government on university issues (consultation, advice, and

recommendations). A similar body has been established for the colleges of higher education created after

the merger of institutions in 1995, i.e. the Flemish Higher Education Council (Vlaamse Hogescholen

Raad) (VLHORA).

2.6. Participation by, and consultation of, various actors in society

2.6.1. General framework

A distinction must be made here between the community network of schools and the grant-aided schools

(grant-aided official and free networks). However, in both cases, the legal frameworks are the same for

basic and secondary schools (Decree of 31 July 1990; Decree of 23 October 1991 (a)). For the colleges


of higher education (hogescholen) and universities, a specific participation structure has been provided by

decree.

Participation of parents, teachers, and the local community has not always been very intense in the

Belgian educational system. The Flemish authorities have now made legal provisions for the

participation of these parties in school policy-making for basic and secondary education (together with

the organising bodies. For community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs), it was part of the 1988

Special Decree relating to the Independent Council for Community Education (Autonome Raad voor het

Gemeenschapsonderwijs) (ARGO). This Special Decree of 1988 has been replaced by the Special Decree

concerning the Community Education of 14 July 1998. For subsidised education, participation is

regulated by the Decree of 23 October 1991.

2.6.1.1. Community education

A political agreement was concluded in the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) in November

1988 that resulted in the Special Decree of 19 December 1988 relating to the Independent Council for

Community Education (Devos, 1995; Veny, 1994). This decree stipulates that, as of 1 January 1989, (the

date of the federalisation of education), the language Community, represented by the minister, will no

longer act as the organising body of community education (formerly State education). At the request of

the Community (Gemeenschap), the task of the organising body has been taken over by the Community

Education (Gemeenschapsonderwijs) (previously the Independent Council for Community Education)).

This reform also implied considerable decentralisation of policy and management: local institutions now

receive much greater autonomy than before.

A new political agreement was concluded in June 1998 that resulted in the Special Decree on Community

Education (gemeenschapsonderwijs) of 14 July 1998. This decree stipulates a further step towards

decentralisation and enables Community Education to adapt itself to the renewed concept of school

communities (scholengemeenschappen) in secondary education as established by the Decree of 14 July

1998. A fundamental new structure in the Community Education contains the change from two levels

(macro/micro) to three levels (macro/meso/micro): the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap), the

school groups (scholengroepen) and the schools.

Local level: the schools

The most important figure on this level is the school head supported by the school council (schoolraad).

The school head attends the meetings of the school council (schoolraad). An essential difference with the

previous Special Decree of 19 December 1988 is that this school council is organised in each individual

school. School councils of the same level of education located on a same campus can merge voluntarily.

A school council is composed of eight members: 3 members directly elected by and from the parents, 3

members directly elected by and from the staff, and 2 members co-opted from social, economic, and

cultural circles. The school head is not a member of the school council, but he attends the meetings and

has an advisory voice. The chairman of the school council is elected from the representatives of the


parents or co-opted members. The school councils have advisory and consultative duties. The school

councils advise the school head concerning the general organisation of the school, the school

development plan (schoolwerkplan), the enrolment of pupils, etc.. They also advise the school group

(scholengroep) concerning the appointment of the school head, the programming of the provision of

education, the infrastructure of the school, and the organisation of the pupil transport. Furthermore, they

consult about the criteria for the applications of the teaching periods, the organisation of extra-curricular

assignments, safety and health matters, and the school regulations. Moreover, they have the right to

information about the decisions that influence school life. The directly elected members and the co-opted

members of the new school councils have in contrast to the present local school councils no decision-

making authority, which resides largely to the school group (scholengroep) on the meso-level.

Meso-level: the school groups

On this level the concrete educational policy is made. The school group together with the Central

Council of the Community Education (Centrale Raad van het Gemeenschapsonderwijs) constitutes the

organising body for the schools and the boarding schools that belong to the school groups. The school

group is conducted by a General Council (Algemene Vergadering), a Governing Body (Raad van

Bestuur), a Board of Directors (College van Directeurs) and a General Director (Algemeen Directeur).

The school groups are composed for the first time by the present Central Council (Centrale Raad) within

the Community Education (Gemeenschapsonderwijs) (previously the Independent Council for

Community Education (Autonome Raad voor het Gemeenschapsonderwijs) (ARGO) on the nomination

of the present local school councils.

Two representatives of each school council are seated in the General Council: 1 representative elected by

and from the parents and the co-opted members of the school council (schoolraad) and 1 representative

elected by and from the staff members of the school council. The General Council is chaired by the

chairman of the Governing Body. The General Council confirms the budget, the accounts, and the

appointment of the General Director of the Governing Body.

The Governing Body is composed of 10 members: 6 members are elected by the members of the school

councils. These 6 directly elected members co-opt 3 members nominated by the Board of School Heads

(College van Directeurs). The General Director (Algemeen Directeur) is a member with an advisory

voice. Membership of the Governing Body is not compatible with membership of a school council and is

not allowed for staff members with exception of the General Director. Parents who are not members of a

school council can stand for the Governing Body. The Governing Body has the right to make the general

policy, the educational policy, the personnel policy, and the policy as regards material and financial

management. In addition, the Governing Body has all authorities that are not entrusted to other

administrative bodies.

The mandate function of General Director is awarded to one of the school heads of the school group

(scholengroep). The length of the term is assigned and can be brought to an end by an ordinary majority

vote in the Governing Body. The General Council (Algemene Vergadering) can bring the mandate to an


end by a two-thirds majority vote. From the level of the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap),

the Council of Community Education (Raad van het Gemeenschapsonderwijs) can terminate the mandate

of the General Director on the proposal of the Governor (Afgevaardigd-Bestuurder) and within the

framework of supervision in accordance with policy. The General Director has decision-making and

managerial authority on the level of the school group (scholengroep). He also has the authority to decide

in urgent circumstances. However, these decisions have to be confirmed by the Governing body

afterwards.

All the school heads of the schools of the school group (scholengroep) and the Centres for Educational

Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) are seated in the Board of School Heads (College van

Directeurs). They all have the right to vote. The General Director chairs the Board of School Heads. He

is also responsible for the everyday management of the school group.

Macro-level: the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap)

On this level is situated the conservation of the constitutional guaranties, concerning free choice, the care

of the tasks of the public service, the general quality assurance, the assistance of the schools and the

school groups (scholengroepen), and the allocation of funds for investments and infrastructure. The

former Central Council of the Community Education (Centrale Raad van het Gemeenschapsonderwijs)

will be replaced by the Council of the Community Education (Raad van het Gemeenschapsonderwijs) and

a Governor (Afgevaardigd-Bestuurder).

The Council of the Community Education (Raad van het Gemeenschapsonderwijs ) consists of 15 unpaid

mandated functions: 5 members elected by an electoral college consisting of the directly elected parents

and co-opted members of the School Councils, 5 members elected by an electoral college consisting of

the school heads and the members elected by the staff members of the School Councils, 3 members

appointed by the 3 Flemish universities with an education faculty on the collective recommendation of the

faculties of education, economies and law, and 2 members jointly appointed by the Flemish autonomous

Colleges of Higher Education (Hogescholen). The Governor (Afgevaardigd Bestuurder) has an advisory

voice in the Council of the Community Education.

The Governor (Afgevaardigd Bestuurder) is, on behalf of the Council of the Community Education,

responsible for everyday management and policy. Within the framework of the authorities of the Council

(Raad), he/she has preparatory and executive duties concerning the policy of the Council and authority to

decide under urgent circumstances. However, these decisions have to be confirmed at the first following

meeting of the Council. The central administration is under the authority of the Governor.

The implementation of this reformation of community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs), established in

the Decree of 14 July 1998, develops in a number of phases and is spread out over the period up to 2003.


2.6.1.2. Grant-aided official and grant-aided free education

2.6.1.2.1. Structures for participation

The Decree of 23 October 1991 relating to the Participation Councils (Participatieraden) in basic and

secondary education took effect on 1 January 1992. On that date, a start was made with bringing the

Participation Councils into operation. They were fully operational - for the first time - on 31 May 1992.

A Participation Council (Participatieraad) is being established in each school or in each local school

community. The council is composed of an equal number of respresentatives of the organising body, the

parents, the staff members and the local community (at least two for each of these parties). In general, the

school head is the chairperson of the Participation Council.

The organising body appoints its representatives. Parents and teachers elect their representatives. These

directly elected representatives co-opt the persons representing the local community. All the terms are for

four years and are renewable. Parents whose children are no longer in the school or teachers who no

longer work there may no longer participate in the council as co-opted members of the local community

(Verhoeven et al, 1997).

In every school community (scholengemeenschap), a participation council is established. The council is

composed of an equal number of representatives per section. If the participation council is led by a single

organising body, it delegates one representative. It is possible to deviate from this by common

agreement, without nullifying the parity between the sections. Every member of the sections of the

participation council of the school community (scholengemeenschap) originates from the participation

council of the schools that belong to that school community (Decree of 18 May 1999).

Since 1 September 1999, like in community schools, every school, that is an individual legal entity of the

ordinary recognised, financed and subsidised secondary education system can establish a student council

and is obliged to do so when at least one third of the students of the concerned school request this (Decree

of 20 March 1999).

A student council is an advisory organ, chosen by the pupils. The aim of this council is to promote

dialogue between the students and the school management team, the students and the teachers, and the

students among themselves so that an optimum opportunity to develop can be created for all the students.

The student council is not obliged to take a teacher as a member, which does not exclude that the council

asks for assistance.

The student council has the competence to advise the school management team on all matters that directly

concern them. The school management team, for its part, has to make all the information concerning the

students available and provide the infrastructure and administrative support needed by the student

council.


2.6.1.2.2. Responsibilities

The decree of 23 October 1991 establishes four areas of responsibility for the Participation Councils of

primary and secondary education as a minimum number of responsibilities. These areas of responsibility

can be extended by the Participation Councils themselves. Because these councils do not act as

organising bodies, the problem of their responsibilities is more complicated. They have:

- ‘The right to information’ about all matters involving school life;

- ‘Advisory authority’ as a minimum for the general organisation and operation of the school, planning,

and the general criteria involved in guidance and evaluating pupils;

- ‘Consultative authority’ (to strive for consensus) at least on the criteria for applying the course

periods, the determination and modification of the school regulations, pupil transportation, and pupil

safety and health;

- ‘Authority of assent’ (only in the grant-aided free education network) on, for example, the planning of

the school calendar.

The last responsibility, however, is only in grant-aided free schools (gesubsidieerde vrije scholen). Legal

constraints on the authority of Provincial and Municipal Councils do not allow their executive powers to

be subject to the assent of external bodies.

2.6.1.3. Participation in some alternative schools

In some educational establishments that implement a specific educational project (pedagogisch project),

the staff members and the parents are legally represented in the organising body (e.g., the Steiner and

Freinet schools) (Decree of 23 October 1991 (a)). In these institutions, a Participation Council need not

be established provided these representatives have been elected democratically and provided the

composition of this organising body is similar to that of a Participation Council.

2.6.1.4. Conflict mediation

Within the Flemish Education Council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) (VLOR) two Participation Boards

(participatiecolleges) are established: one for the grant-aided official education network and the other for

the grant-aided free education network. The composition is analogous to that of Participation Councils in

schools. The boards have a mediating role when conflicts arise and have to establish violations of the

provisions of the decree. The Flemish Government may recover up to five percent of the operational

subsidies from the organising body (inrichtende macht) when, either knowingly or by neglect, the

authority does not implement this decree. Within the network of grant-aided free Catholic Schools, an

internal mediation commission is organised that is not regulated by law. This commission will try to

mediate before complaints are referred to the mediation commission organised by law.


2.6.2. Teacher participation

Teachers - or at least their representatives - are involved in either the school councils (schoolraden) or the

participation councils (participatieraden) at the local level as well as in the school groups

(scholengroepen) at the intermediate leven (Special Decree of 14 July 1998).

Specific negotiations on working conditions, however, are not included in the authority of these

participation structures. For the community and the grant-aided official schools (community schools and

schools organised by municipalities and provinces), regular negotiations centrally and locally always have

been organised in the committees with equal representation of employer and employees (paritaire

organen) for the public services. The Law of 19 December 1974 organises the negotiations between

unions of the civil servants in the public sector, including community and grant-aided official education,

and the government (central level) (Devos et al., 1987). The negotiations on educational matters are

organised in the “Sectorcomité X Onderwijs” (Vlaamse Gemeenschap), the “Comité voor de Provinciale

en Plaatselijke Overheidsdiensten - Afdeling 2 - Onderafdeling Vlaamse Gemeenschap” (Sector

Committee X Education (Flemish Community), and the Committee for Provincial and Local Government

- Section 2 - Subsection Flemish Community). At this level, only the Flemish Government and the

unions are represented. The Decree of 5 April 1995 organised a similar structure for the grant-aided free

network: the central negotiation committee (Overkoepelend Onderhandelingscomité). This commission

consists of three delegations: the Flemish Government, the representative Teacher Unions, and the

organising bodies. At the local school level in community and grant-aided official schools, there are local

variants of these committees with equal representation of employer and employees (paritaire organen).

These are called the Basic Consultation Committees (Basisonderhandelingscomités) (BOCs) (Belgian law

of 15 December 1998), and they deal with the conditions of employment at the local level.

A major problem arose with regard to grant-aided free schools (gesubsidieerde vrije scholen). Larger

schools, in accordance with national labour legislation (Ministry of Labour and Employment), grant-aided

(non-official) free schools must have a Works Council (ondernemingsraad) (minimum of 100 teachers

employed) and/or a Committee for Prevention and Protection on the Workplace (minimum 50 teachers

employed), as do companies in the private sector. The possible suppression of these bodies or their

integration into a new participation structure falls under the aegis of national, i.e. Belgian, law. However,

it is the intention of all the parties concerned to avoid the functioning of the education system being

unnecessarily complicated by its dependence on either national or Community legislation. By the Decree

of 5 May 1995, one Local Negotiation Committee (Lokaal Onderhandelingscomité) (LOC) has been

established for the grant-aided free sector at the school level; consisting of an equal number of

representatives of the personnel and of the organising body. Therefore, participation of teachers at the

school level is now guaranteed, regardless of the size of the school. Every competent authority also

establishes a LOC for their centre for student counselling. Negotiations in these committees focus on five

areas: the administrative rules on the working conditions of teachers and other staff (including holidays),

the salary scales, the retirement schemes, the relations with the unions, and the organisation of social

services. Since the decree of 15 May 1999, one Local Negotiation Committee (LOC) is established for


each school community (scholengemeenschap) for the grant-aided free sector, consisting of an equal

number of representatives of the personnel and of the organising bodies. Negotiations in these

committees focus on matters for which the school community is responsible.

The decrees on the colleges of higher education (13 July 1994) and the universities (12 June 1991; 26

June 1991) give a specific framework for the organisation of teacher participation (see 2.4.3.2. and

2.4.3.3.).

2.6.3. Relation with the labour market

For technical and vocational secondary education, sector commissions (sectorcommissies) are established

for all major sections of the labour market (e.g. metal industries, textiles, and food) (Law of 20 September

1948; Geers & Van Weydeveldt, 1994). Within the framework of the Flemish Education Council

(Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) (VLOR), they explore new labour market needs and give advice on new

planning initiatives. Especially for adult education, permanent working groups involving education and

the labour market are set up within the Subregional Employment Committees (Subregionale

Tewerkstellingscommissies) (STC’s). These working groups have a consultative function and aim at

intensive collaboration between industry, education, and employment agencies. They also have a formal

advisory power with respect to planning of the new training programmes in adult education.

Recently, the Edufora were established to replace the permanent working groups within the Subregional

Employment Committees (Subregionale Tewerkstellingscommissies) (STC’s). The Edufora are

subregional consultation organs for the state-supported organisations in adult education. Their task is to

coordinate and harmonise the different educational sectors. They achieve this objective through

information exchange, cooperation, and planning by means of three instruments:

- the regional education map containing all relevant data about adult education offerings in a region;

- the preparation of a “needs-covering” report in which the educational needs of the region are

inventoried;

- and the development of an educational plan that can be used as a general guideline for the

programming of offerings.

The official establishment of the Edufora took place on 23 December 1999. In all 13 districts of the

Subregional Employment Committees (Subregionale Tewerkstellingscommissies) (STC’s) an Eduforum

was started up (see: http://edufora.vlaanderen.be).

2.6.4. Parents, teachers, and student organisations

2.6.4.1. Parents’ associations

Many schools have their own school-related parents association. Within each network all those

associations are linked up by an umbrella association. In the community education network, two smaller


organisations were active: the “Nederlandstalig Verbond van Ouderverenigingen” (NVO) and the

Educational Association for Parental Involvement (Educatieve Vereniging voor Ouderwerking) (EVO).

The former was more an interest group, the latter a social-cultural training centre for parents. Those two

organisations created a new association called Council of Parents Associations of Community Education

(Raad van Ouderverenigingen van het Gemeenschapsonderwijs) (ROGO). The Association for Parental

involvement of Grant-aided Official Education (Koepelorganisatie van Ouderwerkingen van het officieel

gesubsidieerd onderwijs) (KOOGO) represents the parents of grant-aided official schools (gesubsidieerde

officiële scholen). Within the grant-aided free education network, the Flemish Association of Parents and

Parents’ Associations (Vlaamse Confederatie van Ouders en Ouderverenigingen) (VCOV) promotes co-

operation between parents and teachers at school. At present the ROGO, the KOOGO, and the VCOV

represent the parents in the Flemish Education Council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) (VLOR).

The Decree of 5 June 1996 provides financial support for the parents’ associations on the condition that

the associations within the official and grant-aided official network and within the grant-aided free

network decide to collaborate. The decree provides a basic financial allowance for administrative

overhead, project-related financial support on an annual basis, and the assignment of a maximum of five

members of the teaching staff to the associations for the promotion of parent-school relations. Besides

these school-related parents’ association, other social organisations with a proven interest in education

may also apply for project-related financial support on an annual basis (Van Heddegem & Verhoeven,

1999).

2.6.4.2. Teachers’ unions

The teachers’ unions are structured along the lines of the main political groupings in the Flemish society.

The “Algemene Centrale der Openbare Diensten - Sector Onderwijs” (ACOD) belongs to the social

democratic movement. The “Vrij Syndicaat voor het Openbaar Ambt - Sector Onderwijs” (VSOA)

subscribes to the liberal ideology in Flemish society. More oriented to the Christian democratic

tendencies are two unions. The first union represents basic school teachers (pre-school and primary

education): the “Christen Onderwijzersverbond” (COV). The second one brings together teachers in

secondary schools and colleges of higher education (hogescholen): the “Christelijke Onderwijscentrale”

(COC). These four unions represent the teachers in the Flemish Education Council (Vlaamse

Onderwijsraad) (VLOR).

Furthermore there is a new association of school heads (directeurs) in Flanders, namely the Organisation

of School heads of the Flemish Basic Education (Organisatie Directeurs Vlaams Basisonderwijs)

(ODVB).


2.6.4.3. Student umbrella associations

A distinction is drawn between student umbrella associations (studentenkoepelverenigingen), that defend

the interests of students of higher education, and student umbrella associations

(leerlingenkoepelverenigingen), that defend the interests of students of secondary schools. Both

associations are eligible for subsidies from the Flemish government if they are recognised by the Flemish

Community and thus have met certain statutory conditions. This money is granted for operating costs,

staff expenses, and projects. The umbrella association gives advice at the request of the Flemish

government and comes under the authority of the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education

Department (departement Onderwijs) (Decree of 30 March 1999).

In 1997-1998 a totally new student umbrella association was established on the initiative of the

Association of Flemish Students (Vereniging van Vlaamse Studenten) (VVS), namely the Flemish

Student Federation (Vlaamse Scholierenkoepel) (VSK). Its aim is to represent the interests of students in

secondary education.

The student movement is structurally organised at each college of higher education (hogeschool) and

university. However, at the community level, there is one umbrella organisation that represents on a

pluralistic basis the interests of the students, namely the Association of Flemish students (Vereniging van

Vlaamse Studenten) (VVS). This body consists of two parts: one for the colleges of higher education and

one for the universities. The Association of Flemish Students concludes association agreements with

each student organisation representing the interests of the students at the several higher education

institutes. There are also other student organisations at the community level, but they do not represent the

students as a whole and are associated with a political or ideological position.

2.7. School guidance services

At present the task of school guidance is carried out by the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra

voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLB’s). These centres function as integrated school guidance services and

are a consequence of the integration of the former guidance centres (Psycho-Medisch-Sociale Centra)

(PMS) which were mainly responsible for the guidance of pupils and the Health Supervision in Schools

(Centra voor Medisch Schooltoezicht) (MST’s) which carried out the health supervision in schools. The

new Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) are consequently responsible

for both school guidance and health supervision. They came into effect on 1 September 2000 as a result

of the Decree of 1 December 1998 concerning the Centres for Educational Guidance.

The school guidance services’ work consists of a number of integrated, multidisciplinary actions. These

actions are focused on the pupil ‘on preventive, remedial or educational grounds’ (Decree of 1 December

1998). They are part of the concern for the development of the pupils and are carried out together with

parents and school, which are primarily responsible. If necessary, the Centres for Educational Guidance

cooperate with other services, institutions or other facilities.


The school guidance centres’ field of action is wide-ranging and concentrates on the following (Decree of

1 December 1998):

- learning and studying;

- the educational career;

- preventive health care;

- the psychological and social functioning of pupils’.

Three networks of the centres for educational guidance are in place. First, there are the centres of the

community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs), which are organized by the school groups of the

community education and financed by the Flemish Community. Secondly, there are the grant-aided

official centres, which are organized by public administration, except for the centres of the community

education, and supported by the Flemish Community. The grant-aided free centres form the third group.

They are organized by free associations or non-profit organisations and also supported by the Flemish

Community.

At present there are 75 Centres for Educational Guidance) (CLB’s): 24 centres of the community

education, 5 grant-aided official centres and 46 grant-aided free centres (MVG, Departement Onderwijs,

06.04.1999).

2.7.1. General overview

The Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) were recently introduced and

were preceded by two separate centres namely the guidance centres (Psycho-Medisch-Sociale Centra)

(PMS), which were the most important, and the Health Supervision in Schools (Centra voor Medisch

Schooltoezicht) (MST). Because the guidance centres (Pycho-Medisch-Sociale centra) have existed for

almost 40 years while the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) are

brand new, it is logical we focus on the “PMS-centres” (guidance centres).

These guidance centres (Psycho-Medisch-Sociale Centra ) (PMS) came into legal existence in the outline

Law of 1 April 1960 and the Royal Decree of 13 August 1962. However, a number of the same kind of

organisations have existed since the beginning of the century, having been created on the initiative of

Arthur Christiaens and Ovide Decroly to provide professional school-career guidance. Others focused

more on the choice of studies. In their overall organisation, the “PMS”-centres were independent of the

schools - although this may have been less the case in the specialised educational institutions - but worked

in close collaboration with both schools and families. Over the years, the guidance centres (Psycho-

Medisch-Sociale Centra) (PMS) have become partners within the school system from which the child,

adolescent, family, and school, as well as the social partners (government, employers, employees) and the

rest of the economic world seem to expect solutions to the most varied and complex problems. Their

mission, as defined, was certainly wide-ranging: to provide the pupil and the educational team involved


with the best possible conditions for development and to intervene, on request or on their own initiative,

in psychological, medical, and social areas and in the area of educational psychology.

The “PMS”-centres were also involved in some aspects of health care. This comprised prevention with

regard to sensory and motor problems (from pre-school education onwards), dealing with pupils who

have fallen behind, resolving educational and social adaptation problems, conducting preventive health

checks, proposing remedies and providing follow-up supervision. All this had to be done in collaboration

with the Health Supervision in Schools (Medisch Schooltoezicht) (MST) (Law of 21 March 1964).

In 1996, the Minister of Education launched a strategy to reorganise the sector of school guidance as a

whole and for all educational networks (onderwijsnetten) of school. He proposed the creation of new

Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLB’s) integrating all functions

outlined above. On 1 December 1998, the Flemish Parliament gave its approval to the Decree concerning

the Centres for Educational Guidance. Centres for Educational Guidance are the product of the

integration of the Guidance Centres (Psycho-Medisch-Sociale Centra) and the Health Supervision in

Schools (Medisch Schooltoezicht). The objective of the integration of the functioning of “PMS” centres

and the Health Supervision in Schools, established in the new Decree, is to create a more transparent and

coherent supply by one integrated Centre for Educational Guidance. These Centres for Educational

Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLB’s) are charged with contributing to the well-being of

the pupils now and in the future. Therefore, the guidance of the pupils by the centres are situated in the

following areas: learning and studying, the educational career, preventive health care, and psychological

and social functioning of the pupils. The target group of the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra

voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) consists of the pupils, parents, teachers and schools of the ordinary and

special pre-school, primary and secondary education. An important condition for the establishment of a

Centre for Educational Guidance is the range of 12,000 ‘weighted’ pupils. A ‘weighted’ number of

pupils means that the real number of pupils is multiplied by a coefficient depending on criteria such as the

level of education. The financing and assigning of the staff members is calculated on the basis of this

‘weighted’ number of pupils. The ‘weighted’ number of pupils is established every three years. The

school groups (scholengroepen) and the new school communities (scholengemeenschappen), as

established by the Special Decree on Community Education and the Decree on Secondary Education,

both of 14 July 1998, are supposed to cooperate with an integrated Centre for Educational Guidance

(Centrum voor Leerlingenbegeleiding). Therefore, the school and the Centre for Educational Guidance

jointly draw up a policy plan or policy contract that establishes the cooperation for a period of three years.

These Centres for Educational Guidance (CLB’s) came officially into effect on 1 September 2000. The

transformation of the former “PMS” centres and the Health Supervision in Schools into integrated

Centres for Educational Guidance (CLB’s) is spread out over the period up to 2003. The new decree

stipulates the establishment of a temporary ‘support council’ to supervise and support the implementation

of the concerned transformation.


2.7.2. Main tasks of the Centre for Educational Guidance (Centrum voor

Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLB)

As mentioned in the previous sections, the main task of the Centres for Educational Guidance (CLB’s) is

to contribute to the well-being of pupils now and in the future. The intention of the Centres for

Educational Guidance is to provide the pupils with a foundation for all further studying and to help the

pupils in the acquiring and strengthening of competences that will help them to develop and participate

socially. Therefore, the guidance of the pupils by the centres is focused on the following areas: ‘learning

and studying, the educational career, preventive health care and the psychological and social functioning’

(Decree of 1 December 1998).

The fulfilling of the centres’ tasks is guided by the following principles:

- ‘the pupils’ interest is the central focus;

- the centre works question-based, except for obligatory guidance;

- the centre works subsidiarily in regard to the school and the parents;

- the centre gives advice and provides, if possible, preventive guidance and, if necessary, remedial

guidance;

- the centre works multidisciplinarily (somatic, psychological, pedagogical and social perspectives);

- the centre works free of charge and discretely;

- the centre works together with other services;

- the centre gives special attention to certain assignments in certain groups and to pupils whose

development and learning are at risk because of their social background;

- the centre developes a deontological code that guarantees the independance of the staff.

An important task of the Centres for Educational Guidance is providing information concerning the

structure and organisation of the Flemish educational system, the available courses, the relationship

between education and the labour market, the welfare facilities, and the health facilities. Another focus is

the raising of the passing rates and the decrease and prevention of high-risk behaviour. The centres are

also concerned with pupils who play truant, and they will try to re-involve them in the educational

process. In the medical field, the centres engage in the pupils’ health, growth and development.

Therefore, they carry out obligatory medical consults of all pupils at certain moments of their school

career and they keep records of the pupils’ vaccinations. They also trace early disorders and are

concerned with the prevention and detection of infectuous diseases. From pre-school up to the threshold

of higher education the Centres for Educational Guidance (CLB’s) gather, analyse and progressively

assess psychological, medical and social data of pupils, which are kept together in a multidisciplinary file

for each pupil. For supporting the integrated multidisciplinary working of the centres a temporary project

(tijdelijk project) for the computerization of the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor


Leerlingenbegeleiding) is set up. This project started in January 2001 and will end in December 2003

(Circular Letter of 12 January 2001).

Although the centres are structurally independent, they carry out all these tasks in close collaboration with

the parents and the schools. Therefore, the school and the Centre for Educational Guidance jointly draw

up a policy plan or a policy contract. In this respect, the centres are explicitly responsible for the support

of the schools’ view on extending special needs provision in ordinary schools (zorverbreding) and

educational priority policy (onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid).

2.7.3. Staff of the Centre for Educational Guidance (Centrum voor

Leerlingenbegeleiding)

The amount of staff members per centre depends on the centre’s facilities weight (omkaderingsgewicht)

which is stipulated every three years on the basis of the weighted number of pupils and the weight of

tasks (influenced by the number of underprivileged pupils).

The basic staff formation consists of a multidisciplinary team of experts:

- one physician;

- one director;

- two social workers;

- two paramedical workers;

- two psycho-pedagogical consultants;

- one administrative worker (Decree of 1 December 1998).

Depending on the heigth of the “omkaderingsgewicht” (facilities weight) additional staff members can be

appointed.

2.7.4. Co-ordination of guidance centres

There are three forms of collaboration of guidance centres. In the first place, regional collaboration is

possible: two or more centres can establish a regional support unit (regionale ondersteuningscel) in order

to gather their specific expertise. Secondly, there is scientific collaboration possible which crosses the

borders of the educational networks (onderwijsnetten) and the disciplines. The Flemish government

provides yearly a maximal amount of 20 million Belgian francs for this aim. A third form of

collaboration is called “netgebonden” (depends on the educational networks) permanent support. This

means that the centres of the community education, the grant-aided official centres and the grant-aided

free centres each establish a permanent support unit (permanente ondersteuningscel).


In consideration of the formation of the Centres for Educational Guidance, the Catholic sector,

established on 14 September 1999 the “Vrije-CLB-koepel” (Free-CLB-dome) (VCLB). This umbrella

organisation replaces the former “Centrale voor Studie- en Beroepsoriëntering” (CSBO).

2.8. School calendar

The general rules for the arrangement of the school time and calendar are set out by the Minister

according to the law/decree. At present the same rules apply for basic and secondary education (full-time

and part-time) as well as for the Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie)

(OSP). For higher education, there is a slightly different schedule.

2.8.1. School year

The school year starts on 1 September and ends on 31 August. Major holiday periods are: Fall vacation

(1 November) (1 week), Christmas/New Year (2 weeks), crocus vacation (1 week), Easter (2 weeks),

Summer (July and August).

A school year at the basic and secondary levels must have at least 182 schooldays. In Social

Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP) a distinction can be made between the

linear and the modular system. A module contains 40 or 60 teaching hours or a multiple of 60 teaching

hours with a maximum of 240 hours. Education in the linear system is spread over at least 32 and at most

40 weeks.

In basic education, activities and teaching take place in the morning and in the afternoon five days a

week, with the exception of Wednesday afternoon. In secondary education the lessons are spread over 9

half days a week from Monday until Friday. The free half day (morning or noon) can be chosen.

However most schools choose a free Wednesday afternoon. In part-time vocational secondary education

(deeltijds berooepssecundair onderwijs) the lessons are spread over at most four half days from Monday

until Friday (Circular Letter of 12 June 2001). In basic education, schools may decide themselves to

suspend all school activities for at most 2 days. In secondary education schools may suspend school

activities for at most 1 day.

Although in higher education, especially at the colleges of higher education (hogescholen), one tries to

follow the school year schedule of primary and secondary schools, the rules are more flexible. In any

case, institutes have to organise 30 weeks of class (exams excluded). Universities generally start in late

September and have an academic year of two semester terms. Exceptionally, a three times 10-week

schedule is applied. Each programme is divided into study years of at least 1,500 and at most 1800 hours

of tuition or other study activities. The volume of study for each year is expressed in terms of study

points and corresponds to 60 study points per year. One study point corresponds to 25 or 30 hours of

study.


2.8.2. Weekly and daily timetable

Each week has 5 school days (Monday to Friday). Classes can be scheduled from 8 a.m. (most schools

actually start at about 8.30 a.m.) to between 3 and 5 p.m.. All pupils are entitled to have at least 1 hour

for lunch at noon. At pre-school, primary, and secondary levels a class period is 50 minutes. Other

education levels have periods of different length depending on the way the school year is organised.

Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP) and certain courses in higher

education are given in the evening or on Saturdays.

Pre-school institutions generally operate from Monday to Friday, from 8:30 a.m. to noon and from 1:30

p.m. to 3:30 p.m. (except on Wednesday afternoon). There are 28 teaching periods of 50 minutes in pre-

school education as well as in primary education. In secondary education the number of periods a week

may vary from 31 to 36 depending on the branches of study.

Higher education with 1 cycle has 25 periods a week. In other forms of higher education, this may vary.

Universities have no overall fixed schedules. Timetables may vary considerably, depending on the

course. Some universities offer evening courses for employed students.

2.9. Geographical accessibility

The schools are rather equally spread over the territory. All parents have the constitutional right to

choose a school with the philosophical or religious orientation they prefer (Constitution of 17 February

1994). In some cases, the Community (Gemeenschap) pays for the transportation costs if there is no

appropriate school in the vicinity. According to the Constitution, parents not only have a free choice of

school, they also have the right to choose between a neutral Community school or a denominational one

(belonging to the grant-aided free network (gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs)). If one of these schools is not

within a certain distance (4 km for primary education, 8 km for secondary education), a special

transportation scheme at public expense applies.

For children attending special education schools, transportation is organised at public expense by bus or

taxi. In some cases, parents themselves provide the transportation. In such cases, they are reimbursed on

the basis of the cost of public transportation.

2.10. Choice of school

Freedom of school choice is guaranteed by the Constitution. Parents have not only a free choice of

school, they also have the right to choose between a neutral Community school or a denominational one

(belonging to the grant-aided free network). In theory, all choices of studies (of a school or a branch of

study) are entirely free. The Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding)

(CLB’s), are only entitled to advise. There is, however, an important exception. Especially in secondary

education school heads (directeurs) and teachers may, based on school results, restrict the choices for an

individual pupil. The conditions governing admission for pupils to a year of studies, a type of education,


a section, a discipline, or a form of education, as well as the ability of pupils to transfer to another year,

another type of education, another section, another discipline, or another form of education are strictly

regulated and identical for all the school networks. But the schools can follow their own policy on this

score. The school heads are free to pursue their own policy in this respect, and they are assisted in this

task by a class council (klassenraad) or an admissions council in secondary education. These boards can

have considerable influence when it comes to determining the number of pupils in a school, options, type

of education, section, and discipline.

2.11. Administrative monitoring and inspection

The Community Inspectorate is conceived as an instrument of the Community (Gemeenschap) for

supervising the implementation of the task entrusted to the organising bodies (inrichtende machten)

(MVG. Departement Onderwijs, 1995b). Its field of action covers all pre-school, primary, secondary

education, and Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP). Quality

control in higher education of 2 cycles and at the universities is now essentially based on self-evaluation

and visitation committees (peer assessment).

The Inspectorate also monitors whether the organising bodies (inrichtende machten) make proper use of

the resources made available to them by the Community (Gemeenschap) (see chapter 8). The universities

and colleges of higher education (hogescholen) are also monitored by a commissioner of the Flemish

government (Commissaris van de Vlaamse regering) and an inspector of finances in order to monitor

compliance with the legislation concerning financial management.

Community Inspectorate staff members are recruited from the three major educational networks

(onderwijsnetten) and are exclusively responsible for the quality control of all the educational networks

(50% from the official or grant-aided official network and 50% from the grant-aided free network).

At present a new computerised system of monitoring school attendance is being implemented.

2.12. Financing, and education budget

This section will deal not with the total cost of education but solely with public spending in this sector

(OECD, 1993), that is, the expenditures of the national and Community authorities. In addition to the

expenditures by the Belgian State and the Communities, the total cost should in fact include the

expenditures of the provinces and municipalities (in grant-aided official education), of the ecclesiastical

authorities and private persons (in grant-aided free education), and of the parents. There is an ample

supply of information on public spending but details about the other sources of funding are harder to

come by, which is why it is impossible to give a complete picture of the real cost of education.

To compare the year-by-year results is a risky undertaking because of the changes in the meanings of the

definitions, the re-allocation of powers between the national and Community authorities, and the

provisional nature of some of the figures.


2.12.1. Evolution of public spending

In the past, a comparison of the overall increase in Belgium of the education budget between 1980 and

1988 (+41%) with the rise in the consumer price index (+55%) showed a fall in real terms. This decline

was attributed to two factors: the lower birth rate (a drop in the pupil and student population) and

budgetary restrictions. However, the drop in the level of public spending on education was less than the

decline in the size of the State budget ‘net of debt’, which implies that the Government has been making a

financial effort on behalf of education. In real terms, that is to say in constant Belgian francs, the

education budget for the French-language Community (Gemeenschap) (including the education budget in

the German-language Community (Gemeenschap) declined by 11% between 1981 and 1987 to remain

stable between 1987 and 1990. The situation is the same in the Flemish Community (Vlaamse

Gemeenschap). Overall public expenditure in Belgium on education has gone into a slight decline since

1980, dropping from around 18.2% to 15% of the national budget or from 6.6% to 5.4% (in 1991) of the

GNP. However, figures on the overall education budget have to be considered in function of the rather

complex structure of Belgian society.

A look at the Vlaamse Gemeenschap (Flemish Community) budget presents a quite different view.

Belgium spent in 1988 6.10% of the GNP on education, the Vlaamse Gemeenschap (Flemish

Community) 5.4% of its own GRP (Gross Regional Product). In 1991, these figures were 5.4% of the

Belgian GNP and 5.27% Flemish GRP. This share remained relatively stable for Flanders for the

following years. In 1999 4.5% of the Flemish GRP was spended on education. But, while the Belgian

figures reflect approximately 15% of the national budget, the Flemish educational expenditures

represented in 1991 43.6% of the Flemish budget. For the following years this trend continued: 46.1% in

1992, 44.9% in 1994 budget. Subsequently, the relative share of the educational expenditures has

decreased slowly from 44.7% in 1995 to 43.0% in 1999, 41.9% in 2000 and 41.1% in 2001, which

reflects the greater expenditures of the Flemish Community of other sectors. The budget for education

has shown a growth in absolute terms over the last six years by roughly € 793,300 (MVG, departement

Onderwijs, 2001b).

2.12.2. Public funding scheme after 1988

The State reform initiated in 1988 resulted in a budget of more than 300 billion BEF being transferred to

the Communities. Simultaneously, a funding law was passed to establish the future rules for sharing out

the budgets for education. These appropriations for education are funded by the VAT and are index-

linked each year, but they are also adjusted (at a rate of 80%) to the decline in the number of young

people. The Communities are, of course, at liberty to add their own resources to these appropriations.

The appropriations allocated by the State to the Communities for education are established more or less as

follows (The Special Law on the funding of the Communities and Regions of 16 January 1989):


- The overall (national) financial budget (Bno) for 1989 serves as the basic amount for the following

years and for the two language Communities together, and it corresponds to a share of the income

from VAT allocated to education. However, this allocation in no way implies that Communities are

under an obligation to earmark this money for education or that their expenditure on education should

be limited to this amount.

- Each year (up until 1998), the basic amount will be index-linked and partially adjusted to the falling

birth rate.

- In a following phase, the national financial budget is shared out among the two Communities in

proportion to their respective share in the total school population.

- Finally, there is a regulation for switching over from the method of 1988 of allocation of resources to

allocation based on the above-mentioned criteria.

The Special Law on the funding of the Communities and Regions of 16 January 1989 should have been

adapted in 1998. Article 39 of this concerned Special Law stipulates that, from 1999 on, the rule for

sharing out the budgets for education, on the basis of which the appropriations for education allocated by

the State to the Communities are distributed to each of the Communities, will be adapted to the

distribution of the number of pupils on the basis of objective criteria established by the law. The problem

here concerns the horizontal distribution of the allocations mutually between the Communities and the

objective criteria on the basis of which this should happen (Stienlet, 1998). The long political debate

resulted in the Belgian Law of 23 May 2000, which determines the criteria referred to in Article 39 of the

Special Law. Only the number of pupils from 6 to 17 years old, who are regularly enrolled in primary

and secondary education in a educational institution organised or supported by the Flemish or the French

Community are counted. The count takes place at a date between the 15th of January and the 1st of

February, and the data are announced at the auditor’s office (Rekenhof) by the 15th of May every year.

The auditor’s office (Rekenhof) checks the data carefully. The Lambermont-agreement revises the

Special Law on the funding of the Communities (Gemeenschappen) and Regions (Gewesten) of 16

January 1989. The Lambermont-agreement gives the different Regions (Gewesten) more financial

resources as well as more authority. Concerning the financial resources there is a refinancing of the

Communities (Gemeenschappen), the regional taxes and the radio and television license tax is

regionalized and the tax of persons is more clearly formulated.

The funding for education in the German-language Community is governed by a separate law and, given

the small size of this education sector, takes account of the specific requirements established in 1990.

The level of this funding is not linked to demographic changes (Nicaise, 1991).

2.12.3. Distribution of resources

The budget-sharing problem is tied up with two vital principles of the legislation on education: freedom

of choice and compulsory education. Another problem is the distribution of the resources to the

networks. It is generally agreed that community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs) requires relatively


higher public funding (for example for school buildings) so as to be able to organise its education in the

same way as the other larger networks. Because of its historical roots, the Catholic education sector has

more assets at its disposal, while grant-aided official education receives additional resources from the

provinces and municipalities. Another argument in favour of the higher funding for community education

concerns the obligation of official education (community and the grant-aided official education) to open

its doors to all pupils, which means that this sector finds itself with a relatively higher number of pupils

from poorer families and with learning difficulties. Third, the requirement for all official schools

(community or grant-aided) to provide both non-denominational and religious courses means that they

have to meet higher costs than the free schools, which offer only religion courses. Fourth, the

Community education network of schools is distributed over a smaller area, which means that the

economy-of-scale factor operates in reverse here. Finally, Community education is subject to limits on

the level of fees that its schools can impose on pupils enrolled for further education. It was because of

these considerations, together with other, more politically flavoured ones, that the standard for

distributing operating resources in the 1958 School Pact (Schoolpact) made a provision for Community

education to receive one-third of the extra resources earmarked for operating expenditures. Community

education also received concessions for expenditures on certain staff categories and funding for school

buildings.

In 1997, it was laid down by decree that the amount of the operating resources for each pupil in the grant-

aided basic education (basisonderwijs) is to be between 75.8% and 76.2% of the amount of the operating

resources for each pupil in the community basic education (basisonderwijs) (the subsidies for the

maintenance staff not included). This difference of about 24% in the budget for operating and capital

costs to the advantage of the community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs) is justified by ‘differences

that are open to objectification’, such as the offering of both religious and moral education, the obligation

to accept every pupil who applies, the larger participation of pupils with social and cultural backgrounds

that tend to hinder a successful school career, differences in accommodations, and the consequences of

decision making in the past. These ‘differences that are open to objectification’ are difficult to quantify

scientifically, so for the present the political agreement of the 24% standard is applied (Decree of 25

February 1997).

The reorganisation of secondary education as established by the Decree of 14 July 1998 on secondary

education regulates the distribution of resources between the community education

(gemeenschapsonderwijs) and grant-aided education in a similar way (article 100 of this Decree). The

Decree stipulates that the amount of operating resources for each pupil in grant-aided secondary

education in 2007 is to be 76% of the amount of the operating resources for each pupil in the community


Because of differences of opinion about the legitimacy of the ‘differences open for objectification’ and

because of the complexity of the matter that made an objective view impossible, the Flemish government

decided in 1997 to carry out a study to clarify this matter. The objective was to quantify the differences

that could be objectifiied. This means that the study set out to specify the financial implications of these


differences for schools. On the basis of the analysis of the objective differences - the only legal grounds

for financial differences - the objective was to try to provide a basis for a renewed financial system that

gives all pupils equal opportunities.

Meanwhile, the results of this study “Revenues and expenses of schools in Flanders. Quantifying

differences open for objectification” have been published. The main conclusion of the report is that the

educational network (onderwijsnet) of a school makes little difference in the need for financial resources.

This means that the present differences in the subsidizing of schools based on educational network

(onderwijsnet) are not grounded in ‘objective needs’. The researchers suggest equalizing the financial

resources of schools regardless which educational network (onderwijsnet) it belongs to. Instead, only

differences based on pupil features should be taken into account (Deloitte & Touche, 2001).

2.12.4. School funding criteria

The Community finances the schools of the community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs) and

subsidises the schools of the grant-aided official education (gesubsidieerd officieel onderwijs) and grant-

aided free education (gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs). The financing or subsidising of schools is regulated

by a number of conditions that have to met by the schools. For all educational institutes but the colleges

of higher education (hogescholen) and the universities, three main funding criteria have to be mentioned:

staff, operating and equipment costs, and capital expenditures.

2.12.4.1. Conditions for funding and subsidising schools

Besides the specific conditions to acquire resources for salaries, buildings, and accommodation and for

the payment of operating expenses, two types of conditions have to be met to receive resources. First of

all, there are general conditions for the recognition of schools such as the safety and hygiene of the school

buildings, the responsibility of a school board (schoolbestuur) for the organisation of education, the

drawing up of curricula, the acceptance of the control by the Inspectorate, the structural organisation of

education in accordance with the legislation concerning education, and the respect for the law on the use

of languages in education. The government grants recognition on the basis of the advice of the

Inspectorate (Decree of 25 February 1997).

Furthermore, there are more specific conditions related to the number of pupils who go to school in the

basic education (basisonderwijs). Programming standards (programmatienormen) are standards referring

to the number of pupils that have to be registered the last school day of September in a starting school to

acquire resources from the state. These standards depend on the year of existence (maximum 4 years for

ordinary schools) of the school and the population density of the municipality where the school is located.

For starting a new educational level, besides the local population density, the existing spread of schools in

the vicinity is taken into account. Rationalisation standards (rationalisatienormen) are standards that

determine the number of pupils that have to be registered on the first school day of February after the

fourth year of existence in ordinary education and the third year in special education to continue to be


funded or subsidised. These standards depend also on the population density of the municipality where

the school is located, the level of education, and the spread of schools or the provision of education in the

vicinity (in order to guarantee the freedom of choice) (Decision of The Flemish Government of 17 June

1997).

For secondary education, programming standards and rationalisation standards are also in effect, but other

criteria are been established as relevant for defining the required number of pupils. For the programming

standards, the character (denominational, non-denominational, or pluralistic education) of the school

(with full-time curriculum) is taken into account. For the rationalisation standards, the educational

network (onderwijsnet) (official, grant-aided official or grant-aided free education) that the school (with

full-time curriculum) belongs to is also relevant. Furthermore, within these defined categories, another

distinction is made concerning the educational offering between divisions, options, and follow-up courses

offered with high frequency and those with low frequency (in a province, within each educational

network, and for each category). For the population density and the spread of the schools or the provision

of education in the vicinity is taken into account (to guarantee the freedom of choice) and also the

potential existence of a school community (scholengemeenschap). This is an organisation of institutions

that is able to provide education in a certain area in function of demographic, economic, social-cultural,

and infrastructural factors (Offeciers, 1996; Belgian Royal Decree of 29 July 1989).

The concept of school communities (scholengemeenschappen) is re-introduced as a totally new structure

by the Decree on Secondary Education of 14 July 1998. A school community (scholengemeenschap) is a

voluntary co-operative arrangement between secondary educational institutions to offer multi-sectoral

education of at least the general academic, technical and vocational types. The Decree of 14 July 1998

stipulates a decrease of 15% of the rationalisation standard for those educational institutions that belong

to a school community (Decree of 14 July 1998).

For special education, the regulations are more complicated because of the existence of different types

and forms of education (opleidingsvormen); for each type or form of education quantitative standards are

established.

Both in basic and secondary education more favourable norms are in effect for the district of Brussels in

order to maintain and encourage the use of the Dutch language (Offeciers, 1996).

For the colleges of higher education (hogescholen) and universities, there are also conditions for funding

to prevent uncontrolled growth in the provision of courses. At colleges of higher education, a basic

course will only be eligible for funding if it has 40 students in the case of a one-cycle basic course or the

first cycle of a two-cycle basic course or 20 students in the case of the second cycle of a two-cycle course.

Furthermore, the basic courses and options will be tested (before 1 May 2000) and evaluated by the

government in order to reorganise the provision of courses and options (Decree concerning Education IX

of 14 July 1998). New basic courses or options set up in 1998 or later may only lead to degrees that are

already specified in the decree and must not overlap with education provided by the universities. It must

also be demonstrated that they meet a social need. Also, there are restrictions imposed on the number of


sites of a college. Each university may only offer specific fields of study as stated by the Decree on the

universities, and the courses will only be funded if they meet the following criteria: the first cycle of an

academic course must have an average of at least 40 enrolled students in the two previous years. The

figure for the second cycle is 20 (programming). The existing courses have to meet the criteria of 20

students enrolled for the first cycle in the previous two years and 10 students for the second cycle

(rationalisation) (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996).

2.12.4.2. Staff

Spending on school staff accounts for the bulk of the budget appropriations (68.95% of public spending

on education, without the spending on school staff for higher education). In 2001, 8.96% goes to the

working of the schools, 15.98% is reserved as a whole for higher education (personnel costs included),

and 2.8% goes to investments (3.31% for other expenditures) (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001b).

All school heads and members of the teaching and the paramedical staff, whether they form part of the

education sector organised or grant-aided by the Communities (Gemeenschappen), are paid for directly

by the Communities. In the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) only the subsidies-wages for

part-time art education are still being issued in one lump sum to the municipalities. In grant-aided

education (free and official), the organising bodies themselves recruit their staff. Staff salaries are

chargeable to the Communities as long as the members of staff meet certain legal conditions and comply

with certain regulations (as regards ability, physical aptitude, language skills, for example) and their

appointments are in keeping with the subsidising standards.

Some time ago, a radical change occurred with respect to these standards. The rules on subsidising no

longer fix strictly regulated standards from which it is impossible to stray. Instead each school is

allocated a package of periods (basic and special education), an overall number of teacher periods

(secondary education), or a lump-sum budget (higher education) that reflect the number of pupils and

may be used and shared out, according to the needs, between levels, options, sections, disciplines, and the

like. At all levels of education, the regulated limits are the same irrespective of whether education is

Community-organised or Community-grant-aided.

2.12.4.3. Operating and equipment costs

Different arrangements exist for funding operating and equipment costs in schools organised by the

Community, and those grant-aided by the Communities.

Criticism has arisen in the Flemish Community about the disparities between the level of operating

resources allocated to community education and those allocated to grant-aided education. For example,

community education receives separate subsidies for maintenance staff. More information about this

matter is already given in paragraph 2.12.3..

The reorganisation of secondary education as established by the Decree of 14 July 1998 on secondary

education regulates the distribution of resources between the community education


(gemeenschapsonderwijs) and grant-aided education in a similar way (article 100 of this Decree). The

Decree stipulates that the amount of operating resources for each pupil in grant-aided secondary

education in 2007 is to be 76% of the amount of the operating resources for each pupil in the community


2.12.4.4. Capital expenditures

The Decrees of 5 July 1989 and 31 July 1990 were designed to bring about a radical change to the

funding rules for education in the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap). In a report on this

subject, the Council of State (Raad van State) seemed less concerned about whether the decree was in

keeping with the principle of equality as laid down in the Constitution than about the fact that the new

regulation was disturbing the political balances struck in the School Pact Law (Schoolpactwet) (29 May

1959). This reaction was inspired by a fundamental change in the funding arrangements for capital

expenditures in the Flemish Community.

Investment in community education was previously paid for in full by the State. The grant-aided official

schools (gesubsidieerde officiële scholen) received capital subsidies equal to 60% of their investment and

interest-rate subsidies (covering the difference between the current rate of interest on the market and

1.25% for the balance). In grant-aided free education, all investment was funded through interest-rate

subsidies. As far as the non-grant-aided share of investment is concerned, the grant-aided schools

(official and free) could, and still can, use their own resources or a proportion of the operating subsidies

(up to a maximum of 25%). The different treatment for the three educational networks (onderwijsnetten)

was obviously related to historical factors and in particular to the availability of religious establishments

for free education. Owing to the secularisation of free education and the ageing of its school buildings,

this network sought an adjustment to the funding arrangements.

It is now recognised that grant-aided official and grant-aided free education in the Flemish Community

(Vlaamse Gemeenschap) should be put on an equal footing, each receiving capital subsidies equal to 60%

of their investment (70% for basic education (basisonderwijs)). The responsibility for the non-grant-

aided aspects of grant-aided official education is to be shifted to the investment fund of the municipalities.

The Flemish Community is supposed to guarantee the loans intended to pay for the non-grant-aided share

of the grant-aided free schools (gesubsidieerde vrije scholen). Investment in community education will

continue to be chargeable to the Community (Gemeenschap). The decree also contains objective criteria

to establish priorities for school buildings in all the networks in the Flemish Community.

Within the Flemish Community, the commitments entered into by the former national guarantee fund for

capital expenditures for both grant-aided official and grant-aided free schools have been taken over by the

Infrastructure Service of Grant-aided Education (Dienst Infrastructuurwerken van het Gesubsidieerd

Onderwijs) (DIGO). The investments for the community education are co-ordinated by the the

Community Education (Gemeenschapsonderwijs) (previously the Independent Council for Community

Education (Autonome Raad voor het Gemeenschapsonderwijs ) (ARGO) (DIGO, 1992).


2.12.5. Financial management

The rules and procedures concerning the financial management imposed on the governing bodies differ

greatly between the educational networks (onderwijsnetten) and can be explained by the differences in

resources between the educational networks.

The Special Decree on the community education of 14 July 1998 stipulates a whole new structure for the

Community Education. The school groups (scholengroepen), as an intermediate level between the

schools and the Council of the Community Education (Raad van het Gemeenschapsonderwijs) within the

Community Education, constitute, together with the Council of the Community Education, the organising

body of the Community Education. The school group itself is competent for the autonomous financial

and material management of the schools assigned to it. The Council of the Community Education is

competent for the definition of criteria for the allocation of the funds between the school groups

(scholengroepen). The Commissioner of the Flemish Government has been replaced by a Board of

Accountants (College van Accountants), that is instituted by the Flemish Government. This Board of

Accountants, containing of 5 members, has a supervisory responsibility with respect to financial policy of

the school groups. The Board supervises the financial balance of the budget and the accounts of the

school group (scholengroep) and can advise the school group (scholengroep) concerning the organisation

of the books. The Board of Accountants, which is paid for by the Flemish Government, is also

responsible for the financial supervision of the Council of the Community Education. The board is

operative since January 2000.

The municipalities and the provincial governments are responsible for the financial management of the

schools in the grant-aided official education (gesubsidieerd officieel onderwijs). The budget has to be

approved on a higher level (the provincial government for the budget on municipal level and the Flemish

government for the budget on provincial level). Financial decisions on lower levels can be suspended by

a higher level if the law is not respected (Devos et al., 1999).

In contrast with the other two networks, the school governing bodies (schoolbesturen) of the grant-aided

free education (gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs) have a very large degree of autonomy. They do not have to

obey rules for drawing up a budget, and their budgets need not be approved by a higher body. They only

have to comply with a number of basic rules concerning the operating funds obtained. Thus, the

revelation of all expenditures and revenues is not required in this educational network (Devos et al.,

1999).

2.12.6. Funding of colleges of higher education

Each college of higher education (hogeschool) receives an ‘envelope’ of funds. The Decree on the

colleges of higher education specifies the overall amount for all the colleges, which is index-linked to the

unit labour costs and consumer prices. Before distribution can be carried out between the colleges, a

number of deductions are made to cover certain costs that the government will meet directly, such as the

salaries for certain members of staff. After these deductions have been made, an overall amount is left for


the operational expenses of the colleges. The amount per college is determined on the basis of the

following criteria:

1. the historical fixed sum: the costs of the college in the past;

2. the number of students (five-year average);

3. finance-eligible units: a combination of student numbers (three-year average) and the weightings

allocated to the courses according to the nature of the courses.

Four groups are distinguished to which the following weightings are allocated:

1.1 commercial science and business administration, 1.2 applied linguistics and one-cycle industrial

science courses, 1.4 architecture, biotechnology, social work, two-cycle industrial science courses, and

1.6 product development, health care and education. A transfer period for introducing this funding

scheme is provided for up to 2006 (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996).

As from January 2001 the yearly envelope is increased with € 4,957,870.50 to compensate the costs of the

implementation of the Decree concerning the colleges of higher education (hogescholen) (CAO VI).

The government also contributes to the funding of the colleges’ social facilities, and the colleges are

entitled to collect enrolment fees. The decree specifies that colleges must charge a student who does not

receive a grant a minimum of € 79.85 and a maximum of € 359.45 a year.

The colleges of higher education enjoy a certain degree of autonomy when it comes to determining the

policy they wish to pursue in respect of this money. They are, however, bound by a number of decree

regulations affecting matters such as the recruitment and promotion of staff members. Compliance with

these rules is monitored by a Commissioner of the Flemish Government (Commissaris van de Vlaamse

regering) and an inspector of finances. The commissioner can object to a decision of a college to the

Flemish Government, which then has to rule on the matter. As in the universities, the colleges determine

the internal distribution of resources (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996).

2.12.7. Funding of universities

Between 1991 and 1996, the government’s contribution to funding education and research was split into

two for both ordinary operational expenditures and investment expenditures: a fixed portion that was

adjusted in function of the evolution of labour costs and prices and a variable element that depended on

the number of finance-eligible units and was also adjusted annually in function of the evolution of labour

costs and prices. The fixed element was calculated on the basis of 50% of the funds provided to the

universities in 1991. The remaining 50%, the variable element, depended on the number of funding-

eligible units in a given year compared to the number on 1 February 1991. The number of funding-

eligible units was based on the total number of students eligible for subsidy in a particular field of study

weighted according to the nature of that field of study (a weighting of one for humanities, a weighting of

two for candidatures in applied and biomedical science, and a weighting of three for the second cycle of

applied and biomedical science).


Since 1994, students of the advanced academic courses were no longer added to the number of finance-

eligible units (OBE). With this method of calculation, the government not only wanted to lower the costs

and rationalise the academic supply but also tried to free scientific research from being too dependent on

the evolution of the number of students.

As a consequence of the unequal rise of the number of finance-eligible units in the universities, an

unequal financing per student in the different universities arose. Article 96 of the Decree concerning

Education IX of 14 July 1998 was intended to rectify this problem. Since the budget of 1996, the

operating subsidies have been divided into three parts.

The first part (Wao) consists of operating subsidy for the academic education, doctoral training, and the

academic teacher-training courses for the year 1995 + n (450 million BEF) and a yearly indexation.

Some measures were taken to guarantee that the universities with a notably lower amount of subsidy per

finance-eligible unit would receive more than in the past.

The second part (Wvao) consists of an amount of the operating subsidy for advanced academic courses

(see 6.4.3.) for the year 1995 + n. These subsidies are distributed among the universities on the basis of

the average amount of diplomas that have been granted in the last two academic years.

The third part (Whuisarts) consists of the nominal amount of the operating subsidy for the education for

general practitioners for the year 1995 + n. As for the previous part, the subsidies are also allocated on

the basis of the average amount of of general-practitioner diplomas granted in the last two academic

years.

With this calculation, all universities receive more operating subsidies but the under-indexation of the

operating subsidies is not disappeared nor has the unequal grant per student.

In addition to operating subsidies, the Government also guarantees social facilities. Furthermore, the

universities can charge registration fees.

The Decree of 12 June 1991 also aimed at establishing a new relationship between the universities and the

authorities based on more autonomy and local financial responsibility. From then on, universities were

funded for 50% in function of the number of students on 1 February of the previous academic year. The

other 50% was fixed and varied in function of the index of consumer prices and wage costs. This way,

spending became more stable and long-term planning was facilitated. Since then, the financing system

has been regularly adapted for details by different decrees. A result of the previous financing system was

an inequality between the different universities by which the small universities benefited. The Decree of

1998 tried to undo this inequality by dividing an extra amount of money and changed the financing

formula. At present a new financing system for the universities is in the air that is intended to stress the

research component of the universities, to make the financing system less dependent on student numbers,

and to increase financing based on output. In expectation of this new system, the government has set a

transitional period from 2001 to 2004 during which financing is independent of student numbers. This


temporary freeze of financing should lead to optimization and rationalisation of the educational offering

(Deweghe, 2000).

This temporary financing system was ratified in the Decree of 7 December 2001 concerning the revision

of the financing of the universities in the Flemish Community and accompanying stipulations. For the

years 2001-2004 the operating subsidies of the universities consist of the following parts:

- a fixed sum;

- an extra as a supplement of this fixed sum;

- a sum for the post-graduate courses;

- supplementary resources allocated by convenants between the Flemish government and university

authorities.

Every year the Flemish Parliament determines, on the recommendation of the Flemish Interuniversity

Council (Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad), the minimum and maximum enrolement fees and fees for the

exams of academic courses and of advanced academic courses (voortgezette academische opleidingen).

The advices of the Flemish Interuniversity Council (Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad) (VLIR) concerning

registration fees for the academic year 2001-2002 are € 475.96 for students who do not receive a grant, €

250.37 for students almost belonging to the category of students who receive grants, and € 79.33 for

students who are eligible for grants. For part-time students the amounts are € 262.77 (students who do

not receive a grant), € 143.78 (students almost belonging to the category of students who receive grants)

and € 52.06 (students who are eligible for grants). For every additional enrollment students who do not

receive grants pay € 153.69, students who almost receive grants € 101.64 and students who receive grants

€ 54.54 (Information received from the Flemish Interuniversity Council).

In addition, the Decree of 18 May 1999 allows the board of directors of the university can set a higher

enrolment fee for specialised courses on the basis of numerical criteria.

The universities enjoy a certain degree of autonomy when it comes to determining the policy they wish to

pursue with this money. Nevertheless, compliance with the rules of the law is monitored by a

Commissioner of the Flemish Government (Commissaris van de Vlaamse regering) and an inspector of

finances. The commissioner can object to a decision of a university, whereupon the Flemish Government

must decide. Until recently, universities were bound by a number of decree regulations affecting matters

such as the recruitment and promotion of staff members. The Decree of 5 May 1999 concerning

Education X has made these severe regulations more flexible. Rules have been drafted within the

institutions for the distribution of resources among faculties and central services and among the

departments and/or subject groups.


2.12.8. Evolution of school funding

Over the last years a number of important trends and events have influenced school funding dramatically.

2.12.8.1. Decentralisation

Mention has been made several times of the trend towards decentralisation in education policy as a whole.

This trend is also very noticeable on the funding front, especially in the community education

(gemeenschapsonderwijs), which was initially organised entirely by the State. The first important step

towards decentralisation came with the decision in 1984 to set up State services with separate

management in State education (SABMO). These schools are funded through appropriations. As a result

of the decision, the slow bureaucratic system of the old central management structure was abolished in

Community education. Because the appropriations fund the budgets, this was supposed to encourage

more efficient management. The appropriation system has been a major step forwards. The same can be

said of the establishment of local school councils (lokale schoolraden) (LORGOs) in the community

education that had the power to decide on material and financial matters that can be dealt with on the

local level. The Central Council (Centrale Raad) of the Independent Council for Community Education

(Autonome Raad voor het Gemeenschapsonderwijs), however, defines the framework of its autonomous

financial and material management and has to approve the budgets proposed by the local school boards

(LORGOs) (Devos et al., 1998).

A further decentralisation in the education policy in community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs) was

established by a change from a two-level structure to a three level-structure (Special Decree of 14 July

1998). New school councils (schoolraden) have been created at the school level. These school councils

have advisory and consultative duties. However, the school groups (scholengroepen) together with the

Council of the Community Education (Raad van het Gemeenschapsonderwijs) will constitute the

organising bodies (inrichtende machten) with decision-making authority for material and financial matters

in the Community Education (Special Decree of 14 July 1998).

2.12.8.2. The resource-sharing problem

It has already been described how the distribution of State resources between the Communities

(Gemeenschappen) and the three educational networks (onderwijsnetten) is causing political controversy.

A crucial issue in this context is deciding what objective criteria to use. There are no objective indicators

for resource distribution among the networks at this moment, so ad hoc yardsticks tend to be established.

The guidelines emerging from the parliamentary discussion on this issue are of a fairly general nature and

expressed in impractical terms. There is also a need to assess the cost in order to obtain an objective idea

of the requirements. However, even in these circumstances, it would still be difficult to establish criteria

for sharing out the subsidies, for there is no information available on the resources allocated by local

authorities or private bodies to the grant-aided schools.


For example, an agreement was arrived at on the magnitude of the differences in the distribution of

operating resources between the educational networks for the basic education (basisonderwijs) and the

secondary education (Decree of 25 February 1997; Decree of 14 July 1998 concerning secondary

education).

Because of differences of opinion about the legitimacy of the ‘differences open for objectification’ and

because of the complexity of the matter that made an objective view impossible, the Flemish government

decided in 1997 to carry out a study to clarify this matter. The objective was to quantify the differences

that could be objectified. This means that the study set out to specify the financial implications of these

differences for schools. On the basis of the analysis of the objective differences - the only legal grounds

for financial differences - the objective was to try to provide a basis for an renewed financial system that

gives all pupils equal opportunities (see 2.12.4.3.) (Deloitte & Touche, 2001).

2.12.9. Financing and education budget at various levels

For secondary education, new legislation has been realised. Both the budgetary and the funding

techniques were subject to change. These changes focus on two objectives: containing the growth of the

budget and changing the levels of spending in various educational levels of the education system. For

example, under-spending in pre-school and primary education has been widely recognised as a serious

challenge.

The pre-school level, together with the primary level, are considered to be an integrated system of basic

education (basisonderwijs). The principles for the primary level are applicable to the pre-school level as

well. The subsidies and appropriations for the basic education sector have risen constantly over the last

ten years. This favourable development is certainly justified, given that the absolute level of subsidies per

pupil is barely 40% of that for secondary education. The Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap)

has spent the following percentages of its education budget on ordinary basisonderwijs (basic education):

26.88% in 1999, 27.17% in 2000 and 27.40% in 2001. The average investment for each pupil

participating in ordinary basic education (basisonderwijs) can be calculated as follows (year 2001): €

3,662.55 /pupil in the community network, € 2,941.34 /pupil in the grant-aided official network, and €

2,870.62 /pupil in the grant-aided free network. The average spending was € 3,001.01 /pupil. The figures

reflect the problem of the resource distribution among the networks (MVG, departement Onderwijs,

2001e).

The Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) has spent the following percentages of its education

budget on ordinary secondary education: 40.89% in 1999, 40.17% in 2000 and 39.26% in 2001. The

average investment can be calculated as follows (year 2001) for each pupil at the secondary school level:

€ 7,998.54 /pupil in the Community network, € 6,990.68 /pupil in the grant-aided official network

(gesubsidieerd officieel onderwijs) and € 5,922.10 /pupil in the grant-aided free network (gesubsidieerd

vrij onderwijs). The average was € 6,374.86 /pupil (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001e).


The Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) spent the following percentages of its education

budget on higher education (universities included): 16.38% in 1999, 40.17% in 2000 and 39.26% in 2001.

The average investment for each student at the hogescholen (colleges of higher education) reached

€ 5,785.57 /student in 2001. The average investment for each student at the universities reached

€ 10,882.16 /student in 2001 (MVG, Departement Ondewijs, 2001e). Also there is a discussion on the

distribution of resources over the different institutes that participate in different networks. The level of

subsidies for colleges of higher education (hogescholen) is rather low, certainly compared to the level for

university education. The level of subsidies for a student attending education of colleges of higher

education (hogeschoolonderwijs) is less than that for a pupil in secondary education and is almost half of

that for a university student. Since 1992, the budget for university education has decreased in relative

terms, in contrast with the budget for the colleges of higher education, which has clearly increased. In

1992, the average investment in a student in colleges of higher education was not even half as much as

that for a student in university education (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996).

The most important budget reduction was in Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale

Promotie) (OSP) (-44% in the period 1975-1987), although it was partly compensated by a newly

introduced registration fee. The size of the cut is blamed chiefly on the ‘anti-plurality’ regulation, which

was introduced in 1982 in an effort to keep the earnings a teacher can make from an extra job down to a

minimum. This has now made it difficult to recruit specific categories of teachers in the technical and

vocational sections of the Social Advancement Education (OSP) sector. In 2001, 2.1% of the education

budget was reserved for the Social Advancement Education (OSP). In the period 1991-2001, the budget

for the Social Advancement Education (OSP) increased from € 66.84 million to € 142.5 million (MVG,

departement Onderwijs, 2001b).

The subsidies and appropriations for the special education sector has risen constantly over the last ten

years. The Flemish Community has spent the following percentages of its education budget on special

education: 6.55% in 1999, 6.65% in 2000 and 6.66% in 2001. The average investment for each pupil in

special basic education can be calculated as follows (year 2001): € 12,583.34 in the community network

(gemeenschapsonderwijs), € 7,725.64 in the grant-aided official network (gesubsidieerd officieel

onderwijs), and € 7.950,52 in the grant-aided free network (gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs). The average

spending was € 8,867.64 /pupil in special basic education (basisonderwijs). For special secondary

education (buitengewoon secundair onderwijs) € 13,178.20 /pupil was spent in the community education

(gemeenschapsonderwijs), € 13,575.59 /pupil in the grant-aided official education (gesubsidieerd officieel

onderwijs), and € 12,737.94 /pupil in the grant-aided free education (gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs). The

average spending amounted to € 12,972.01 /pupil at the secondary level (MVG, departement Onderwijs,

2001e).


2.13. Economic accessibility, financial aid

The Constitution guarantees education free of charge until the end of compulsory education (Art. 24, par.

3). But knowing whether or not compulsory school in reality is genuinely free obviously depends on how

the study cost is defined. In the Flemish Community, 10% of the global cost is borne by parents. This

cost includes personal supplies, such as stationery and bookbags, but not meals or the optional out-of-

school activities. No financial contribution may be required from parents to pay part of the cost of

traditional school supplies. Financial help from the government for travelling expenses is provided

during the period of compulsory education for those pupils who cannot attend a school of their choice

within a reasonable distance of their homes.

During the period of compulsory school attendance, education is free of enrolment fees in all schools

belonging to the three major networks. In higher education, registration at a university or a college of

higher education is subject to the payment of an enrolment fee. For both the universities and the colleges

of higher education (hogescholen), a minimum and maximum fee are fixed by decree (a minimum of €

49.58 and a maximum of € 359.45 for the colleges of higher education (hogescholen) and a minimum of €

79.33 and a maximum of € 466.04 for the universities, these amounts are (Vlir, 2001)) (Decree of 12 June

1991 and 13 July 1994).

For all youngsters and even for adults who want to obtain a first degree at the higher-education level or a

certificate of secondary education, a system of grants is organised. Whether an applicant receives a grant

and how much he will receive depends first of all on the taxable income of, and the rental value of real

estate owned by, the parents (or the applicant himself if he is independent). In addition, the size of the

grant will be influenced by the level of education. Recently, the Flemish Community (Vlaamse

Gemeenschap) has tried to spend more money on grants for fewer applicants. The first set of criteria, in

particular, has been adapted to avoid improper applications. In 2000-2001, 44,291 applications were

submitted for higher education (67% approved) and 112,380 for secondary education (72% approved).

The average grant for a higher education student was € 1,324.84 and for a secondary education student €

160.44 (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001b).

At present, no concrete figures or research results on the costs of Social Advancement Education are

available. In general, it is assumed that there are important differences between the courses and between

the different categories of participants. All participants (an exception is made for certain groups of

unemployed people attending labour-market-oriented courses) have to pay a registration fee, which is, in

general, rather low. Also concrete figures concerning the costs of special education are lacking.

One problem causing difficulties in defining the economic accessibility of special education has to do

with the entanglement with support payments for those receiving benefits from the welfare authorities.

Existing schemes to give financial aid to schools who accept handicapped children within a normal school

programme have been reinforced. This aid is meant to compensate for the cost of special equipment.

Research has been conducted to determine the direct private schooling costs per year (transportation

included). The average expenditures of parents for a child at the pre-school level is almost € 198.5 a year


(Bollens e.a., 2000a). The average expenditures of parents for a child at primary-school level is € 351.3 a

year (Bollens e.a., 2000a). For a pupil from secondary education it costs € 846.85 a year (Bollens &

Fripont, 2001). At the college level (outside the university), the average yearly cost is € 2,015.2 /student

for a student who lives at home and € 3,621.9 /student for one who lives in rented accommodations

(Bollens e.a., 2000b). At the university level, the average yearly cost is € 1,683.1/student for a student

who lives at home and € 3,461.2 /student for one who lives in rented accommodations (Bollens e.a.,

2000b).

2.14. Statistics

Table 2.1. Size of schools in basic education (basisonderwijs) in February 2001

Size of school Ordinary BLO (Special pre-school and

primary education)

1-100 153 68

101-200 531 81

201-300 826 37

301-400 489 7

401-500 247 2

501-600 93 -

601-700 26 -

>700 6 -

Total 2,380 195


Table 2.2. Size of schools in secondary education in October 2001

Size of school Ordinary 3 Size of school Special secondary education

1-100 21 1-50 12

101-200 131 51-100 27

201-300 166 101-150 28

301-400 142 151-200 23

401-500 100 201-250 10

501-600 95 251-300 4

601-700 107 >300 7

701-800 64 Total 111

801-900 43

901-1000 25

>1000 24

Total 918


3 Only ordinary secondary schools. Schools with only part-time vocational secondary education and

schools with fishery education are not included.


Table 2.3. Number of applications and assigned study grants in 2000-2001

Appl. Granted (%) Total amount (€) Average grant (€)

University 12,908 8,669 67 12,799,444.22 1,476.45

Hogescholen 2 cycles 6,924 4,733 68 3,402,978.22 1,352.83

Hogescholen 1 cycle 24,459 16,253 66 20,085,540.62 1,235.80

Total higher educ. 44,291 29,655 67 39,287,963.06 1,324.84

Secondary 112,380 81,135 72 13,017,236.04 160.44

(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001b)

Table 2.4. Number of transported students per educational level and per onderwijsnet (educational

network) school year 2000-2001

Community Education

(Gemeenschapsonderwijs)

Grant-aided Free

Education

(Gesubsidieerd vrij

onderwijs)

Grant-aided official

education

(Gesubsidieerd officieel

onderwijs)

Ordinary basic

education 2,104 1,380 299

Special basic

education 5,366 15,528 4,408

Ordinary secondary

education 59 461 22

Special secondary

education 3,430 8,034 1,919

Total 10,959 25,403 6,648


CHAPTER 3. PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION


In 1827, the first day-care centre was opened in Brussels for children of parents who worked outside the

home. The day-care centre has been acknowledged as the basis of the public school and was seen as an

institution of education in 1843. This new school form spread very quickly: in 1845, there were about

400 such schools. The day-care centres took care of the moral and physical well-being of the children

and prepared the oldest children for primary education. In 1857, the first Froebel Kindergarten was

established in Brussels. The activity, spontaneity, and intellectual awakening of the young child were the

essential and innovative elements of Froebel’s philosophy. He also insisted on professional status for

teachers. Training courses for Froebel teachers were organised with government support. The Froebel-

method needed some time to be introduced in the ordinary day-care centres.

It was only in 1880 that the first ministerial directives were issued to regulate the operation of pre-school

establishments. In 1890, the first model curriculum drew its inspiration largely from Froebel’s work. The

primary-school inspectors were made responsible for ensuring that the directives were implemented.

In the following period, up to 1914, pre-school education was no longer a priority policy domain. During

the Interbellum, pre-school establishments developed from being only day-care centres into places for

children to learn social skills, to develop intellectually, and to develop their personalities. Several official

programmes of activities were implemented. Froebel’s influence, together with the influence of the

Italian Montessori and the Belgian Ovide Decroly expanded and is reflected in the epoch-making

curricula published in 1936. Since then, pre-school education in Belgium has expanded a great deal.

In 1997 the Decree on the basic education (basisonderwijs) came into effect. This decree integrates all

the legislation related to pre-school and primary education into one coherent framework. Furthermore, it

contains important modifications and innovations and actually undermines the principles of the School

Pact (Schoolpact), which continued the controlling power of the umbrella organisations within the

different educational networks (onderwijsnetten). The principle of decentralisation promoted the

autonomy and the accountability of the school, and thus the importance of the umbrella organisations,

which had the role of go-betweens in the relation between schools and state, has been reduced (see

2.1.3.).


3.2. Specific legislative framework

- Decree on basic education of 25 February 1997, modified by the Decree of 15 July 1997. This new

decree integrates all the legislation related to pre-school and primary education into one coherent

framework.

- Decree of 15 July 1997 confirming the developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) and

attainment targets (eindtermen) of the ordinary basic education (basisonderwijs).

3.3. Types of institutions

Most pre-school institutions are attached to primary schools and housed on the same premises. However,

instruction in the strict sense of the term is not given at this level. Pre-school education is not considered

as the first class or group of primary education as is the case, for example, in the Netherlands. They used

to be called ‘Froebel schools’, the reference being to their ‘roots’ in the German ‘Kindergarten’. Though

pre-school education and primary education are not linked structurally, an attempt is made to achieve a

smooth transition between them. Hence the term basic education (basisonderwijs) is becoming more and

more common as an indication for both levels of education.

3.4. Admission requirements

At this stage, there is no obligation to attend school. In addition, pre-school education has an obvious

social function (in the past: ‘Kindergarten’) and a preparatory function for primary education. The school

starting age in pre-school education is 2.5 years old. Preschoolers between 2.5 and 3 years old are

admitted to pre-school education at the following school entry dates: the first school day after the summer

holiday; the first school day after the autumn holiday; the first school day after the Christmas holiday; the

first schoolday of February; the first school day after the spring half term or the first school day after the

Easter holiday. This means that children are admitted in pre-school education and are considered as

regular pupils as from the school entry date following the date they reach the age of 2.5 years old. Before

the school entry date, children between 2.5 and 3 years old are not allowed in school. Children who are 3

years old or older can be enrolled at any day of the school year (Circular Letter of 10 August 2001). The

school career at the pre-school level normally ends in June of the year of the sixth birthday of the child.

However, this may be extended by a year on the recommendation of the school council (klassenraad) of

the pre-school institution and the head of the competent Centre for Educational Guidance (CLB). In this

case, during the first year of compulsory school attendance, the children are obliged to attend the pre-

school institution regularly.

Pre-school education is free of charge in all schools. Parents may, however, be asked to contribute

towards the real cost of meals, transportation, extra-curricular activities, and out-of-school-hours

supervision.

Pre-school Education 81

3.5. Levels and age groups

In most cases, classes are grouped according to age category:

- Children from 2.5/3 years old to 4 years old;

- Children from 4 to 5 years old;

- Children from 5 to 6 years old.

Note, however, that pre-school grades do not exist officially. Pre-schools are free to organise their

education. Some schools employ the vertical division system, either occasionally or continuously. This

means that different age groups are included together in the same class. This is normally the case in rural

areas where the population is too small to provide enough infants for three separate classes. This system

gives more possibilities for differentiation.

3.6. General objectives

Although each school board (schoolbestuur) is free to adopt its own curriculum, the basic objectives of

pre-school education may be regarded as common to all the networks:

- to encourage mental and physical equilibrium;

- to develop intellectual capacities;

- to teach the child to communicate and to express itself correctly;

- to ensure balanced and diversified progress in the child’s psycho-motor development;

- to encourage a measure of independence;

- to stimulate the child’s creativity;

- to familiarise the child with life in society.

It can be summarised as the promotion of the child’s development as a person, its development of social

skills, and its cognitive and emotional development. Grant-aided free (denominational) schools also

include religious education. In addition to developing the children’s independence and ability to co-

operate, pre-school education also seeks to prepare children to tackle basic learning successfully at

school. The development of psycho-motor and language skills is also considered a priority. Official texts

emphasise the importance of ensuring a smooth transition between the pre-school and primary levels of

education. These objectives are now aimed for by the development objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) (see

Chapter 10).


3.7. Curriculum, subjects, number of hours

Pre-school education does not have an official curriculum, but a work plan (werkplan) or educational plan

(vormingsplan). The general objectives are realised by means of games and play within the secluded

world of the pre-school age-group. In pre-schools developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) are

used that have been adopted by Decree in the Flemish Parliament (Decree of 15 July 1997). Each school

board (schoolbestuur) develops its own methods and curricula to attain these objectives.

The mainstream ideas on pre-school education in Flanders are not confined to the spirit of Froebel. The

influence of Decroly on the new developmental objectives is remarkable. Those developmental

objectives have been formulated for five learning fields: physical education, expressive arts, language,

environmental studies (learning about nature, man, society, technology, time and space), and

mathematics. All schools have to provide their pupils activities in these fields. In order to familiarize the

eldest preschoolers with information and communication technology, since the school year 2001-2002 the

temporary project PC/KD is being extended to preschoolers from 4 years old and more. The aim of this

programme is to stimulate innovation in education through the use of information and communication

technology (Circular Letter of 2 July 2001).

In the decree on basic education (basisonderwijs) (25 February 1997), exceptions from the established

development objectives are possible. A school board can judge that the development objectives do not

provide the space to express its own educational and didactical views and/or are incompatible with those

views. In that case the school board can apply for an exception to the Flemish government. Reasons

have to be given and alternative development objectives have to be proposed. The Flemish government

judges on the similarity between the proposed development objectives and the established ones.

Nursery schools generally organise activities from Monday through Friday, from 08.30 h to 12.00 h and

from 13.30 h to 15.30 h (except on Wednesday afternoon). There are 28 teaching periods of 50 minutes

per week. Schools are open for a minimum of 182 days per year. They are closed in July and August.

Provision outside school hours for children in pre-school institutions is a major concern. In fact, many

schools organise child care at the request of working parents. Recently, a legal framework has been

established for child care before and after school hours, on Wednesday afternoon, and on holidays.

Besides private initiatives, a school can organise child care when it is accepted on the municipal level

that, because of organisational reasons, it is best for the school to be responsible for organising such care,

in view of the existing provisions for child care in the municipality. Like the other initiatives, the school

has to meet the specific quality requirements for child care (Decision of the Flemish Government of 24

June 1997).


3.8. Methods

The decision on methods belongs to the freedom of the school boards. Consequently, there are no official

guidelines. The ideas of the experience-focused teaching (Ervaringsgericht Kleuteronderwijs) has

become popular in Flanders. This approach focuses on the social and emotional development and well-

being of the individual child (Laevers, 1987).

3.9. Pupil evaluation

Pre-school education is organised along the lines of the German ‘Kindergarten’. Therefore, there is no

formal schooling or any formal evaluation. This does not mean that there is no assessment at all at this

stage. Assessment in pre-school education is based mainly on observation and fulfils three roles:

- forecasting: Does the degree of maturity and development reached by the child augur well for the next

stage (especially the transfer to primary school)?

- measurement: What has the child acquired, how is it placed in comparison to its peers?

- diagnostics: Why has development slowed or why has knowledge in certain subjects not been

acquired?

It should be noted that, at the point of contact between pre-school and primary education, an ever greater

contribution is being required from the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor

Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLB’s), together with the educational team. This is due to the growing number

of problems noticed at this stage.

3.10. Special assistance for pupils

Since 1993-1994, the Flemish Government offers the project extending care (zorgverbreding) at the pre-

school and primary level (six to seven year olds). The project provides extra teaching periods as to

provide a wider range of educational care for children who suffer from learning difficulties and for

disadvantaged children.

To be eligible for extra teaching periods, a school has to meet three conditions. First of all, the school

must demonstrate that a sufficient number of pupils are eligible. Eligible pupils are children whose

mothers have not obtained a secondary-school diploma, children who live with one parent, or children

with both parents unemployed.

Second, the school has to present an application plan for approval by the government. Such a plan

consists of what the school will do in each action field to make these actions subject to inspection.

Furthermore, the school board (schoolbestuur) must commit itself to work with the Centres for

Educational Guidance (CLB’s) to provide training for the teachers and to involve the school advisory

service (pedagogische begeleidingsdienst) in the policy of this project.


The third condition is that the school has to have a positive inspection report about the functioning of the

previous school year if they received extra teaching periods in that school year.

The effort for the extending care (zorgverbreding) has to lead to a preventive and remedial process

whereby the complete personality of the child is the point of departure. The intention is to apply an

educational practice that takes into account the language, cultural, and social background of the child.

The action fields that must be presented are:

1. prevention and remediation of developmental and learning disadvantages;

2. Dutch-language proficiency;

3. intercultural education (Intercultureel onderwijs) (ICO);

4. socio-emotional development;

5. parental involvement.

One option is temporary co-operation with special education (buitengewoon onderwijs) by transferring a

certain limited amount of extra teaching periods so that experience can be exchanged. The extra teaching

periods are allocated to a person who has the “required” or “considered as sufficient”

qualification/diploma for the task as primary school teacher or pre-school teacher (Circular Letter of 29

March 1999). In 2000-2001 there were 36,952 target pupils in pre-school education and 10,254 teaching

periods used for extending care (zorgverbreding). The school year 2001-2002 is the second school year

in a cycle of two years of extending care (zorgverbreding). Therefore, the number of target pupils is the

same as last year. In the school year 2001-2002 11,070 teaching periods were used for extending care

(zorgverbreding) in pre-school education (Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish

Community, Education Department).

A new integrated policy for equal opportunities will be implemented in the school year of 2002-2003.

The new integrated policy combines the existing measures for special assistance for pupils extending care

(zorgverbreding) and educational priority policy (onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid). This integrated equal

opportunities policy still needs to be confirmed in a decree, which may happen in the course of the year

2002 (see 1.4.2.) (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2000c; Persdienst Minister Vanderpoorten, 30.11.2001).

Since the school year of 2001-2002, a separate number of hours for nursery workers is financed or

granted in ordinary pre-school education. This measure is a first step to come to better guidance

and optimisation of the care for the youngest preschoolers. The total number of hours allocated is

calculated on the basis of the number of regular pupils and the number of school sites. 8 hours for

nursery workers are granted as soon as the school counts 35 preschoolers. For each additional 55

preschoolers, one hour is added. Per extra school site, the school receives two extra hours (Decree of 13

June 2001).

For children with a handicap, special-education facilities are available (see chapter 10).


3.11. Organisational variations, alternative structures

A small number of schools spread over the different education networks have adopted specific teaching

methods inspired by the principles of educators such as Decroly, Freinet, Steiner, and Montessori, after

whom such schools are usually named.

3.12. Statistics

Teacher-Pupil Ratio4: 15.7 (2000-2001) (ordinary pre-school education)

(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001b: our own calculations)

Table 3.1. Number of institutions in pre-school education (school year 2000-2001)

Community Education 376

Grant-Aided Free Education 1,396

Grant-Aided Official Education 467

Total 2,239

These figures cover both ordinary and special pre-school education5 and also schools who offer both pre-

school and primary education. In 2000-2001, 1,968 schools organised both ordinary pre-school and

primary education, 221 schools organised only primary education and 182 schools organised only pre-

school education. In special education, no schools organised only pre-school education, 89 both special

pre-school and primary education.


4 Number of pupils in ordinary pre-school education in the school year 2000-2001 divided by the

number of budgetary full-time equivalents in February 2001 in ordinary pre-school education. 5 Institutions that provide type 5 education (for children with long-term diseases) are not included in the

figures (6 schools in special pre-school education).


Table 3.2. Evolution in the number of pupils in pre-school education (1980-2001)

Year Community

Education

Grant-Aided Free

Education

Grant-Aided Official

Education

Total

80-81 32,100 160,314 31,559 223,973

81-82 33,500 161,597 33,334 228,431

82-83 34,899 164,584 34,142 232,811

83-84 33,993 167,192 35,332 236,517

84-85 33,479 166,456 36,118 236,053

85-86 32,454 163,675 36,389 232,518

86-87 30,078 159,063 35,542 224,683

87-88 28,790 154,015 34,905 217,710

88-89 28,301 150,410 34,817 213,528

89-90 28,260 148,246 36,097 212,603

90-91 28,200 148,847 36,792 213,839

91-92 30,597 162,200 41,801 234,598

92-93 31,251 166,767 43,909 241,927

93-94 31,847 171,219 46,073 249,139

94-95 32,390 174,410 47,931 254,731

95-96 32,457 174,251 48,769 255,477

96-97 32,741 171,149 49,153 253,043

97-98 32,442 165,370 49,703 247,515

98-99 31,706 160,405 50,510 242,621

99-00 31,624 157,454 51,576 240,654

00-01 31,498 156,301 52,783 240,582


These figures cover both ordinary and special pre-school education6.

In section 10.13 only the figures for special pre-school education are indicated.

6 Institutions that provide type 5 education (for children with long-term diseases) are not included in the

figures (6 schools in special pre-school education).

CHAPTER 4. PRIMARY EDUCATION


In 1830, Belgium introduced the freedom of education: anyone could establish a school without

permission of the government. This led to the creation of many primary schools, most of the time by

private persons or the clergy. To organise this expansion and to improve the quality of the education, the

parliament enacted the first law on primary education in 1842. This law required each local authority to

maintain at least one primary school.

Nevertheless, non-attendance at school in the 19th century was very high. There was no compulsory

school attendance in Belgium, so there was a great deal of illiteracy. The most important reason for the

non-attendance was the widespread child labour. At the end of the 19th century, approximately 30% of

the population was illiterate, but from then on the situation improved.

In 1914, the compulsory school-attendance was introduced in Belgium: everybody from six till fourteen

years old was obliged to attend school. Until then, there were only three grades. The 1914 law provided

for the establishment of a fourth grade for the children from twelve to fourteen years old. The First

World War delayed the implementation of this law. The model program of co-ordinating-general

Germain, introduced in 1880, was the first study plan (curriculum). An important revision of this study

plan came in 1920, when a study plan for the fourth grade was developed.

The Study Plan of 1936 stated that it was short-sighted to seek to reduce primary education to the mere

basics of ‘reading, writing, and arithmetic’. From 1936 to the present, the influence of Ovide Decroly has

been important, especially his ideas about the influence of the child’s interests in learning processes. This

influence is still present in the newly developed attainment targets (eindtermen) and developmental

objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen).

In the subsequent study plans, a more systematic approach and syntheses dominated basic education

(basisonderwijs) without restricting the initiatives taken by the experienced teacher. These innovations

were, above all, a response to the fear of introducing a greater degree of flexibility into education. They

took into consideration methods appropriate to the teaching aimed at young children, thus adapting

education to the new needs of the surrounding world and respecting as much as possible each child’s pace

of learning. Programmes have been devised to stimulate the acquisition of instrumental knowledge (such

as mastery of the mother tongue and mathematics) rather than factual knowledge.

From 1959 on, the government too, took the initiative to establish schools. Reform initiatives began on

an experimental basis first in a small number of schools in 1973 in the Flemish Community (Vlaamse

Gemeenschap). Out of these experiments, a large-scale innovation program arose: the Renewed Primary

Education (Vernieuwd Lager Onderwijs) (VLO). In 1980, the principles of this new approach - which

required more attention to be paid to the individual child - were generalised in all schools.


In 1997 the Decree on basic education (basisonderwijs) came into effect. This decree integrated all the

legislation related to pre-school and primary education into one coherent framework. Important

modifications and innovations were introduced. In fact, it undermined the principles of the so-called

School Pact (Schoolpact), which continued the controlling power of the umbrella organisations within the

different educational networks (onderwijsnetten). By the principle of decentralisation, the autonomy and

responsibility of the school are promoted and so the importance of the umbrella organisations, which

served as go-betweens in the relation between schools and state, has been reduced.


- Decree on basic education (basisonderwijs) of 25 February 1997, modified by the Decree of 15 July

1997. This decree integrates all the legislation related to pre-school and primary education into one

coherent framework.

- Decree of 22 February 1995 confirming the developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) and

attainment targets (eindtermen) of the ordinary basic education.

- Decree of 14 July 1998 determining various measures concerning secondary education and modifying

the Decree of 25 December 1997 on the basic education.

4.3. Types of institutions

Some schools provide both pre-school and primary education, so they appear twice in the figures. The

situation during 2000-2001 was actually as follows: 182 schools provided only pre-school education; 221

schools provided only primary education; and 1,968 schools provided both (MVG, departement

Onderwijs, 2001b).

4.4. Admission requirements

Primary education normally begins in September of the year in which the child reaches the age of 6. This

date marks the beginning of compulsory education, which lasts for twelve years (including secondary

schooling). However, the guardian may have his/her child start the first year of primary education at the

age of 5 or have it attend pre-school during the first year of compulsory school attendance (on the age of

6), always on the recommendation of the class council (klassenraad) and the Centre for Educational

Guidance (CLB). With a concurring recommendation of the class council and the Centre for Educational

Guidance, the child can continue attending primary school for an eighth year, which need not necessarily

be the sixth class of primary education (Decree of 25 February 1997). These arrangements enable a child

who started school late (due to illness, disability, or immigration) to remain in primary school (and on

condition that he/she has not attended this form of education for more than eight years) until the end of

the school year in which the child reaches his/her fifteenth birthday.

Primary Education 89

4.5. Levels and age groups

The structure of primary education, consisting of six classes in three stages, has been in place for several

decades. When the school population was insufficient for the formation of six classes for the six age

groups (6 to 12 years old), stage classes were formed with pupils from two successive age groups, or

inter-stage classes were formed if necessary. This was the case in areas with a low population density.

At present, the school board is free to organise its own educational system. Basically, there is no longer

an obligatory division in classes, subjects, or grades (Verhoeven & Elchardus, 2000: 146). However,

most schools are keeping the division into six classes.

Apart from classes, in a few exceptional cases, in which inter-age group work and individualised methods

are employed, primary education is largely undifferentiated. The same programme is used most of the

time for all pupils in the same class. However, today, educational policy is looking for ways to improve

differentiation. In fact, most primary schools are working hard to improve differentiation by means of,

for example, special hours for children with learning difficulties, “hoekenwerk” (working in corners)

where children of the same class work in groups on different tasks and “contractwerk” (contract work) by

which the children are responsible for their own work (Inspectie Basisonderwijs, 2000).


Although each school board (schoolbestuur) is free to adopt its own curriculum, the general aims of

primary education may be summarised as follows:

- to encourage the personal development of each child whilst respecting its identity, to stimulate its

initiation into society, and to participate actively in its education;

- to help the child acquire basic knowledge and skills;

- to overcome inequalities with respect to school and education.


For primary education attainment targets (eindtermen) are formulated for five learning fields: physical

education, expressive arts, language, environmental studies (learning about nature, man, society,

technology, time and space), and mathematics. These attainment targets have to be reached by the pupils

at the end of the primary school. The five learning fields are identical with those of the developmental

objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) for pre-school education. There are, however, two differences. French

(not obligatory) is added, and attainment targets are also formulated for two themes going beyond these

learning fields: learning how to learn and social skills. They are all compulsory from 1 September 1998

onwards.

The decree on basic education (basisonderwijs) (25 February 1997) allows deviations from the

established attainment targets. A school board can judge that the attainment targets do not provide the


space to express its own educational and didactical views and/or are incompatible with those views. In

that case the school board can apply for an exception to the Flemish government. Reasons have to be

given, and alternative attainment targets have to be proposed. The Flemish government judges on the

similarity between the proposed attainment targets and the established ones.

In order to familiarize all primary school pupils with information and communication technology, since

the school year 2001-2002 the temporary project PC/KD is being extended to the three lowest grades of

primary education. The aim of this programme is to stimulate innovation in education through the use of

infomration and communication technology (Circular Letter of 2 August 2001).

Primary schools generally organise activities from Monday through Friday, from 8.30 h to 12.00 h and

from 13.30 h to 15.30 h/16.00 h (except on Wednesday afternoon). There are 28 teaching periods of 50

minutes per week. Schools are open for a minimum of 182 days per year. They are closed in July and

August.

The school board is free to determine the educational organisation which is laid down in a school

development plan (schoolwerkplan) (Verhoeven & Elchardus, 2000, 35). There are no longer fixed

timetables in basic education.

The Decree on basic education (25 February 1997) provides the right of temporary education at home for

children who are temporally unable to attend class in primary schools because of illness or an accident.

At the request of the parents, the school is obliged to organise temporary education at home (four

teaching periods in one week that are grant-aided or funded as additional teaching periods). It is

necessary that the absence extends for at least 21 calendar days.

Provision outside school hours for children in basic schools is a major concern. In fact, many schools

organise child care at the request of working parents. Recently, a legal framework has been established

for child care before and after school hours, on Wednesday afternoon, and on school holidays. Besides

private initiatives, a school can organise child care when it is accepted on the municipal level that,

because of organisational reasons, it is best for the school to be responsible for organising such care in

view of the existing provisions for child care in the municipality. Like the other initiatives, the school has

to meet the specific quality requirements for child care (Decision of the Flemish Government of 24 June

1997). However, the schools are not obliged to provide this kind of services.

4.8. Methods

The decision on methods belongs within the freedom of the school boards (schoolbesturen).

Consequently, there are no official guidelines.



In order to assess the extent to which objectives have been achieved by the pupils and to evaluate the

effectiveness of the teaching, the primary school teacher (onderwijzer) has to develop tests for use at the

end of each stage of learning. A school report informs the child and parents at regular intervals of the

results achieved, the progress made, the learning behaviour, and personality development of the child.

At this level (as on the secondary level as well), the teacher is encouraged to use the pedagogy of success

and positive assessment, which takes into account the difficulties inherent in the objectives set and the

varying aptitudes of pupils. In addition to formative observations and comments, the results of exams

that may be taken in December or June may be included.

All exams/test are organised by the teacher under the responsibility of the school board. The teacher,

often in consultation with the director and possibly with other members of the educational team decide if

the student succeed the school year. Repeating a year is however a problem (see table 4.3 and 4.4.).

4.10. Certification

The Certificate of Basic Education (Getuigschrift basisonderwijs) may be obtained at the end of the 6th

year of primary education, at the end of the 1st year of secondary education (1st year A or B), or at the

end of the preparatory year of vocational education (= second year of the first stage of secondary

education for those who passed the 1B-class) (corresponding certificate).


In 1984 the Royal Decree of 27 October 1966 was changed to encourage greater independence of

management in each school by funding it on the basis of an assigned stock or fund of teaching periods.

This means that a number of teaching periods is put at the disposal of each school, depending on the

number of pupils. This system gives the schools the opportunity to set up an optimum timetable and to

gear the structure of the school to its pupils’ particular needs (organisation of adaptation classes, physical

education courses, school management, etc.).

Schools may call on the services of a remedial teacher, whose task is to assist pupils who are going

through a difficult stage in the learning process by means of specific and individualised activities.

From the school year 1992-93 on, additional resources (an equivalent of 500 teachers) have been

provided for schools that plan systematic action against school failure and repeating in the first year of

primary school. Projects have been set up under the name extending care (zorgbreedte) (Circular Letter

of 30 April 1996). Attention is given to five action fields: prevention and remediation of developmental

and learning disadvantages, Dutch language proficiency, Intercultural education (ICO), Socio-emotional

development, parental involvement (Circular Letter of 29 March 1999). The target group consists of

children who live in economically and culturally unfavourable circumstances but who are capable of

participating in ordinary education when specific deficits are eliminated. Planned co-operation with a


pre-school school and a school for special education is one of the conditions to be fulfilled when applying

for this kind of support. In 2000-2001 there were 71,389 target pupils in primary education and 10,008

teaching periods used for extending care (zorgverbreding). The school year 2001-2002 is the second

school year in a cycle of two years of extending care (zorgverbreding). Therefore, the number of target

pupils is the same as last year. In the school year 2001-2002 10,566 teaching periods were used for

extending care (zorgverbreding) in primary education (Information received from the Ministry of the

Flemish Community, Education Department).

A special system of Integrated Education (Geïntegreerd Onderwijs) allows pupils with special needs, who

have been in a special needs school, to continue receiving assistance at an ordinary school for a time

(Circular Letter of 1 July 1993) (see 10.7.). This system can also be used to provide children technical

equipment in order to reintegrate them in an ordinary school. This equipment is funded by the

government. In the period 1990-2001, the number of pupils in Integrated Education has grown from 524

to 1,289 at the basic education level (MVG, Departement Onderwijs, 2001b).


Schools with at least four foreign pupils who do not fully understand the language used at school may

organise a special language adaptation course. These educational efforts are being intensified in order to

eliminate the educational gap at school and in society. However, the emphasis is not only on eliminating

the gap at school. The educational system must strive with equal intensity to integrate the immigrants

into society. It does this by taking their own language and culture into account and by promoting

integration through intercultural education. The attention paid to teaching Dutch, the language of

instruction, is crucial in the approach taken by the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap). This is

why special classes and special opportunities are provided for pupils who attend school but have not yet

mastered Dutch. In order for these intensified efforts to achieve their intended effect, the number of staff

members in schools with many immigrants is being increased considerably. Additional counselling and

assistance are being provided as well. In the meantime, during the 1991-1992 school year, 760 new

permanent jobs were created. The budgetary repercussions of this extension should not be

underestimated. The annual cost of the education policy for children of immigrants amounts to more or

less 634 million BEF in 2000-2001. In 2000-2001, 17,960 pupils of the target group were reached in

primary ordinary education (1,765 in primary special education), and 8,118 teaching periods were used in

ordinary primary education (824 in special basic education) (Information received from the Ministry of

the Flemish Community, Educational Department, 2001). This policy is known as educational priority

policy (onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid) (OVB).

A new integrated policy for equal opportunities will be implemented in the school year of 2002-2003.

The new integrated policy combines the existing measures for special assistance for pupils extending care

(zorgverbreding) and educational priority policy (onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid). This integrated equal

opportunities policy still needs to be confirmed in a decree, which may happen in the course of the year

2002 (see 1.4.2.) (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2000c; Persdienst Minister Vanderpoorten, 30.11.2001).


4.13. Statistics

Teacher-pupil ratio7: 12.7 (2000-2001) (ordinary primary education, for special education see section

10.13).

(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001b: our own calculation)

Table 4.1. Number of institutions in primary education


Grant-Aided Free Education 1,345


Total 2,189

These figures cover ordinary and special primary education8. They also concern schools with pre-school

and primary education. In 2000-2001, 1,968 schools organised both ordinary pre-school and primary

education, 221 schools organised only primary education. In special education, 99 schools organised only

primary education, 89 both special pre-school and primary education.


7 Number of pupils in ordinary primary education in the school year 2000-2001 divided by the number

of budgetary full-time equivalents in February 2001 in ordinary primary education. 8 Institutions, which provide type 5 education (for children with long-term diseases), are not included in

the figures (6 schools in special primary education).


Table 4.2. Evolution in the number of pupils in primary education (school year 1984-2001)

Year Community

Education

Grant-Aided Free

Education


Education

Total

84-85 63,052 272,930 93,218 429,200

85-86 61,820 273,657 92,753 428,230

86-87 60,611 276,059 92,820 429,490

87-88 60,025 280,029 93,313 433,367

88-89 59,346 281,068 94,276 434,690

89-90 58,717 281,376 93,685 433,778

90-91 58,650 278,364 93,214 430,228

91-92 57,819 274,324 92,413 424,556

92-93 56,979 270,147 91,565 418,691

93-94 56,313 266,956 91,259 414,528

94-95 55,842 264,918 91,829 412,589

95-96 55,702 264,859 92,162 412,723

96-97 57,087 267,534 92,748 417,369

97-98 57,977 271,835 94,298 424,110

98-99 58,708 275,116 96,132 429,956

99-00 59,387 277,673 97,212 434,272

00-01 59,908 278,292 97,335 435,535

(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001b).

These figures cover both ordinary and special primary education9. In section 10.13, only the figures for

special primary education are indicated.

Table 4.3. School career in ordinary primary education (Belgian pupils) (2000-2001)

GRADE pupils ahead pupils on age 1 year of

delay

2 years of

delay

> 2 years of

delay TOTAL

# % # % # % # % # %

First 522 0.80 58,258 89.11 6,389 9.77 195 0.30 16 0.02 65,380

Second 498 0.76 56,632 86.88 7,695 11.80 340 0.52 20 0.03 65,185

Third 563 0.86 56,020 85.98 8,075 12.39 458 0.70 37 0.06 65,153

Fourth 601 0.93 55,226 85.63 8,083 12.53 542 0.84 40 0.06 64,492

Fifth 623 0.99 54,078 85.65 7,934 12.57 494 0.78 10 0.02 63,139

Sixth 594 1.00 51,898 87.27 6,685 11.24 284 0.48 4 0.01 59,465

TOTAL 3,401 0.89 332,112 86.76 44,861 11.72 2,313 0.60 127 0.03 382,814


9 In order to avoid double counts, pupils enrolled in special education due to a long-term disease (type 5

education) are not included in the figures of special education.


Table 4.4. School career in ordinary primary education (Foreign pupils) (2000-2001)

GRADE pupils ahead pupils on age 1 year of

delay

2 years of

delay

> 2 years of

delay TOTAL

# % # % # % # % # %

First 16 0.29 3,466 62.82 1,627 29.49 333 6.04 75 1.60 5,517

Second 31 0.66 2,527 53.57 1,658 35.15 401 8.50 100 2.12 4,717

Third 24 0.55 2,296 52.29 1,536 34.98 450 10.25 85 1.94 4,391

Fourth 27 0.61 2,176 48.93 1,586 35.66 560 12.59 98 2.20 4,447

Fifth 29 0.74 1,889 48.40 1,468 37.61 470 12.04 47 1.20 3,903

Sixth 14 0.40 1,872 52.97 1,322 37.41 303 8.57 23 0.65 3,534

TOTAL 151 0.53 14,226 53.66 9,197 34.69 2,517 9.49 428 1.61 26,509


Table 4.5. Delay at school in primary education (1987-2001)

% pupils with delay at school % pupils in special

primary education

all pupils first year sixth year

1987-88 11.9% 9.0% 12.6% 3.7%

1991-92 14.1% 11.0% 13.3% 4.7%

1995-96 13.8% 10.6% 14.5% 5.5%

1999-00 14.9% 12.4% 14.5% 5.9%

2000-01 15.5% 12.2% 13.7% 6.0%


CHAPTER 5. SECONDARY EDUCATION


It was not until 1887 that a law defined the structure of secondary education. This structure was then

maintained until the end of the Second World War. In addition to the Classics (Latin - Greek, Latin),

modern humanities appeared (with the emphasis on modern languages and science). Moreover,

secondary schools were established that were in no way linked with humanities and that were intended to

prepare young people for careers in commerce, industry, administration, and finance. Also in the course

of the 19th century and independently of secondary schools, technical education developed. This type of

education was oriented to agriculture, horticulture, industry, and commerce and offered evening and

Sunday classes of a practical and utilitarian nature. Following World War I, major political, social, and

economic changes affected the secondary-education structures, and the number of schools and pupils

increased (De Keyser & D’Hoker, 1984-1985).

From the inter-war period onwards, discussion focused on the equivalence of the Classics, in which the

amount of time spent on Latin and Greek was declining, and modern humanities. In 1924, the curriculum

of the secondary school, which could have a Latin/Greek section, corresponded to the first three years of

modern humanities. The development of technical education lacked coherence as it had neither a statute

nor a unitary structure. Technical schools were classified for the first time in 1933 by Royal Decree. The

management of technical education, which up till then had been the responsibility of various ministries

(Agriculture, Commerce, Labour), was placed under the Ministry for Public Instruction. At that time, the

idea of bringing secondary and technical education closer together also arose, at least in certain circles.

After the Second World War, and particularly after the 1950s and 1960s, secondary education evolved,

initially with regard to its student population and subsequently also with regard to its structures. First of

all, there was the creation of new sections, new structures (the Co-ordinated Laws on Secondary

Education of 30 April 1957). At the same time, technical and vocational education was given a structure

and organisation similar to that of the older general secondary education (Co-ordinated Laws on

Technical Education of 30 April 1957). The Omnivalence law (Omnivalentiewet) of 8 June 1964 allowed

greater access to higher education and particularly to certain university faculties. During the decades

preceding the Second World War, secondary education, with its very hierarchical, compartmentalised,

and pyramidal structure, was reserved for only a small percentage of young people. Technical and

vocational education had been kept separate from the humanities and had its own structures and statute.

Therefore, in the spirit of democracy within secondary education, a radical transformation of its

structures, pedagogical methods, and climate took place after the Second World War. It should be noted

that this evolution had both qualitative (structural innovations) and quantitative (the school boom)

dimensions.


More attempts at reform within secondary education date back to the school year of 1969-1970. In spite

of controversies, which did not cease with the passing of the law, a new type of secondary education,

which was called Type I, was brought into being and passed by the Law of 19 July 1971. While it was

compulsory in State education, it developed only gradually in grant-aided schools.

In order to understand the current secondary education structures in Flanders, one has to take into account

at least two important reforms. First, the two main types (a comprehensive type and one with streams)

were replaced by one general framework. Former national legislation (passed before the devolution of

power to the Communities) of 1971 (Type I) and 1957 (Type II) has been replaced in the Flemish

Community by the Decree on Education II of 31 July 1990, which provided a general framework for

secondary education. As a result of this decision, from 1 September 1989 on, all Flemish secondary

schools adopted this organisational form progressively from the first year of secondary education

onwards. The formal adoption of the Decree actually followed the evolution in the schools. The reform

had been launched by the Minister of Education in 1989. It was decided, after long political debate, to

confirm this major reform by Decree in 1990.

Second, secondary education has evolved over the last 30 years towards one uniform standard applying to

the whole of secondary education (including technical and vocational education) concerning certification,

curriculum, evaluation, and so on. In Flanders, the terms ‘lower’ and ‘upper’ secondary education refer

to the former structure of secondary education organised in two three-year cycles (lower cycle and upper

cycle). At present, secondary education has a more comprehensive structure and a division in three

stages. A distinction can also be made between ‘compulsory secondary education’ and ‘post-compulsory

secondary education’.

A reorganisation of secondary education was set as the priority in the coalition agreement of the Flemish

government (for the period 1995-1999). This reorganisation has been established by the Decree of 14

July 1998, which took various measures concerning the secondary education and modified the Decree of

25 December 1997 on basic education (basisonderwijs). An important aim of this Decree of 14 July 1998

was the improvement of the orientation of the capacities of the pupils in order to provide each pupil with

the education that corresponds best to his or her capacities and interests. This required that certain

educational problems have to be dealt with such as the increasing number of pupils in special education,

the large number of school failures, the system of elimination that characterises the system of secondary

education at present, and the ‘output’ of unqualified graduates of secondary education onto the labour

market. Therefore, modifications in five areas were established such as the rationalisation of the

provision of education, the encouragement of local autonomy for the schools, additional efforts

concerning pupils with learning difficulties, the integration of special and ordinary education, and the

introduction of a system of modular courses in the vocation-oriented education.

Secondary Education 99


- The School Pact Law of 29 May 1959.

- Laws concerning secondary education, co-ordinated by the Royal Decree of 30 April 1957.

- Laws concerning technical education, co-ordinated by the Royal Decree of 30 April 1957.

- The Law of 19 July 1971 concerning the general structure and organisation of secondary education.

- Decree of 31 July 1990 concerning Education II.

- Decision of the Flemish Government of 13 March 1991 concerning the organisation of full-time


- Decree of 17 July 1991 organising a Community-based inspectorate and school-related external

support services, including some principles of school-system monitoring and quality control.

- Decree of 24 July 1996 confirming the attainment targets (eindtermen) and developmental objectives

(ontwikkelingsdoelen) for the first stage of ordinary secondary education.

- Decree of 14 July 1998 determining various measures concerning secondary education and modifying

the Decree of 25 December 1997 on basic education (basisonderwijs).

- Decree of 18 May 1999 concerning Education XI.

- Decree of 13 July 2001 concerning Education XIII – Mosaic.

- Decision of the Flemish government of 31 August 2001 concerning the organisation of the school year

in secondary education.

- Decree of 18 January 2002 concerning the attainment targets (eindtermen), the developmental

objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) and the specific attainment targets (eindtermen) in full-time ordinary

and special secondary education.

5.3. General description of the structure of secondary education

5.3.1. Types of institutions

In accordance with the Decree of 31 July 1990 the general framework or ‘unified structure’ for secondary

education is composed of three stages of two years each (Van Damme, 1988; Vanderhoeven & Van

Damme, 1991). The first stage has a common curriculum for all pupils. This core curriculum

(kerncurriculum) is offered for those who have obtained the Certificate of Basic Education (getuigschrift

basisonderwijs) in the 1A group; for those in the 1B-group, further details are given in 5.3.2.. The second

and third stage each comprise four different forms:

- General Secondary Education (Algemeen Secundair Onderwijs) (ASO). A broad theoretical training

is emphasised here. It provides a strong base for higher education.


- Technical Secondary Education (Technisch Secundair Onderwijs) (TSO). Attention is given mainly

to general and technical theoretical subjects. TSO prepares the youngsters for professional life or

higher technical education. Practical courses are also included in the training.

- Art Secondary Education (Kunstsecundair Onderwijs) (KSO). General and broad development is

linked with active practice. KSO prepares the youngsters for professional life or higher education.

- Vocational Secondary Education (Beroepssecundair Onderwijs) (BSO). In this form, pupils acquire

specific skills and simultaneously receive general education. Access to higher education is possible

but rare.

Each stage consists of two years of studies and forms a unit of itself. At the end of the third stage of

general academic, technical, and arts secondary education, pupils may be awarded the Diploma of

Secondary Education (Diploma van Secundair Onderwijs). On completion of the special seventh year of

vocational education, pupils may also obtain the officially recognised Diploma of Secondary Education.

Some schools also offer a ‘fourth stage in vocational secondary education‘ with three sections: art,

sewing, and nursing (general nursing and psychiatric nursing). There are three types of institutions:

independent middle schools offering only the first stage of secondary education, schools offering only the

second and third stages (either the general academic option or the technical/vocational option, sometimes

both), and schools offering the full six-year programme (with, at the second and third stages either the

general academic option or the technical/vocational option, sometimes both). Art education (second and

third stage) is only offered in a few schools.

5.3.2. Admission requirements

Generally, pupils have reached the age of 12 when they are admitted to secondary education. They may

enter 1st year A on the basis of having obtained the Certificate of Basic Education (getuigschrift

basisonderwijs), which is proof of successful completion of basic education (Law of 28 June 1983;

Decision of the Flemish Executive of 13 March 1991). After spending a year in the 6th primary grade

without obtaining the certificate of basic education, pupils may be admitted into 1st year A with the

consent of their parents and on the recommendation of the Centre for Educational Guidance (Centrum

voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLB) and if the 1st Year A admissions council (toelatingsraad) approves.

This admissions council is composed of the teachers involved and the school head. Without the

certificate of basic education, pupils may be admitted into 1st year B at the age of 11. The same holds

true for some pupils who, if the consent of their parents is obtained and on the recommendation of the

Centre for Educational Guidance (CLB), do not seem to have the prerequisites for following the 1st year

A, even though they have passed the Certificate of Basic Education. For the first year B, the core

curriculum is established separately in the Decree of 31 July 1990. Furthermore, proper developmental

objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) are determined that differ from those of the first year A, and a more

individualised approach is provided to guarantee the continuation of the school career by the pupil. It

should be noted that transition from 1st year B to 1st year A is possible until 15 November and from 1st


year A to 1st year B until 15 January, if the child’s parents agree and the class council (klassenraad) so

advises. The class council consists of all the teachers of a certain class and the school head.

Transitions from one form of education to another are authorised throughout secondary education with

the approval of the admissions council and if the transfer conditions between the courses of study are

respected. In the third stage of general academic, technical, and arts education, the transitions are more

restricted: in order to obtain the final diploma, pupils have to attend the 5th and 6th class of secondary

education in the same section.

At the age of 16 a pupil may enter the 3rd year of vocational education whatever his or her previous

school career may be, provided the admissions council approves. These pupils cannot obtain the Diploma

of Secondary Education (Diploma van Secundair Onderwijs).

In order to be regularly enrolled in ordinary secondary education, a pupil following special education

must obtain the approval of a specialised Centre for Educational Guidance (CLB) (even if the pupil holds

the Certificate of Basic Education awarded by a special education school), of the admissions council, and

of the Administration of Secondary Education (Ministry).

Foreign pupils wishing to continue their secondary studies in Belgium must submit a certificate of

equivalence of their previous studies abroad for the specific department when enrolling for the first time.

Three sorts of certificates are issued in secondary education;

- an A certificate (when the pupil has passed the year successfully);

- a B certificate (the pupil is admitted to the next year, but some forms of education and/or subdivisions

are excluded for the next year);

- a C certificate (the pupil has to repeat the year).

B certificates are not issued for the end of the first year B, the first year of the third stage general

secondary education (ASO)/ vocational secondary education (BSO), or the fourth stage of vocational

secondary education (BSO).

5.3.3. Levels and age groups

Theoretically, all classes are linked with age groups: the year-class system. Because of school failures

and repeats, the classes sometimes become very heterogeneous (especially in vocational education).

Different teachers teach different disciplines.

5.3.4. Branches of study and specialisation

5.3.4.1. General overview

Within each of the four forms and in the first stage many options are offered, especially in technical and

vocational fields. All the possibilities are not listed here.


The Decree of 14 July 1998 relating to secondary education stipulates that the provision of forms of

education, courses of study, and study areas should be more transparent and more rationally organised.

The first stage has to guarantee a broad base, and excessive specialisation in the second year of the first

stage is avoided. The number of optional subjects is reduced. For the second and third stage, a number of

courses of study is reduced or regrouped to clarify the courses of study and give them a more

recognisable profile. The objective is to prepare the pupil more adequately for higher education and/or

professional activity within the different forms of education.

The present (the new, reduced structure is given which is introduced as from september 2000 in the first

year of the second stage and will progressively be introduced in the following grades) educational supply

in secondary education, with the exception of the first stage, is divided into 29 study areas. Related

branches of study are placed in these 29 study areas. A study area is defined as a group of branches of

study on the basis of a relationship and, in the technical and the vocational secondary education, also on

the basis of a need for the same educational infrastructure and an orientation to the same occupational

environment. The branches of study of the General Secondary Education (ASO) are placed in one study

area, namely ‘general secondary education‘. One study area, namely sports overlaps General Secondary

Education (ASO) and Technical Secondary Education (TSO). The branches of study of the Technical

Secondary Education (TSO) and Vocational Secondary Education (BSO) and the branches of study of the

Art Secondary Education (KSO) are divided into respectively 24 and 3 study areas. The Flemish

Government classified each structural unit organised on 1 October 1997 in one of those study areas and

indicated those structural units that are specific. All other structural units were considered as non-

specific. The Flemish Government also indicated the structural units that were no longer current. The

Flemish Government converted the existing nomenclature to the new nomenclature of the structural units.

The reduction of the study areas is being introduced progressively over a period up to 2004. As from 1

september 2000 the reformed structural units are applied in Technical Secondary Education (TSO),

Vocational Secondary Education (BSO) and Art Secondary Education (ASO) in the first year of the

second stage (Circular letter of 5 February 1999).

Because the organising body (inrichtende macht) of the school(s) is responsible for the timetables, it is

impossible to present all of them here. Therefore, we will present the schedule of the community

education (gemeenschapsonderwijs).

The four forms of education are not organised separately in the first stage. From the second stage on, the

four forms are organised separately. This does not rule out the organisation of a certain number of

common courses. In the first year (class A), all pupils follow a common core curriculum (kerncurriculum)

of at most 28 periods per week consisting of the following subjects: religion or non-denominational-

ethics, Dutch, French, mathematics, history, geography, natural sciences, art education, technological

education, physical education and possibly English. In addition, four periods a week are left available to

each school to use as they wish within the legally fixed framework. This allows the school to express its

own character as regards, for example, the tradition of the school and the socio-economic environment in


which it is situated. The first year B has a similar composition of teaching periods

(Gemeenschapsonderwijs, 2001).

In the second year, all the pupils follow a core curriculum of at most 26 periods per week consisting of

the following subjects: religion or non-denominational ethics (the last one, only in official schools),

Dutch, French, English, mathematics, history, geography, natural sciences, art education, technological

education, and physical education (Decree of 31 July 1990). At least 14 of the 24 periods are the same

for everybody. Special arrangements are made for pupils who follow vocational education from the

second year on: the 2nd year, preparatory vocational secondary education (beroepsvoorbereidend leerjaar)

(BVL). They study roughly the same subjects provided in the core curriculum of the A group, except for

French and English but do so in a separate group. In addition to the core curriculum, 6 to 18 periods are

available for each school to develop its individual character. In the 2nd year preparatory vocational

secondary education (BVL), the core curriculum is limited to 16 periods. The pupil may choose one or a

combination of two groups of subjects (a total of maximum 18 periods) that are added to the core

curriculum (e.g. agriculture and horticulture, construction, electricity, metal, hotel, and industrial

techniques) (Gemeenschapsonderwijs, 2001).

The remaining periods are free for optional courses (e.g. Latin, Greek, modern languages, supplemen-tary

mathematics, and technology; Latin and Greek are offered only for the A group)

(Gemeenschapsonderwijs, 2001).

From the third year up to and including the sixth year, the four forms of education are organised

separately with a common and an optional package (see below and the next sections). The common part

consists of the subjects of the core curriculum that are common for each stage and each form of

education; the optional subjects are either fundamental (depending on further choices) or complementary

(freely defined by the school itself within the legal framework).

The core curriculum (kerncurriculum) from the third to the sixth year in general secondary education

consists of religion or non-denominational ethics, Dutch, French, English, mathematics, history,

geography, natural sciences (biology, physics, and chemistry, which can be given in an integrated course),

and physical education. General secondary education also includes English or German. In vocational

education, the basic education from the third up to and including the sixth year consists of religion or non-

denominational ethics, Dutch, history and/or geography (the last two subjects may be replaced by an

integrated social education course), mathematics and/or applied natural sciences (applied physics,

chemistry, biology, which can be provided in an integrated course (but only in the second stage)), and

physical education. For technical and art secondary education, the core curriculum consists of religion or

non-denominational ethics, Dutch, French or English, mathematics, history, geography, natural sciences

(physics, chemistry, biology, which can be provided in an integrated course (only for the second stage)),

and physical education (Decree of 31 July 1990). Depending on the choice for one of the four forms of

education, the options can be Economics/Modern languages, Latin/Greek, Latin/Mathematics,

Latin/Modern Languages, Mathematics/Sciences, Sports/Sciences, Bakery and Confectionery,


Mechanics, Agriculture and Horticulture, Textiles, Youth Care, Accounting, Dance, Music, Drama,

Construction, Child Care, Welding, and others. A wide range of subjects are offered in the optional

section to supplement the core curriculum (kerncurriculum).

At the end of the general academic and arts education, it is possible to take a seventh year of preparation

for higher education. A seventh year of specialisation and/or completion of training is offered in

technical, arts, and vocational secondary education. In vocational education, a fifth year of specialisation

may also be organised to prepare the pupil for employment.

5.3.4.2. General secondary education (ASO)

General secondary education has a more theoretical approach to subjects than the other forms of

education and is clearly intended to facilitate the passage to higher education (Van Den Bossche, 1996).

The periods for the core curriculum and the optional subjects presented here, are those of the community

education (gemeenschapsonderwijs). The two years of the second stage in general secondary education

consist of 21-32 periods for the core curriculum and 7 periods for the fundamental part. The two years of

the third stage in general secondary education consist of 21-25 periods for the core curriculum and 8 or 9

periods for the fundamental part. Additional periods for complementary subjects (1-3 periods) can be

specified by the school within the legal framework (Gemeenschapsonderwijs, 2001).

5.3.4.3. Technical secondary education (TSO)

Technical secondary education concentrates on the practical application of theoretical knowledge. It

prepares the pupil for an occupation and also for higher education, technical or other (Van Den Bossche,

1996).

The two years of the second stage consists of at most 21 periods a week for the core curriculum and 15-24

periods for the fundamental curriculum, depending on the specific option. The two years of the third

stage in technical secondary education consists of at most 15 periods a week for the core curriculum and

19-25 periods for the fundamental part. Additional periods for complementary subjects can be specified

by the school within the legal framework (Gemeenschapsonderwijs, 2001).

Student training is important in the framework of the revaluation of technical secondary education and

vocational secondary education. Indeed, student training can form a driving force for the training-

employment relationship. Therefore, student training offers a surplus value from the third and fourth year

on in technical and vocational secondary education. Recently, a number of measures were taken to

facilitate the training in full-time secondary education. The Decision of 31 August 2001 concerning the

organisation of the school year in secondary education has resulted in more freedom for the organisation

of the training. The minimum conditions for the organisation of the student training are the following: it

is forbidden between 8 p.m. and 6 a.m. and on Sunday with a maximum of 8 hours a day, 38 hours a

week, and 1,200 hours a school year. Moreover the students are entitled to at least four sequential weeks

of vacation in July or August. Outside these minimum conditions, schools and companies are free to


organise the training as they wish. The government has also established a database on the Internet to

assist schools looking for work experience places and companies looking for trainees. This database is

called ‘Training Information System’ (Stage Informatie Systeem) and can be found at the following

address: http://www.stagedatabank.be/. Concerning this student training, the (Flemish Economical

Association (Vlaams Economisch Verbond) conducted a survey in Flemish companies. 86% of the

interviewees had coached a trainee during the last school year. 94% of the companies with experience

with trainees evaluated it as very positive or positive, and 99% of the companies declared that they were

willing to offer as many or more work experience places in the future. Most companies think that student

training offers an obvious surplus value to practical training courses and to education in general (VEV,

2001).

5.3.4.4. Art secondary education (KSO)

This form of education (about 2% of the pupils of secondary school) provides a more ‘artistic’ kind of

education. It gives more attention to art, provides an artistic and technical-technological basis, and

prepares the pupil for higher education, artistic or other (Van Den Bossche, 1996).

The two years of the second stage consists of at most 17 periods for the core curriculum (kerncurriculum)

and maximum 19 periods for the fundamental curriculum (fundamenteel curriculum) each week. The two

years of the third stage in art education consists of 13-17 periods for the core curriculum and maximum

19 periods for the fundamental curriculum each week. Additional periods for complementary subjects

can be specified by the school within the legal framework (Gemeenschapsonderwijs, 2001).

5.3.4.5. Full-time vocational secondary education (BSO)

In full-time vocational secondary education, one may find not only young people gifted with practical

minds who wish to learn a trade, but also youngsters whose previous school career, sometimes from the

primary school onwards, has been marked by a series of failures or learning difficulties. Efforts to reform

vocational education are based on three principles:

- to prepare the pupils for an integrated social life;

- to teach the pupils a trade as realistically and concretely as possible;

- to give the pupils the type of education that will help them to develop their personality and allow them

to become active and responsible members of adult society.

The reform efforts in the various educational networks (onderwijsnetten) are initiated and supported by a

central action team whose work is in turn supported by co-ordinators working in the field. Specific

pedagogical measures are being developed concerning the reception of new pupils, the workshop class,

the integration of general and technical training and practice, training courses on health, safety, and

hygiene in the workplace, courses organised per level, and so on.


The two years of the second stage consists of at most 11 periods for the core curriculum (kerncurriculum)

and maximum 25 periods a week for the fundamental curriculum (fundamenteel curriculum). The two

years of the third stage in vocational secondary education consists of at most 11 periods a week for the

core curriculum and maximum 28 periods a week for the fundamental part. Additional periods for

complementary subjects can be specified by the school (maximum 3 periods a week) within the legal

frame (Gemeenschapsonderwijs, 2001).

Student training is also in vocational secondary education important. As mentioned in paragraph 5.3.4.3.,

several measures were taken to facilitate student training.

The reorganisation of secondary education established by the Decree of 14 July 1998 made important

modifications in vocational education. A system of modular training courses was established in order to

deal with the problems of the unqualified ‘output’ of pupils from vocation-oriented education to the

labour market and of the discrepancy between the supply of vocation-oriented training courses and the

demand on the labour market. Moreover, a system of modular training courses was set up to orientate

pupils on the basis of capacities instead of failures.

In the modular system, every school program consists, besides the general training, of vocation-oriented

modules in which general educational elements are integrated and attention is paid to core skills. This

way the pupil is prepared for specific occupations and also for personal and social functioning. Important

are the vocational profiles set up by the social partners and the attainment targets (eindtermen) set up by

the government for each stage and each educational form. These profiles assure close linkage with the

labour market (Circular Letter of 26 July 2001).

Each module is combined with elements of general training and results in a ‘partial’ certificate, which

certificates accumulate for the ‘complete’ certificate. This system is connected to a whole new set of

educational methods, such as, integrated working, team teaching and differentiation. Moreover, the

school year in the modular system looks entirely different: grades and courses disappear and contact

hours and evaluation time are completed with study time in open centres and individual guidance.

Experiments of the system with pupils have started on 1 September 2000. The experiment will continue

until 31 August 2007. By then, two cohorts of pupils will have been followed. The system will be

evaluated and possibly generalized in certain educational forms. Until then, linear education will

continue to stay the rule (Schepers, 2000; Circular letter of 25 July 2000).

In the experiment, extra resources were provided. After the first school year, these resources as well as

the number of participating schools and study areas were, after evaluation, increased. As from 1

September 2001 the modular education of full-time vocational education and part-time vocational

education is extended to special vocational education. Form of education 3 (opleidingsvorm 3) and form

of education 4 (opleidingsvorm 4). The following areas of study are included in modular education:


- as from 1 September 2000: car mechanics, construction, commerce, mechanics-electricity, caring;

- as from 1 September 2001: printing technology, woodworking, clothing, heat and cooling, personal

hygiene, textile crafts and nutrition (Circular Letter of 26 July 2001).

5.3.4.6. Part-time vocational education (DBSO)

The Law of 29 June 1983 relating to compulsory education provided for the creation of part-time

secondary education, which is called reduced-timetable education. A Royal Decree in 1984 established

this form of education for a trial period of two years. With modifications, new decrees extended this trial

phase (European Commission, 1996). Part-time vocational secondary education was finally given legal

status in the Decree of 31 July 1990, which confirmed the existing experimental structure as Part-time

Vocational Secondary Education (Deeltijds Beroepssecundair Onderwijs) (DBSO).

This Part-time Vocational Secondary Education (DBSO) has been established especially for pupils who

have problems in compulsory education and are simply tired of school. A formula is offered where pupils

work part-time and go to school part-time with adapted curriculum and methods.

The pupils of Part-time Vocational Secondary Education (DBSO) can be devided into four categories:

- pupils in the regular labour circuit;

- pupils in bridging projects (brugprojecten): these projects offer educational renumeration to pupils

who are not able to work in the regular labour circuit and have to turn to work in a sheltered

workshop;

- home helpers: pupils who work in a family business;

- unemployed pupils.

Because part-time education is often accompagnied by unemployment, the government has made efforts

to assure the pupils of Part-time Vocational Secondary Education (DBSO) jobs. These efforts have been

formalized in the Royal Decision of 19 August 1998, which stipulates that pupils of Part-time Vocational

Secondary Education (DBSO) who have not succeeded in the 3rd year of secondary education and have

not had any working experience, can work while being guided, at most for one year, in private companies.

Plans are being made by the government to expand these measures but they have not yet been

implemented (Verhoeven & Elchardus, 2000: 183).

Part-time secondary education is provided for 40 weeks a year with 15 weekly periods of 50 minutes (a

minimum of 6 periods of general secondary education and a minimum of 6 periods of technical or

vocational training) (Circular Letter of 31 July 1990). It is provided by Centres for Part-time Vocational

Education (Centra voor Deeltijds Beroepsonderwijs) (CDO), of which there are 45 in the Flemish

Community (MVG, Departement Onderwijs, 2001b). They are linked to secondary schools that offer

technical and vocational education.


Pupils can also attend courses organised by the Flemish Institute for Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut

voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO) within their programme of ‘contractual apprenticeship’ (see

7.4.7.).

The provisions of the Decree of 14 July 1998 concerning the introduction of a system of modular training

courses of vocational education in vocational education is also meant for part-time vocational education

(see the former paragraph).

The Decision of the Flemish government of 14 September 2001 introduced the temporary project

guidance (trajectbegeleiding) in part-time vocational education. This project aims to insert the pupil into

the labour market by means of an individualised approach and the delivery of a basic qualification.

Guidance (trajectbegeleiding) needs to prevent early drop-out.

5.3.4.7. Industrial apprenticeship contract (Industrieel leercontract)

Part-time vocational education, which, in principle, is attended by pupils under the age of 18, has been

extended to include young people between the ages of 18 and 25 who have signed an apprenticeship

contract in industry, an industrial apprenticeship contract, and to those who, before the age of 18, were

already attending a Centre for Part-time Vocational Education (Centrum voor Deeltijds

Beroepsonderwijs) (CDO). This scheme grants a temporary reduction in the employer’s contribution to

the State Social Security System when they recruit young job seekers in an industrial apprenticeship

contract. The employment-training agreement is signed by the young person and the employer and lasts

for a minimum of one year or a maximum of three years. It has two parts: a contract for part-time work

of determinate duration (at least half-time) and training. The training programme lasts for a total of 500

hours, except for management training for independent professions, where the minimum is 256 hours.

5.3.4.8. Fourth stage of vocational secondary education

The Complementary Vocational Secondary Education (Aanvullend Secundair Beroepsonderwijs)

(ASBO) has long been a rather floating bundle of courses between secondary and higher education. With

the merger operation of 1995 in higher education, these courses were brought together to form the fourth

stage of vocational secondary education (Vierde Graad Beroepssecundair Onderwijs). It comprises three

sections: arts, sewing, and nursing (general nursing and psychiatric nursing). The courses are practically

oriented. The courses are attended by pupils who have completed the sixth year of vocational secondary

education or have reached the age of 18 and have passed an entrance exam. The training takes two (28

hours fundamental part) or three years (32 hours fundamental part) (VVKSO, 1996d).



Although the organising bodies (inrichtende machten) have a constitutionally guaranteed freedom to

adopt their own aims, some general tendencies are obvious. Behind the move towards the actual united

framework of secondary education was a policy to promote a more comprehensive method of educational

organisation. These options can be found clearly in the general objectives of the first stage:

- postponement of choice;

- gradual orientation and transition;

- providing a core curriculum (kerncurriculum): a set of knowledge, insights, skills, and attitudes that

can be provided in schools.

The core curriculum (kerncurriculum) is an essential condition for functioning and participating in society

in a meaningful and authentic way. It also facilitates democratic access to the cultural heritage.

Despite efforts to achieve real democratisation, it generally appears that general secondary education is

above all valued by the upper and middle social classes. Selection within the secondary education system

operates in many ways: by failures in a certain courses of study, by restrictions on the choice possibilities,

and by the way in which social groups ‘spontaneously’ direct the education of their children.


Information on subjects and numbers of hours has been integrated into earlier sections of this chapter.

About the curriculum, we have to mention the development of attainment targets (eindtermen) and

developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) as part of the quality control procedures in Flemish

education.

A set of attainment targets (eindtermen) for the 1A class and the second year of the first stage has been

developed for all courses within the core curriculum (Maes, 1998). The same work has been done for the

core curriculum in the 1B class and the 2nd Preparatory Vocational Education (Beroepsvoorbereidend

Leerjaar) (BVL). In these cases, however, they are conceived as developmental objectives

(ontwikkelingsdoelen). Five cross-curricular themes of attainment targets or developmental objectives

have been proposed as well: learning how to learn, social skills, education for citizenship, health

education, and environmental education. These proposals have been worked out by the Department for

Educational Development (Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling) (DVO). The Flemish Education Council

(Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) (VLOR) gives advice on the proposals to the Flemish Parliament. They have

been adopted by the Decree of 24 July 1996.

The attainment targets (eindtermen) and developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) of the second

and third year of secondary education were officially approved by the Flemish Parliament in the Decree

of 18 January 2002. Earlier the Flemish government had already formulated a decision (Decision of the

Flemish Government of 23 June 2000), which was confirmed in the Decree of 18 January 2002. This


decision formulates a set of attainment targets (eindtermen) for all subjects of the core curriculum

(kerncurriculum) of the different courses of study in the second and third years. Cross-curricular

attainment targets (eindtermen) are also formulated. These cross-curricular attainment targets

(eindtermen) are the same for General Secondary Education (Algemeen Secundair Onderwijs), Technical

Secondary Education (Technisch Secundair Onderwijs), Art Secondary Education (Kunstsecundair

Onderwijs) and Vocational Secondary Education (Beroepssecundair Onderwijs) but are different for the

second and third years. The theme’s are almost similar to those of the first year: learning how to learn,

social skills, education for citizenship, health education, environmental education, expressive-creative

education and technological education (only for General Secondary Education (Algemeen Secundair

Onderwijs)). These attainment targets (eindtermen) will become official as of the school year 2002-2003.

As it is the case in pre-school and primary education, it has to be noted that departures from the

established development objectives and/or attainment targets are also possible in secondary education

(Decree of 15 July 1997).

5.6. Methods

The decision on methods belongs to the freedom of the organising bodies. Consequently, there are no

official guidelines. In general, it can be stated that teaching is subject-oriented.


Pupil evaluation is based on tests and examinations organised by the individual teacher under the ultimate

responsibility of the organising body of the school (Decision of the Flemish Government of 13 March

1991). In secondary education, the essential instrument in assessment is the class council i.e. the

committee consisting of the entire management and teaching staff responsible for the instruction of a

specific group of pupils, the assessment of their school progress, the decision regarding each pupil’s

promotion to a higher class, and the issuing of certificates when appropriate. A regular pupil’s moving up

to a higher class follows the issuing of an orientation certificate by the class council at the end of the year.

The class council bases its decisions on factors such as:

- the past school career of each pupil;

- the intermediary results from periods, assessments, and examinations;

- information from the Centre for Educational Guidance (CLB);

- the interviews with the pupil and parents, if necessary.

Each class council has the delicate task of establishing at regular intervals an intellectual, social, and

moral evaluation of each pupil and of drawing pedagogical conclusions from this evaluation. Remedial

help may be suggested and, if necessary, orientations or re-orientations. The council agrees on a common

position with regard to each pupil and, at the end of the school year, decides about promotion to the next


class and the issuing of certificates. As far as assessment is concerned, reformed secondary education

invests a great deal of effort in making an important contribution to:

- awareness of the role played by assessment in the education process;

- the primacy of group assessment by the class council over assessment carried out by an individual;

- the essential importance of formative assessment and the lesser importance of cautionary assessment;

- the introduction of a differentiated marking system (literal appreciation and supplementary

comments);

- the provision of remedial and repeat classes;

- the reference to similar mental operations belonging to the same taxonomic levels;

- the establishment of a reference system for performance thresholds set at the beginning of the school

year.

Nevertheless, forms of assessment remain a matter for discussion: aspects include the importance of

cautionary assessment, the role and volume of exams, and the use of end-of-year exams to decide whether

a pupil is promoted to a higher class. At the end of the year, the class council decides for each pupil

whether promotion to a higher class is permitted with (B certificate) or without (A certificate) restrictions,

adjourned (promotion being dependent on the successful completion of re-examinations), or refused (C

certificate) (VSKO, 1997). These decisions form the basis of orientation reports.

One of the major points of interest remains the problem of school failure. In too many cases, repeating a

class is too easy an alternative for a failed orientation process or the consequence of a wrong choice of

study. Campaigns to counter school failure and repeating are being prepared.

5.8. Certification

In addition to advisory reports established at the end of each year of secondary education, the class

council may grant the Diploma of Secondary Education (Diploma Secundair Onderwijs) at the end of the

6th year of secondary education (after completion of general academic, technical, or arts education) or of

the 7th year (after completion of vocational education), following the conditions confirmed in the Decree

of 31 July 1990, as modified.

The qualification certificate (kwalificatiegetuigschrift) may also be obtained after following a reduced-

schedule training course.

5.9. Openings, training-employment relationship

In secondary technical and vocational education practical training (also in real-life situations) are an

essential part of most programmes. Therefore, cooperation between schools and business is very

important, especially in technical and vocational education. In the first place, this cooperation can


improve the quality of education by actualising the curriculum through practical knowledge. Second,

material and financial cooperation can improve the image of technical and vocational education by

providing better facilities (Verhoeven & Elchardus, 2000: 175). Recently, several measures were taken to

facilitate the student training in full-time secondary education (Decision of the Flemish Government of 31

August 2001). Besides, the Flemish Economical Association (Vlaams Economisch Verbond) has

conducted a survey concerning this student training in Flemish companies (see 5.3.4.3.). One of the key

issues at this level has to do with the traditional distinction made between boys’ and girls’ schools. In

1970, mixed schooling was introduced across the board in the public education system, thus giving girls

access to industry-oriented sections. Since then, efforts have been made to encourage girls to choose

industry-oriented sections in technical and vocational education. The European Community Directive of

1976 on equal access to vocational training and equal job opportunities formed the basis for the Royal

Decree of 29 June 1983 on mixed education. As a result of this legislation, a girl or a boy is at liberty to

enrol in a school, and may be refused on the grounds of sex only if, in the area covered by a borough,

there is another school in the same network where the pupil may also follow the form of education he or

she is seeking. It is mainly in the grant-aided free schools (gesubsidieerde vrije scholen) network that the

distinction between boys’ and girls’ schools still lingers on. In ordinary secondary education 6 out of 924

schools are boy- or girl only schools (2 girl-only schools and 4 boy-only schools) (MVG, departement

Onderwijs, 2001b). Legal measures to impose mixed education have not yet been adopted.

In this context, it must be said that a number of schools have a long tradition of co-operation with local

businesses. Company executives are members of organising bodies (inrichtende machten) and

examination committees and donate equipment for school workshops. Pupils taking practical training in a

company often go on to work there full-time when they leave school. Nevertheless, one must take into

account great differences in function of the kind and type of education program: the relations between

industry and schools offering programs oriented towards economics/trade have always been much

broader in scope than programs in technical disciplines such as electricity and mechanics.

In 1993, the Flemish Educational Board (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) organised the “States General” for

technical secondary education. There, cooperation agreements have been established between education

and certain sectors such as construction, the catering industry and clothing. In 1995, the Flemish Social-

Economical Council (Sociaal-Economische Raad van Vlaanderen) together with educational personnel

and with the European Commission’s support formulated a manual for organising such cooperation

agreements. Since the “States General”, the cooperation between education and business have received a

more structural support by means of convenants between government, business and the educational

sector. These sector-bounded convenants have already been excluded for a number of branches of study.

The convenants make education more true-to-life and result in a more intense training-employment

relationship (Verhoeven & Elchardus, 2000: 175). In this respect the modular system is to be mentioned.

Modular education is explicitly concentrated on the labour market, the aims being to decrease the number

of youngsters who leave education unqualified and to increase the ability of pupils to adjust to the

changing labour market (Verhoeven & Elchardus, 2000: 183).


Furthermore, the government has taken a number of employment initiatives that are focused on the

guidance of young graduates on the labour market and have an educational component. Examples are the

‘Youthwork Guaranteed Plan’ (Jeugdwerkgarantieplan) in 1994, the ‘Bridging Projects’ (Brugprojecten)

and the ‘Starting Job Agreement’ (Startbaanovereenkomst). This ‘Starting Job Agreement’

(Startbaanovereenkomst) is part of the Law of 24 December 1999 for the promotion of employment. It is

in the first place focused on young (less than 25 years old) graduates. The plan offers them full-time

employment or a part-time employment together with a training of unlimited duration or of limited

duration of at least one year. The employer is not only encouraged to hire these people by means of

financial incentives but also obliged to hire 3% young people if the employer is a private company with

more than 50 employees.

Another matter relating to the co-operation between schools and local businesses is the important role that

schools can play in helping pupils find employment. A survey conducted in the Flemish Community

(Vlaamse Gemeenschap) in 1993 revealed that 14.1% of all young men and 11.2% of all young women

(technical and vocational secondary education alike) found work through their school. By way of

comparison, only 10.1% of the young men and 9.1% of the young women found a job through the

Flemish Unemployment Agency (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding)

(VDAB) (Denys, 1993). The differences between men and women by no means implies that boys’

schools are more actively seeking work than girls’ schools, but rather that the companies themselves are

taking the initiative. It might be supposed, however, that the schools could assume more responsibility

for developing these opportunities.

The industrial apprenticeship contract (Industrieel Leercontract ) is set up to facilitate the entrance to the

labour market for certain job-seeking school-leavers.

The current government is very much concerned with the training-employment relationship and is making

efforts to strengthen this relationship. Future measures in this respect are the evaluation of the existing

convenants, the giving of special attention to the organisation of sufficient, good-quality apprenticeships

especially for minority, groups and the establishment of regional technological centres financed by the

business world and the government to provide the schools with the most advanced technological

infrastructure (MVG, Departement Onderwijs, 2000b). Through the Decree concerning Education XIII-

Mosaic the rules concerning advertisement and sponsoring by companies were already made more

flexible. This measure aims to help schools to buy the necessary equipment with the help of the

companies (Decree of 13 June 2001).

This Decree also introduces the regional technological centres (regionale technologische centra). These

centres support cooperation between educational institutions, the business world and socio-economic or

educational organisations. The regional technological centres (regionale technologische centra) are

responsible for the joint use of technological equipment, the educational infrastructure, and technical and

didactic know-how. They also develop study material for joint use, establish in-service training projects

for new technologies, and play a role in harmonising the supply and demand for work experience places.



guidance (Trajectbegeleiding) in part-time vocational education. This project aims to insert the pupil into


Guidance (Trajectbegeleiding) needs to prevent early drop-out.


Remedial teaching is not widespread at the secondary level. Within the framework of the efforts to

counter school failure, special attention is being given to more differentiated ways of organising the

learning process. The system of Integrated Education (Geïntegreerd Onderwijs) (GON) is also present

here: it tries to bridge the gap between ordinary secondary education and special education (Decree of 15

July 1997(b)). In the period 1990-2001, the number of pupils in the Integrated Education (Geïntegreerd

Onderwijs) increased in secondary education (from 202 to 466). This increase has to be put into

perspective; in the same period, there was a growth of 2,063 pupils in special secondary education (MVG,

departement Onderwijs, 2001b).

In the reorganisation of secondary education, established by the Decree of 14 July 1998 relating to

secondary education, additional resources are available for extra efforts for pupils with learning

difficulties. Schools with a large number of pupils from disadvantaged economic and cultural

backgrounds receive extra funding. Up to the present, extending provisions (zorgverbreding) has not

been provided in secondary education. In secondary education, only an educational priority policy

(onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid) operates. A new integrated policy for equal opportunities will be

implemented in the school year of 2002-2003. The new integrated policy combines the existing measures

for special assistance for pupils (extending care (zorgverbreding) and educational priority policy

(onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid)). This integrated equal opportunities policy still needs to be confirmed in a

decree, which may happen in the course of the year 2002. More information about this new policy is

given in paragraph 1.4.2. (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2000c; Persdienst Minister Vanderpoorten,

30.11.2001).


guidance (trajectbegeleiding) in part-time vocational education. This project aims to insert the pupil into


guidance (trajectbegeleiding) needs to prevent early drop-out.


Compulsory education in Flanders does not imply compulsory school attendance. If parents can give

sufficient guarantees regarding learning facilities and the like to the Inspectorate, home teaching is

allowed.

Real alternative structures for secondary education are only offered by a few schools whose ideas and

methods are inspired by Rudolf Steiner and other major figures in educational history.


The policy called educational priority policy has been extended to secondary education.

5.12. Statistics

Teacher-pupil ratio10

: 7.8 in 2000-2001 (ordinary secondary education: see also section 10.13).

(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001b: our own calculations).

Table 5.1. Number of institutions in secondary education (school year 2000-2001)

Ordinary Secondary Schools Special Secondary Schools11

Community Education 246 18

Grant-Aided Free Education 599 74

Grant-Aided Official Education 79 19

Total 924 111

Total Secondary Education: 1,035


Table 5.2. Part-time Vocational Secondary Schools (2000-2001)


Grant-Aided Free Education 22


Total 45

Part-time See fishing Training


Grant-Aided Free Education 0


Total 1


10

Number of pupils in ordinary secondary education (full-time and part-time) divided by the number of

budgetary full-time equivalents in February 2001 in ordinary secondary education (full-time and part-

time). 11

The 4 schools that offer special education Type 5 are not included.


Table 5.3. Evolution of the number of pupils in ordinary and special12

secondary education (1984-

2001)

Year Community

Education

Grant-Aided Free

Education

Grant-Aided

Official Education

Total

84-85 95,097 350,840 46,927 492,864

85-86 91,279 347,761 46,478 485,518

86-87 86,576 344,046 45,216 475,838

87-88 82,455 341,719 44,181 468,355

88-89 79,345 335,304 44,205 456,854

89-90 76,318 330,945 39,720 446,983

90-91 73,368 328,187 38,470 440,025

91-92 73,212 328,679 39,398 441,289

92-93 74,249 329,582 38,618 442,449

93-94 74,895 334,864 39,229 448,988

94-95 75,027 337,616 39,274 451,917

95-96 74,452 337,337 39,004 450,793

96-97 74,026 334,845 38,904 447,775

97-98 73,337 330,828 37,702 441,867

98-99 71,596 327,187 37,242 436,025

99-00 70,336 323,981 36,710 431,027

00-01 39,690 322,705 36,711 429,106


Table 5.4. Delay at school in secondary education (1987-2001)

School year % pupils withdelay at school

All years First year Sixth year

1987-88 35.1% 21.6% 40.1%

1991-92 31.9% 19.8% 40.9%

1995-96 29.4% 19.9% 38.1%

1996-97 30.9% 20.2% 37.6%

1999-00 30.3% 19.7% 36.5%

2000-01 29.1% 19.4% 36.4%

(Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department, 2001)

12

In order to avoid double counts, pupils enrolled in special education due to a long-term disease (type 5

education) are not included in the figures of special education.


Table 5.5. School delay (in percents) in ordinary secondary education per grade. Belgians and

foreigners. School year 2000-2001

Belgians Foreigners

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

First 19,9 14,9 14,5 60,2 58,8 59,6

Second 24,7 18,1 21,5 68,8 61,0 65,1

Third 30,1 20,9 25,7 73,5 64,8 69,4

Fourth 35,8 24,4 30,2 75,0 69,6 72,3

Fifth 42,6 28,9 35,9 76,4 67,4 71,8

Sixth 42,7 27,8 35,1 78,2 67,0 72,4

Total 32,3 22,4 27,5 71,2 64,4 67,9

(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001d)

Table 5.6. School delay (in percents) in ordinary secondary education per grade and per educational

form. School year 2000-2001

General secondary education Technical secondary

education

Art secondary

education

Vocational secondary

education

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

Third 11,5 7,8 9,5 35,4 28,0 32,4 55,4 39,1 44,9 59,8 52,8 56,7

Fourth 14,6 9,1 11,5 42,7 32,0 32,2 64,0 45,6 52,6 62,0 54,2 58,4

Fifth 20,5 12,1 15,7 49,4 37,3 44,4 71,8 46,5 57,0 64,3 54,9 59,9

Sixth 22,6 12,2 16,7 50,3 37,1 44,5 69,5 47,0 56,1 62,7 51,5 57,3

Total 13,8 10,2 13,1 44,4 33,7 39,9 66,0 44,8 53,2 62,2 53,4 58,1

(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001d)


Table 5.7. Number of pupils in secondary education broken down by branch of study (2000-2001)

Community

Education

Grant-Aided

Free Education

Grant-Aided

Official Education

Total

1st stage

1A 9,098 47,293 3,339 29,730

1B 1,943 5,016 1,311 8,270

2nd year 7,988 44,244 3,110 55,342

BVL 3,253 7,492 1,964 12,709

Total first stage 22,282 104,045 9,724 136,051

2nd stage

General 9,454 47,135 1,508 58,097

Technical 4,507 33,481 4,842 42,888

Art 443 1,055 504 2,002

Vocational 7,013 18,519 4,385 29,994

Total 2nd stage 21,417 100,190 11,374 132,991

3rd stage

General 8,120 4,980 1,110 50,210

Technical 5,124 35,152 4,967 45,243

Art 534 1,400 727 2,661

Vocational 8,250 26,360 5,418 40,028

Total 3rd stage 22,028 103,892 12,222 138,142

4th. Stage 201 3,250 246 3,697

Part-time vocational education 1,676 3,052 1,222 5,650

Part-time see fish. 11 11

Modular education 103 543 229 875


Table 5.8. Number of pupils in the sixth year of secondary education, broken down by education type

(ASO, TSO/KSO, BSO) in 1983-2001

ASO % TSO/KSO % BSO % Total

1983-1984 27,663 47.8 18,338 31.7 11,823 20.5 57,824

1989-1990 27,922 45.7 16,777 27.4 16,425 26.9 61,124

1996-1997 26,276 41.5 21,593 34.1 15,394 24.3 63,263

1997-1998 26,168 41.2 22,039 34.7 15,330 24.2 63,537

1998-1999 26,005 41.1 21,734 34.4 15,502 24.5 63,241

1999-2000 25,149 40.8 21,687 35.2 14,749 23.9 61,585

2000-2001 24,768 41.0 21,253 35.2 14,365 23.8 60,368



Table 5.9. Number of pupils in the seventh year of BSO, in 1983-2001

1983-1984 630

1989-1990 7,232

1996-1997 9,137

1997-1998 9,958

1998-1999 10,042

1999-2000 10,487

2000-2001 10,115


CHAPTER 6. HIGHER EDUCATION


The historical backgrounds of higher education in the colleges of higher education (hogescholen) and in

university education differ. The Belgian law distinguishes between the colleges of higher education and

universities. In the basic Law of 7 July 1970, universities were defined as only one particular form of

higher education. The main reason for this has to be found in a separate development of the two forms of

education. More recent developments in the educational policy retain the differences between the various

types of higher education.

Since Belgian independence was won in 1830, universities have always been a case apart in Belgian

education. For example, the universities escaped the ‘school wars’ to a large extent. For more than a

century the ideological equilibrium between the four traditional Belgian universities - Ghent (public),

Liège (public), Leuven (Catholic), and Brussels (liberal) - has been maintained. Education of colleges of

higher education originated mainly from higher levels of technical secondary schools. The forerunners of

this form of education were largely vocation oriented (mainly developed in technical schools) and were

organised in, or closely linked to, schools in which secondary education was also provided.

6.1.1. Colleges of higher education: History

In the 19th century, all universities and colleges of higher education with an academic level were French-

speaking as was the public to which these schools were aimed: the upper classes and the nobility. On a

lower level were the schools for teachers, nurses, technical engineers, etc.. These schools of higher

education initially started as an extension to secondary education and were attended by the middle

classes. After the Second World War, these institutions were upgraded up to become independent tertiary

bodies.

Since the 1960’s, the Higher Education Outside University (Hoger Onderwijs Buiten Universiteit)

(HOBU) has grown much more than has university education. The expansion of the student population in

these schools mirrors the democratisation of higher education: an increasing number of boys and girls of

the lower classes are obtaining higher education.

In 1968, the National Council for Science Policy (Nationale Raad voor Wetenschapsbeleid) published a

report proposing an overall restructuring of post-secondary education and the construction of a full-

fledged education at colleges of higher education that would no longer be tightly linked to technical

secondary education (Wielemans & Vanderhoeven, 1991). This led the Law of 7 July 1970 on higher

education. This law fixed the provision of education on four levels (Art. 1): pre-school, primary,

secondary, and higher. Higher education comprised eight forms: university, technical, economic,


agricultural, paramedical, social, art, and pedagogical higher education. The Law of 15 July 1985 added a

ninth form: naval higher education.

Education of colleges of higher education was organised in two different forms as well as in two different

sorts of schools. The law distinguished two forms (Art. 2): a short form and a long form. The short form

took at least two years (since 1990 three years) (with only one exception in the paramedical short form:

midwifery required four years). All these training courses were explicitly vocation oriented. The long

form higher education had two cycles of at least two years of study. In the new legislation, the short- and

long form higher education outside the university are redefined as one-cycle and two-cycle education of

colleges of higher education).

As far as the regulation of budgeting, appointments, curricula, etc. is concerned, education of colleges of

higher education was still covered by the School Pact Law (Schoolpactwet) of 29 May 1959. On 23

October 1991, a decree was adopted on the long-form higher education. Although it was not integrated

into university education, its object was to provide education of an ‘academic level’. The long-form

education observed the same rules as university education (see below).

On 1 September 1995, the Decree of 13 July 1994 was implemented. The main aim of this legislation

was primarily a very fundamental reorganisation (including an important merger operation) of education

of colleges of higher education and a further integration of higher education rules as a whole (Verhoeven

& Beuselinck, 1996).

At present a profound reform of the higher education is taking place. This reform has to be seen in the

light of the Bologna Declaration, signed in 1999 by the Ministers of Education of 29 European countries.

This declaration intends to create a European educational area in order to bring more unity to European

education. The new European education system should be in place by 2010. The most important

objectives of this project are:

1) To increase the comparability of the structure and the degrees of the different courses.

2) To bring more mobility of students and professors.

3) To defend education against international competition.

4) To harmonise European higher education in a structure of two cycles: bachelor and master. The first

cycle has to be at least three years and already provide professional qualification to some of the

students. The second cycle is to provide professional qualifications or a scientific education thatmay

lead in a doctorate.

5) To establish a creditsystem - the ECTS system - as a proper means of promoting the student mobility.

Credits could also be acquired in non-higher education contexts, including lifelong learning, provided

they are recognised by the universities concerned.

6) To create an international transparant system of quality control or accreditation.

7) To increase greatly cooperation between European educational institutions.

Higher Education 123

This declaration will have profound consequences for the Flemish system of higher education. For one-

cycle programmes in colleges of higher education (hogescholen), there are few problems. These colleges

of higher education (hogescholen) will be converted to the level of the bachelor’s degree. Two-cycle

programmes in colleges of higher education (hogescholen) will become academic education. One of the

consequences is that cooperation between universities and colleges of higher education (hogescholen)

will increase considerably by the development of associations between universities and colleges of higher

education (hogescholen). Moreover, this reform will probably effect the language of instruction used in

Flemish higher education. How these consequences will come into effect is not yet predictable (For more

information see: http://www.crue.upm.es/eurec/bolognaexplanation.htm, http://147.83.2.29/salamanca

2001/documents/main_texts/bologna.htm).

The Decree of 20 April 2001 is a step in the direction of more cooperation in the system of higher

education. The decrees concerning the colleges of higher education (hogescholen) and the universities

are more in harmony with eachother, the idea being to facilitate them. The transfer of students between

courses of colleges of higher education (hogescholen) and universities is being made easier.

6.1.2. Universities and university studies: History

In 1830, when Belgium became independent, there were three state universities: Ghent, Leuven, and

Liège. The Law of 1835 on higher education acknowledged two free universities (Leuven and Brussels)

and two state universities (Ghent and Liège). The state university of Leuven was abolished and the

Catholic University of Mechelen moved to Leuven to continue the old University of Leuven (founded in

1425). All these universities were French-speaking, as was the language of the public to which the

universities were aimed: the upper classes and the nobility.

From 1835 up until 1876, university examinations were organised by an examination board composed of

public authorities. The government did not want to give the right of granting diplomas to the universities.

Thus, the freedom of education was assured but the quality of education was still controlled. The Law of

20 May 1876 changed this drastically by enabling the universities to empanel their own examination

boards. Neither external experts nor representatives of the Ministry had to be added to these boards. The

parliamentary discussions at that time indicate that this measure was intended not so much to provide

freedom of scientific research but more to assure academic freedom as a condition for quality (Vanhove,

1985).

The control of the quality of education was not yet completely removed. The law established legal

academic degrees and so created the distinction between legal and scientific degrees. Legal degrees were

diplomas explicitly pointing to a particular professional qualification and covered the ‘traditional’

academic diplomas, such as Law, Medicine, Philology, and Engineering. The curricula were determined,

at least in general, by law. The legal diplomas had to be sanctioned by the public ratification commission

(which was a formal control on the conditions to be fulfilled). Scientific diplomas were delivered on the

authority of the university themselves in, for example, psychology and education. Their quality was

http://www.crue.upm.es/eurec/bolognaexplanation.htm

http://147.83.2.29/salamanca%0b2001/documents/main_texts/bologna.htm

http://147.83.2.29/salamanca%0b2001/documents/main_texts/bologna.htm


guaranteed by the university’s scientific prestige. This distinction was abolished by the Flemish Decree

of 12 June 1991.

In 1930, the University of Ghent became totally Dutch-speaking, and the universities of Leuven and

Brussels also provided courses taught in Dutch later on. This broadened the recruitment in Flanders, but

the university remained intended for a small, socially privileged group. From the 1960s on, university

education became more democratic. There was an enormous increase of the student population. New

universities arose, as in Antwerp. The unitarian universities of Leuven and Brussels were split into

Dutch-speaking and French-speaking autonomous universities in 1968.

Although the missions of the two forms of higher education differ markedly, this is not the case for every

component of the education they offer. The difference between university education and education of

two-cycle colleges of higher education in particular is not always clear. There is little doubt that

scientific research is the core task of the university and that education at the university ought to be

founded on this. At the same time, the emphasis at the colleges of higher education is on the distinctive

character of the ‘college education’, referred to in the Explanatory Memorandum to the Decree of 12 June

1991 (MVG, 1991: 36) as “more ‘professionally orientated’ education”. Although it may be inferred

from this definition that universities and colleges of higher education have different tasks, this view is

clouded by the decree on colleges of higher education, which states that the two-cycle basic courses

offered by the colleges of higher education will be of “academic level and hence founded on scientific

knowledge” (Art.11, § 2). The distinction becomes even harder to maintain when the decree continues:

“The basic course in the field of commercial science and business administration (in the

colleges of higher education) is equivalent to the academic course in applied economic

science (in the universities)” (Art. 11, § 3).

One might well ask what the distinction means for students who have to choose between a university and

a college of higher education. The vast majority of students basically enter higher education in order to

gain access after their studies to professions and/or posts that are more or less highly respected in society.

A distinction may be drawn between the professions for which higher education offers training:

- Professions that are based on a particular field of knowledge or its application: The institution claims

the ability to apply, research, and/or teach this knowledge. Training for professions of this kind is the

exclusive preserve of the universities and may be defined as scientific education.

- Professions that are based on one or more socially relevant and highly complex issues: The institution

claims the ability to help deal with these issues in an appropriate and expert manner. This generally

entails drawing on the ideas and skills of several disciplines. Training for professions of this type is

provided by colleges of higher education and may be defined as higher vocational education. As we

have seen, however, it is also possible to define medicine, law, and other similar training provided by

the universities as higher vocational education.


The period of study lasts for 3, 4, or 5 years, depending on the degree of complexity and the scale of the

“body of knowledge, skills and attitudes” that have to be acquired (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996).

The present reform of higher education as explained in the former paragraph, also applies to university

education (see 6.1.1.).


- The Law of 7 July 1970 relating to the general structure of higher education.

- The Decree of 12 June 1991 relating to the universities in the Flemish Community.

- The Special Decree of 26 June 1991 relating to the University of Ghent and the University Centre of

Antwerp.

- The Decree of 13 July 1994 relating to the colleges of higher education in the Flemish Community.

- The Decree of 24 July 1996 relating to the modification of the Decree of 12 June 1991 relating to the

universities.

- The Decree of 14 July 1998 relating to Education IX.

- The Decree of 18 May 1999 relating to Education X.

- The Decree of 20 October 2000 relating to Education XII Ensor.

- The Decree of 20 April 2001 relating to an adjustment of the regulation of tertiary education.

6.3. General description of the structure of higher education

6.3.1. Education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs) and types of

institutions

On 23 October 1991 a Decree was adopted (now integrated in the Decree of 13 July 1994) related to the

two-cycle higher education outside the university. Although it was not integrated into the universities, it

was said to provide education of an ‘academic level’. The two-cycle education observed the same rules

as university education. The main new element was the much larger autonomy of two-cycle colleges of

higher education, backed up by package funding. The Decree gave colleges of higher education

(hogescholen) the possibility to conduct scientific research with other colleges of higher education,

universities and third parties. The new rules also introduced a more flexible system for transitions

between the different levels of training. Recently, the possibility was adopted to open the way to doctoral

training at a university for students who finished the 2-cycle higher education.

On 1 September 1995 the Decree of 13 July 1994 was implemented. The main aim of this legislation

was, first of all, a very fundamental reorganisation (including an important merger operation) of higher

education outside the university and a further integration of higher education rules as a whole. Short-

form and long-form courses became integrated into one system, one institutional framework, and one law,


which was already prepared by the 1991 Decree. Also the colleges of higher education have become

more autonomous concerning the spending of their budgets. Each college receives an ‘envelope’, a sum

of money with which they can work. In the new financial arrangement however, the government still

directly pays the salaries for certain members of staff.

Moreover a merger operation took place. The 164 colleges of higher education with either short-form

courses or long-form courses or exceptionally both have been merged into 25 colleges of higher education

with generally at least 2000 students and offering most basic courses of the education of colleges of

higher education:

- 5 institutes are ‘autonomous’. All, except one, used to belong to the official education network (the

former state schools). At present their boards of directors function autonomously;

- 2 institutes are governed by provinces;

- 16 institutes belong to the free education network and operate under private law;

- 1 institute is the Antwerp Nautical College (Hogere Zeevaartschool in Antwerp). This institute works

under the direct authority of the Minister of Education and offers bilingual courses (Dutch/French). It

is the only nautical college in Belgium (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996).

Most of these new institutes group several departments.


All students who obtained the Diploma of Secondary Education (Diploma Secundair onderwijs) have free

access to higher education. ‘Numerus clausus’ requirements are non-existent at this moment at the

colleges of higher education. The colleges of higher education impose an aptitude test on candidates for

their basic courses in nautical science, while schools in the fields of study of audio-visual and plastic art

and music and drama give an artistic entrance exam.

6.3.3. Branches of study, specialisation

All the colleges of higher education offer four types of courses (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996):

- basic courses following secondary education (1-cycle or 2-cycle courses);

- complementary courses in tertiary education (voortgezette opleidingen) follow on from the basic

courses and are intended to complement or broaden the knowledge gained during a basic course or to

deepen it by specialising in a selected study area;

- further training at colleges of higher education (posthogeschool vorming);

- teacher training courses (see Chapter 8).


The Decree of 13 July 1994 has organised all these courses within a framework of eleven disciplinary

fields:

- architecture;

- health care;

- industrial sciences and technology;

- audio-visual and plastic arts;

- music and dramatic arts;

- biotechnology;

- education;

- product development;

- social-agogic work;

- applied linguistics;

- commercial sciences and management.

Courses can be organised, depending on the general teaching objective, in two forms: in 1 cycle or in 2

cycles.

6.3.4. General objectives

Courses of one cycle prepare students for various occupations in sectors such as industry, commerce,

transport, agriculture, medical auxiliary and social work, teaching, the hotel trade, fashion, information

technology, applied arts, and the media. The study focuses on practical aspects and provides direct access

to employment. Courses offered by 2-cycle higher education train technical staff who will carry out, and

be responsible for, executive tasks of a highly scientific and technical nature.

The Decree of 13 July 1994 stipulated that the instruction offered by the present 2-cycle higher education

programmes is “on a university level and therefore based on scientific knowledge. As a whole, it

contributes to general human education; in particular, it is directed towards the application of the

sciences, independent thinking, and the development of creativity” (Art. 11 § 2). Nevertheless, a clear

distinction between 2-cycle higher education and university education remains. The universities provide

education based on scientific research, whereas the education of colleges of higher education provides

education based on scientific knowledge (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996). Furthermore the Flemish

government charged the colleges of higher education with conducting scientific research in collaboration

with other colleges of higher education, universities and third parties.


6.3.5. Curriculum, subjects, number of hours

The government has legally ensured that the scale of the courses remain manageable for students by

ruling that a study year comprises at least 1,500 and at most 1,800 study hours. This includes contact

time, processing, literature, tasks, internships, dissertation, and preparation for and taking of

examinations. In brief, everything that a student has to do to pass a year successfully. Furthermore,

every study-year has to consist of 60 study-points where each course component must count for at least

three study-points - each study-point reflects about 25 to 30 hours of study activities. These study-points

are a reflection of the study workload for a certain course. Within this framework colleges of higher

education are free to structure their own programmes. The specific details of curriculum formulation vary

from one institution to another. Broadly speaking, the overall programme of a field of study or course is

drafted by course committees (at course, faculty, department and/or subject-group level) and the content

of each subject is then largely determined by the course teachers. The course committees determine

whether or not this content meets the established objectives (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996).

The colleges of higher education have to respect the system of quality control set up by the government

and organise a system of self-evaluation. The Decree of 13 July 1994 already eliminated a number of

interventions by the authorities in aspects of the curriculum. The responsibility of the colleges of higher

education has been enlarged, including the obligation by analogy with the universities to create their own

form of quality assurance.

Students who hold a higher education diploma or certificate or who have passed at least one study year of

a higher education course can obtain a study-time reduction or be exempted for examinations on certain

course components (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996).

The academic year begins around September/October and finishes towards the end of June or the first half

of July. In general, it comprises 30 weeks of attending lectures, seminars, and practical work. It is

generally divided into two semesters. Most courses are compulsory. There are very few electives (only

in the second cycle).

6.3.6. Methods

The decision on methods belongs to the freedom of the organising bodies (inrichtende machten). As a

consequence there are no official guidelines. In all forms of higher education, there still is a strong

tendency to organise all programs according to the same principles. Every year there is a more or less

fixed program starting with a broad, general, and theory-oriented introduction to a certain discipline.

Later on this general knowledge is applied to more concrete problems. Every year, each student has to

pass formal exams.


6.3.7. Student evaluation

Generally, there are at least one or two weeks in which the student can prepare for the examinations

organised by the colleges of higher education themselves. At the end of each year, the student’s

processing of subject matter is assessed by means of examinations, usually both theoretical and practical.

There are, in general, two examination periods: June, and September. Sometimes examinations are

organised in January (end of the first semester), but these are considered to be part of the first

examination period. The student must successfully conclude each cycle or period of study before being

allowed to start the next cycle or period. No-one is permitted to take the same exam for the same course

component more than twice in one year, even if a trimester or semester system is in operation. At the end

of a course each student has to present (and sometimes also to defend) a personal paper. Students have to

pass yearly examinations. If they fail at the end of the year they can have a second chance to pass their

exams. A student who did not succeed all his exams in a certain study year, can follow an Individually

Adjusted Year Programme (Individueel Aangepast Jaarprogramma) (IAJ) during the next academic year.

This programme consists of subjects of the study year they did not pass and subjects of the next study

year. The examination boards, set up by the teachers of the college of higher education, are responsible

for these procedures (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996).

Transfer to another branch of higher education (whether 1-cycle, 2-cycle or university) is possible. This

might be accompanied by an exemption for one or more courses. These exemptions must be requested

individually (Veny, 1989).

6.3.8. Certification

1-cycle higher education confers ‘graduate diplomas’ in various disciplines like midwifery, nursing,

social work, export management, accounting, and teaching (pre-school, primary, and secondary education

- group 1). The organising body is responsible for the diplomas that are automatically ‘recognised’ by the

Flemish Ministry of Education.

2-cycle higher education confers the following degrees: qualifications as industrial engineer, licentiate,

licentiate in nautical science, commercial engineer, architect, and master of arts.

6.3.9. Openings, training-employment relationship

Training at the colleges of higher education is focused on the practical aspects and from the outset

oriented on the future occupation. Practical training in real work conditions (firms, hospitals, schools,

etc.) is an essential part of each one-cycle programme.

The majority of colleges of higher education have placement services, although the operation of these can

vary. Some restrict themselves to displaying vacancies or maintaining the statistics on the employment of

their graduates, while others maintain extensive employment dossiers on individual graduates, give

application training and/or preparation seminars on employment, etc (Inspectie Hoger Onderwijs, 1996).


Regularly, the work-experience activities of the student lead to recruitment when leaving the college of

higher education. The interaction between the labour market and education programs (initial training and

INSET) is not always optimum, but this varies a great deal, depending on the field of study or course

(Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996). Overall, graduates in higher education outside university have, in

relative terms, good chances of employment (see 9.6.2.).

6.3.10. Special assistance for pupils

Study guidance is a much broader concept than pure study counselling. Success or failure can be strongly

influenced by environmental factors such as financial and medical issues, relationships, and living

circumstances. The colleges of higher education have developed a specific structure within their social

sector for this broader social care and guidance. Examples include medical, social, employment,

accommodation, and catering services (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996).

There are no official guidelines related to special assistance programmes for students. Because of the

pedagogical freedom and the autonomy of college management, the colleges of higher education are self-

responsible to organise this within the limits of their budget. However, colleges of higher education have

to provide for enough special guidance for first-year students (Decree of 13 July 1994, art. 107). Besides,

each college of higher education is related to a non-profit association (vereniging zonder winstoogmerk)

(vzw). This association provides one or more of the following services: housing, transport, catering,

health care, psycho-social guidance, social services, medical care, job service, cultural activities and

social activities. Therefore, the non-profit association receives financial aid (at present € 161.13) per

student (Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department,

2001).

In general, study guidance and counselling is organised on two levels: centrally and departmentally.

Central services are responsible for developing and implementing tests of preliminary knowledge, skills,

and attitudes, and progress tests in the form of self-evaluation using computer-aided systems. The more

classic tests, such as traditional oral questioning, can be carried out by supervisors in the department.

Remedial, social, and (re)orientation guidance is generally shared between the central and the

departmental services. Departmental supervisors provide first-line guidance, meaning that they detect

problems, offer initial guidance (e.g. individual conversations with the student), and refer the student to

specialist services if necessary. Second-line guidance is provided by these centrally organised specialist

services (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996).

6.4. University education

On 12 June 1991, a decree was adopted aiming at a fundamental reorganisation of university education.

New relations were established between the universities and the authorities based on more autonomy and

local financial responsibility. These rules are the same for all universities. Distinctions between

educational networks (onderwijsnetten) are, on historical grounds, non-existent in the field of university


education. Consequently, some administrative rules and procedures according to the School Pact law

(Schoolpactwet) are never applied to the universities.

6.4.1. In general

University education is organised in establishments that have the status of university. Their task is

academic education, scientific research, and scientific service provision.

Within the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) there are six universities. The four largest are

the “Universiteit Gent” - RUG -, the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven” - K.U.Leuven (including a campus

near Kortrijk called “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Afdeling Kortrijk” - KULAK -), the “Vrije

Universiteit Brussel” - VUB and the “Universiteit Antwerpen” (UA). The “Universiteit Antwerpen”

(UA) is a composition of three institutions - namely the “Universitaire Instelling Antwerpen” - UIA -, the

“Universitair Centrum Antwerpen” - RUCA - and the “Universitaire Faculteiten Sint-Ignatius” - UFSIA.

Besides, there are two Flemish universities in which education is limited to a certain number of

disciplines: “Katholieke Universiteit Brussel” - KUB - and “Limburgs Universitair Centrum” - LUC -.

The “Limburgs Universitair Centrum” (LUC) forms together with the Dutch “Universiteit Maastricht”

(UM) the “transnationale Universiteit Limburg” (tUL) (transnational University of Limburg). This

university started with courses in knowledge technology, information science and biomedical sciences on

1 October 2001. In the academic year 2002-2003 there will be a expansion of the offer. The

establishment of the “transnationale Universiteit Limburg” is not yet a merger of the two universities.

The new university is a 3rd legal person alongside the “Universiteit Maastricht” and the “Limburgs

Universitair Centrum” (Deweghe, 2000: 13).


Admission requirements are almost identical throughout higher education. All students who obtained the

Diploma of Secondary Education (Diploma Secundair onderwijs) have free access to higher education.

‘Numerus clausus’ requirements are non-existent. The faculties of Applied Science (for the training of

civil engineers) organise an entrance examination in mathematics. Under these circumstances, the

examinations of the first year in all other faculties may be seen as a kind of selection mechanism. Rules

on entrance procedures in medicine and dentistry have been established and are operational since the

academic year 1997-98 following the Decree of 24 July 1996. The entrance exam is organised on a inter-

university basis by the ministry. It is split up into two parts: testing actual knowledge of physics, biology,

chemistry, and mathematics at the level of the third stage of general secondary education (Algemeen

Secundair Onderwijs) (ASO) and a test on the learning ability of the candidate. Every year, two sessions

of the exam are organised (July and September).

The relatively easy access to higher education seems to go together with a high failure rate at the end of

the first year. For the year 1995-1996, the pass rate for the first candidature amounted to 44.01%. For

students from General Secondary Education the pass rate at the end of the first year is considerably


higher: 54.6%. The entrance tests organised for applied science courses and medical sciences and

dentistry do affect first-year pass rates. However, the impact of this test disappears after the first year -

the pass figures for applied sciences (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996) and medical sciences and dentistry

are not discernibly different from those of other courses after the second year. Further policy proposals

are under consideration.

6.4.3. Branches of study, specialisation

The universities offer several types of courses (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996):

- academic courses following on from secondary education and comprising two cycles;

- advanced academic courses:

a) complementary courses (aanvullende opleidingen), designed to broaden the knowledge gained

from a basic academic course and following on from such a course;

b) specialist courses (gespecialiseerde opleidingen), oriented towards specialisation in a given area of

study and following on from an academic course;

- supplementary and extra academic training (postacademische vorming);

- academic teacher training;

- general practitioner training;

- doctorate;

- doctoral training (the preparatory course component for a doctoral thesis).

The Decree of 12 June 1991 regulated and simplified the design of university-level education. A crucial

point here is the arrangement of the instruction within the 18 fields of study, each of which is open to

further detailed specification, which the decree exhaustively sets out:

- Philosophy and Ethics;

- Theology, Religious Sciences, and Canon Law;

- Linguistics and Literature;

- History;

- Archaeology and Arts;

- Law, Notarial Law, and Criminology;

- Psychology and Educational Sciences;

- Economics and Applied Economics;

- Political and Social Sciences;


- Social Health Sciences;

- Physical Education, Rehabilitation and physiotherapy;

- Sciences;

- Applied Sciences;

- Applied Biological Sciences and Agronomy;

- Medicine;

- Dentistry;

- Veterinary medicine;

- Pharmacology.

These 18 branches of study include an overall number of about 85 acknowledged training programmes

(academic degrees and diplomas). Within this framework, post-graduate programs are structured as well:

complementary training, specialisation, doctoral training, and academic teacher training. Students can

follow courses on a full-time or part-time basis if the university offers the opportunity.

6.4.4. General objectives

The Decree of the 12 June 1991 outlines the task of the universities in terms of three aspects:

‘Universities should, in the interest of society, be simultaneously active in the field of academic

education, scientific research, and scientific service provision (Art.4).

Academic education is further specified in the Exploratory Memorandum (MVG, 1991) accompanying

the university decree. According to this, academic education ought to:

- offer training that is critically questioning, multidisciplinary in terms of context and synthesising;

- be founded on the results of the latest scientific research (this implies the integration of education and

research activities within the same entity);

- place greater weight on theoretical training and methodology than on the accumulation of knowledge

(the ‘why’ is more important than the ‘what’);

- stimulate a problem-solving mentality, perspective, and the ability to synthesise (skills should be more

important than knowledge of facts) (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996).

6.4.5. Curriculum, subjects, number of hours

The government has legally ensured that the scale of the courses remain manageable for students by

ruling that a study-year comprises at least 1,500 and at most 1,800 study hours. This includes contact

time, processing, literature, tasks, internships, dissertation, and preparation for and taking of

examinations. In brief, everything that a student has to do to pass a year successfully. Furthermore, every


study-year has to consist of 60 study-points where each course component must count for at least three

study-points - each study-point reflects about 25 to 30 hours of study activities. These study-points are a

reflection of the study workload for a certain course. Within this framework universities are free to

structure their own programmes. The specific details of curriculum formulation vary from one institution

to another. Broadly speaking, the overall programme of a field of study or course is drafted by course

committees (at course, faculty, department and/or subject group level) - sometimes permanent educational

councils (permanente onderwijscommissies) (POCs) at universities - and the content of each subject is

then largely determined by the course teachers. The course committee determine whether or not this

content meets the established objectives (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996). In general an academic

curriculum consists of compulsory subjects and, at least in the second degree, of sometimes a few,

sometimes a wide range of elective subjects, which can be taken at other faculties and optional packages.

The board of the university can grant exemptions or study-time reductions to people who hold a higher

education diploma or certificate or who have passed at least one study year of a higher education course

(Verhoeven, & Beuselinck, 1996).

The universities are compelled by decree to create their own form of quality assurance (see 9.3.1.2. and

9.3.2.2.).

The academic year begins around September/October and finishes towards the end of June or the first half

of July. In general, it comprises 30 weeks of lectures, seminars, and practical work. It is generally

divided into two semesters.

6.4.6. Methods

Teaching methods are the responsibility of teachers, although the permanent education committees

(permanente onderwijscommissies) (POCs) specify in general terms whether a given body of material

would be best delivered in the form of seminars or, lab courses, or with some other approach (Verhoeven

& Beuselinck, 1996).

Also at the university level there still is a strong tendency to organise all programs according to the same

principles.

6.4.7. Student evaluation

Generally, there are at least one or two weeks in which the student can prepare for the examinations

organised by the universities themselves. At the end of each year, the student’s processing of subject

matter is assessed by means of examinations, usually both theoretical and practical. There are, in general,

two examination periods: June and September. In some cases the student can sit for an early examination

at the end of the first semester (January-February). No-one is permitted to take the same exam for the

same course component more than twice in one year, even if a semester system is in operation. The

student must successfully conclude each cycle or period of study before being allowed to start the next


cycle or period (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996). A student who did not succeed all his exams in a

certain study year, can follow an “Individually Adjusted Year Program” (Individueel Aangepast

Jaarprogramma) (IAJ) during the next academic year. This program consists of courses of the study year

they did not pass and courses of the next study year.

The characteristic feature of university education is that studies are quite strictly subdivided. Each period

or cycle of study is confirmed by the awarding of a degree that is a necessary requirement for admission

to the following period or cycle.

Moreover in most faculties, each student has to present (and sometimes also to defend) a personal thesis.

6.4.8. Certification

The first university degree is that of candidate (kandidaat) which is obtained after two, or in some

faculties, three years of study. This constitutes the essential basis for further studies.

The second degree, that of licentiate (licentiaat), is obtained after two or three years of study and involves

specialised instruction and the submission of a thesis at the end of the course. In some faculties, the

second degree carries the title of doctor of medicine, pharmacist, engineer (including civil engineer) or

veterinarian and, depending on the case, the study period required may be longer. Second-cycle degrees

qualify the holder to practice a profession, although in some cases complementary training is required.

Thus, access to teaching posts in upper secondary education, for example, is subject to the possession of a

supplementary degree, that of qualified secondary school teacher - group 2 (geaggregeerde voor het

secundair onderwijs - groep 2), which may be granted immediately after the awarding of a licentiate

degree without any further study period - if supplementary teacher training is taken by the student during

the licentiate period (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1998).

The degree of doctor (doctorate or PhD) may be obtained at the earliest two years after the awarding of a

licentiate degree conferred at the end of the second cycle. It is completed by the presentation of a

‘doctorate’, which consists of an original dissertation and one or several associated theses, which the

candidate defends in public. This degree is essential for a career as a university lecturer (Verhoeven &

Beuselinck, 1998).

Before the Decree of 12 June 1991, a thesis based on independent scientific research, supervised by a

director (promoter), and publicly defended was the only condition required for a PhD. At present, each

university may organise doctoral studies and require doctoral students to follow a training programme

before defending the thesis. This training, given while the thesis is being prepared, is equivalent to one

year of study and contains no fewer than 1,500 and no more then 1,800 hours of study or other related

activities (equivalent to 60 credits). The student has to earn credits by taking courses, participating in

seminars or conferences, attending summer-school sessions, and so on. Gaining these credits may be

spread over the period necessary for writing the thesis. After the doctoral training programme is

completed, a certificate is issued. Until now, it has been the autonomous decision of each university


whether to make it compulsory for postgraduate students to attend a training programme or to make the

attendance at seminars, courses, conferences, and so on optional (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1997).

Doctoral students can be funded by the university/faculty as university assistants or by the Fund for

Scientific Research (Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek) and related funds. One can also finance a

project oneself, but this is rather exceptional (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1997).

The elimination of the former distinction between legal and scientific degrees is a consequence of the

overall restructuring of instruction (details are included in section 6.1.2.). Consequently, from now on the

first, second, and third degree may be obtained via the State examining boards. The decree of 12 June

1991 also regulates the minimum requirements and structure of complementary studies and of diploma-

oriented programmes for permanent education.

6.4.9. Special assistance for students

There are no official guidelines for special assistance of students. The Decree of 12 June 1991 stipulates

that at least 5% of junior staff members should be involved in special teaching assistance for first year

students. The Decree only recommends a ten-point programme for universities in order to improve study

counselling in the first years as much as possible.

Study guidance is a much broader concept than pure study counselling. Success or failure can be strongly

influenced by environmental factors such as financial and medical issues, relationships, and living

circumstances. The universities have developed a specific structure within their social sector for this

broader social care and guidance. Examples include medical, social, employment, accommodation, and

catering services (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996).

Each university is related to a non-profit association (vereniging zonder winstoogmerk) (vzw). This

association provides one or more of the following services: housing, transport, catering, health care,

psycho-social guidance, social services, medical care, job service, cultural activities and social activities

(Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department).

In general, study guidance and counselling is organised on two levels: centrally and

faculty/departmentally. Remedial, social, and (re)orientation guidance is generally shared between the

central and the faculty/departmental services. Departmental supervisors provide first-line guidance,

meaning that they detect problems, offer initial guidance (e.g. individual conversations with the student),

and refer the student to specialist services if necessary. Second-line guidance is provided by these

centrally organised specialist services (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996).



A distinction has to be made between organisational variations of the regular programmes and alternative

structures for training not regulated by the ordinary laws and decrees on tertiary education.

Four organisational variations have to be mentioned within the provision of higher education. Some

university and 2-cycle higher education programmes offer an alternative course schedule (evening

classes) for students who already have a job. Anybody can take the examinations for all higher education

courses at all levels without attending the courses. These exams have to be taken in institutes that

organise the normal full-time programme. Many higher education (outside the university) programmes

are also offered on a part-time course basis by the Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor

Sociale Promotie) (see 7.4.1.). Finally, on the level of higher education, there is a co-operative project

with the Heerlen Open University (Open Universiteit Heerlen) in the Netherlands.

Reference ought to be made to a few tertiary education institutes not regulated by the corresponding laws

on tertiary education. The Protestant Theological Faculty (Faculteit der Protestantse Godgeleerdheid) in

Brussels and the Evangelical Theological Faculty (Evangelische Theologische Faculteit) award degrees in

Protestant Theology. They are recognised private institutes. (Catholic Theology is taught as a regular

course at the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven”). Officer cadets of the Army receive their training in the

Royal Military College (Koninklijke Militaire School) in Brussels. This College is a higher education

establishment that trains officers for the Armed Forces as stated in the Law of 18 March 1838. The

duration of the university level studies in the Polytechnic Section is five and a half years (civil engineer)

and four and a half years in the All Weapons Division. Officer cadets in the State Police Force take their

first study cycle at the Royal Military College (All Weapons Division) followed by a two-year second-

cycle degree in criminology at the University of Ghent (for Dutch-speaking candidates) and a year at the

State Police Officer School (School voor Rijkswachtofficieren), which is a higher education

establishment that provides university-level training.

Some officer cadets are fully trained at civil-education establishments described in the previous sections,

including the Nautical College (Hogere Zeevaartschool). Among them, the candidates for the medical

service have to be mentioned. These training options were regulated by law in 1975 and 1989. The

Armed Forces organise post-graduate programs as well.


6.6. Statistics

Teacher-student ratio at universities13

: 8.9 whereas in colleges of higher education14

the teacher-student

ratio was 13.0 (2000-2001).


Table 6.1. Evolution of the number of students in higher education of one cycle (former short form)

and two cycles (former long form) 15

(1985-2001)

Academic year Men Women Total

N % N % N %

1985-86 33,884 48.34 36,210 51.66 70,094 100

1986-87 35,289 47.20 39,470 52.80 74,759 100

1987-88 36,841 47.69 40,406 52.31 77,247 100

1988-89 38,104 47.80 41,617 52.20 79,721 100

1989-90 39,392 48.15 42,415 51.85 81,807 100

1990-91 39,732 48.37 42,417 51.63 82,149 100

1991-92 39,001 48.24 41,848 51.76 80,849 100

1992-93 40,572 47.81 44,286 52.19 84,858 100

1993-94 42,917 47.34 47,734 52.66 90,651 100

1994-95 42,211 46.82 47,944 53.18 90,155 100

1995-96 42,451 46.63 48,595 53.37 91,046 100

1996-97 43,707 46.51 50,269 53.49 93,976 100

1997-98 45,685 46.82 51,889 53.18 97,574 100

1998-99 46,796 46.83 53,137 53.17 99,933 100

1999-00 45,747 46.43 52,789 53.57 98,536 100

2000-01 45,773 46.12 53,485 53.88 99,258 100


13

Number of students enrolled in university basic courses in the academic year 2000-2001 divided by

the number of full-time equivalents of Independent Academic Personnel (ZAP) and Auxiliary

Academic Personnel (AAP) on 1 February 2001. 14

Number of students enrolled in non-university higher education basic courses in the academic year

2000-2001 divided by the number of budgetary full-time equivalents in February 2001 in non-

university higher education. 15

- Pedagogical higher education of two cycles is not included.

- As from the academic year 1993-94, the institutions of art education are included.

- The free students are not included as from the academic year 1993-1994.

- The decrease of student numbers in the academic year 1999-2000 is related to the way of

registration of the IAJ- students (students who follow an individual adjusted year). Before, they

were frequently counted double.


Table 6.2. Evolution of the number of students in university education (1993-2001)

Academic year Only academical basic courses

Men Women Total

N % N % N %

1993-94 26,173 51.43 24,714 48.57 50,887 100

1994-95 27,032 51.22 25,745 48.78 52,777 100

1995-96 27,934 50.52 27,364 49.48 55,298 100

1996-97 28,174 49.94 28,242 50.06 56,416 100

1997-98 27,929 49.08 28,973 50.92 56,902 100

1998-99 27,408 47.94 29,762 52.06 57,170 100

1999-00 16

26,508 46.72 30,232 53.28 56,740 100

2000-01 25,656 45.70 30,462 54.30 56,118 100


Table 6.3. Number of students broken down by field of study at the colleges of higher education

(hogescholen) (academic year 2000-2001)

Field of study One cycle Two cycles Total

First cycle

of two

Second cycle

of two

Architecture 1,579 903 820 3,302

Audio-visual and plastic art 135 2,197 1,412 3,744

Music and drama 40 811 961 1,812

Product development - 222 192 414

Commercial Science and Business Administration 27,037 3,494 2,290 32,821

Applied linguistics - 1,822 1,100 2,922

Health care 9,722 781 155 10,658

Education 16,843 - - 16,843

Social work 7,896 - - 7,896

Industrial science and technology 8,704 5,209 3,703 17,616

Biotechnology 850 219 161 1,230

Total 72,806 15,658 10,794 99,258


16

As from the academic year 1999-2000 the student numbers are gathered by the Education Department

of the Flemish Community. Before, the Flemish Interuniversity Council (Vlaamse Interuniversitaire

Raad) was responsible. As from this year the enrolment in the following courses is counted:

university courses, supplementary courses, specialization courses and university initial teacher

training courses.


Table 6.4. Number of students broken down by field of study at the universities (male and female)

(academic year 2000-2001)

Men Women Total

Philosophy and moral science 662 385 1,047

Theology, religious science and canon law 165 129 294

Language and literature 1,008 2,320 3,328

History 1,005 826 1,831

Archaeology and art 423 888 1,311

Law, notarial law and criminology 3,654 4,411 8,065

Psychology and educational science 1,266 4,614 5,880

Economics and applied economic sciences 3,970 2,805 6,775

Political and social science 2,040 2,451 4,491

Social health science 161 760 921

Physical education, Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy 960 1,219 2,179

Science 3,112 1,839 4,951

Applied science 2,723 738 3,461

Applied biology 1,206 1,061 2,267

Medicine 1,777 2,488 4,265

Dentistry 158 177 335

Veterinary science 520 915 1,435

Pharmacy science 302 1,036 1,338

Combined fields of study 544 1,400 1,944

Total 25,656 30,462 56,118

(*) Only university basic courses


Table 6.5. Percentage of all students (freshmen and non-freshmen) passing a number of basic courses

in the first year of one-cycle colleges (1998-1999)17

Course Freshmen Non-freshmen

Architecture 47.05 67.52

Audio-visual and plastic arts 57.89 77.42

Biotechnics 50.00 61.29

Health care 56.62 61.83

Commercial sciences and business administration 42.98 55.91

Industrial sciences and technology 44.24 59.29

Music and drama 62.50 50.00

Education 44.94 66.13

Social work 45.86 59.57

Total 45.65 58.98

(MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001c)

17

The figures in this table count for 53,960 or 53.9% of the 100,137 regularly enrolled students on 1

February 1999. Therefore, a considerable part of the student population and a number of courses is

not included in the table.



in the second and third year of one-cycle colleges (1998-1999)18

Course % passed

Architecture 81.99

Audio-visual and plastic arts 71.64

Biotechnics 95.04

Health care 90.39

Commercial sciences and business administration 87.39

Industrial sciences and technology 57.16

Music and drama 100.0

Education 90.14

Social work 91.87

Total 83.63



in the first year of two-cycle colleges (1998-1999)19

Course Freshmen Non-freshmen

Architecture 46.38 44.62

Audio-visual and plastic arts 54.01 41.82

Health care 38.55 49.66

Commercial sciences and business administration 63.92 31.91

Industrial sciences and technology 53.10 62.50

Music and drama 80.99 56.94

Product development 58.06 59.46

Translation 38.43 45.42

Total 51.02 50.88


18



not included in the table. 19






in the second, third and fourth year of two-cycle colleges (1998-1999)20

Course % passed

Architecture 84.30

Audio-visual and plastic arts 79.45

Health care -

Commercial sciences and business administration 88.77

Industrial sciences and technology 88.34

Music and drama 77.05

Product development 94.17

Translation 84.90

Total 85.16


Table 6.9. Pass figures of students (freshmen and non-freshmen) at the first year at Flemish

universities in the academic year 1998-1999

Freshmen Non-freshmen

Philosophy and moral science 42.39 47.41

Theology, religious science and canon law 64.10 45.00

Language and literature 48.90 49.34

History 52.71 48.56

Archaeology and art 36.13 46.15

Law, notarial law, and criminology 39.27 47.87

Psychology and educational science 42.65 50.11

Economic and applied economic science 47.10 56.21

Political and social science 42.25 45.05

Social health science 42.14 51.06

Physical education, Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy 46.71 57.94

Science 42.00 50.16

Applied science 66.67 68.38

Applied biology 51.22 61.90

Medicine 80.42 61.54

Dentistry 78.57 62.50

Veterinary science 42.52 50.34

Pharmacy science 54.49 53.27

Combined fields of study 56.25 44.12

Total 47.17 51.14


20





Table 6.10. Pass figures of students (freshmen and non-freshmen) at the other years (not the first one)

at Flemish universities in the academic year 1998-1999

% passed

Philosophy and moral science 74.30

Theology, religious science and canon law 86.16

Language and literature 89.25

History 84.09

Archaeology and art 82.24

Law, notarial law, and criminology 83.27

Psychology and educational science 87.27

Economic and applied economic science 85.93

Political and social science 80.17

Social health science 76.91

Physical education, Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy 90.38

Science 84.51

Applied science 89.64

Applied biology 92.59

Medicine 87.97

Dentistry 91.84

Veterinary science 84.91

Pharmacy science 89.33

Combined fields of study 79.83

Total 85.76



Table 6.11. Pass Figures of freshmen from General Secondary Education (Algemeen Secundair

Onderwijs) at higher education (on the basis of a sample of last year secondary pupils in

1995-1996)21

Course of study Number of

pupils

% passed

University 2-cycle higher

education

1-cycle higher

education

Total 6,338 54.6 63.6 67.2

Greek-Mathematics 59 89.8 - -

Greek-Sciences 23 81.0 100.0 100.0

Latin-Mathematics 710 71.3 83.3 77.1

Greek-Latin 237 68.8 100.0 50.0

Sciences-Mathematics 977 62.8 83.1 84.8

Latin-Sciences 408 54.8 77.8 85.7

Latin-Languages 435 47.9 71.0 71.7

Languages-Mathematics 340 46.3 59.3 77.1

Economics-Mathematics 645 44.8 62.0 65.3

Languages-Sciences 513 44.3 61.5 74.9

Sports-Sciences 84 35.7 16.7 67.7

Economics-Languages 1,190 34.3 40.4 65.0

Social Sciences 717 24.4 45.1 56.9

(Inspectie Secundair Onderwijs, 2000)

Table 6.12. Number of colleges of higher education (hogeschool) and university diplomas (academic

year 1998-1999)

Men Women Total

Colleges of higher education (hogescholen)

1 cycle 6,380 10,606 16,986

2 cycles 2,506 1,780 4,286

Total 8,886 12,386 21,272

2nd cycle 4,316 4,953 9,269

University

Compl. Progr. 874 859 1,733

Specialisation progr. 837 678 1,524

Teacher training cert. 335 747 1,082

Doctorate 440 229 669


21

These figuress count only for freshmen, not for students who repeat their first year.

CHAPTER 7. ADULT EDUCATION

7.1. Introduction

At present each branch of study has its own legislation. A more integrative framework has been pending

for several years now, but has been realised in the Decree of 2 March 1999 for some branches. The

original goal was to establish one comprehensive structure integrating full-time and part-time education

for both pupils and adults. This aim was not achieved by the Decree. Meanwhile, steps were taken to

stimulate the cooperation between three institutes concerned with training, namely the Social

Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP), the Flemish Institute for

Enterpreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO) and the Flemish Employment

Services and Vocational Training Agency (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en

Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB). These steps are taken in the framework of the reorganization of the adult

education sector.

As far as educational leave is concerned, only one possibility exists in the strictest sense of the term. Two

national laws, that of 4 April 1973 relating to credit hours (kredieturen) replaced by one of 22 January

1985 relating to paid educational leave (betaald educatief verlof) sought to stimulate the development of a

system of vocational training with a certain amount of general education for employees in the private

sector. These measures were, as a matter of fact, part of a law launching an overall austerity plan. An

employer may take a number of hours leave from his job to attend courses of the Social Advancement

Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP) without loss of pay. The educational leave is subject

to the employer’s permission and is equivalent to 240 hrs/year for a vocational programme, to 160

hrs/year for a general (academic) programme, and to 240 hrs/year for a combination of both.

More recently, the Decision of the Flemish Government of 23 June 1998 introduced the concept of

training cheques: companies with fewer than 250 employees can apply for at most 200 training cheques

worth € 30 each to pay for training sessions in official training institutes. Thus, the Flemish government

wants to promote a climate of education in Flemish companies. The starting date of the training cheques

is planned for the beginning of 2002.

The training credit scheme was approved by the Royal Decision of 25 January 2002. With this training

credit, employees who use a federal time credit to attend a course can receive an extra bonus worth € 150

a month.

For civil servants, a somewhat analogous system has been set up. A Royal Decree of 8 August 1991

grants civil servants the right to educational leave to attend further education course (including Distance

Education).


7.2. Decision-making bodies, financing

In general, the Community Minister of Education is responsible for nearly all categories of courses

offered and described under section 7.6.. Only in three cases, other ministers are responsible. The

Flemish Minister of Finances and Budget, Innovation, Media and Town and Country Planning is the

responsible authority for the Flemish Employment Agency (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en

Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) and for the Flemish Institute for Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor

Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO) (see 7.4.7.), and the Flemish Minister of Environment and Agriculture

for the agriculture training courses (see 7.4.8.). Even when in these three cases people are employed who

were trained as ‘teachers’, they are not appointed as ‘teachers’ or paid by the Education department of the

Flemish Community. They become civil servants assigned to one of three services listed.

7.3. Participation by and consultation of various actors in social life

In general, consultation on adult education is organised within the Council for Adult Education (Raad

voor het Volwassenenonderwijs) of the Flemish Education Council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) (VLOR).

If necessary, the Flemish Unemployment Agency (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en

Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) and the Flemish Institute for Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor

Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO) are involved in consultations or also other levels of education as well

(e.g. technical or vocational education). Especially in the case of the Social Advancement Education

(OSP) the Sub-regional Employment Committees (Subregionale Tewerkstellingscommissies) (STC) play

an important role in the planning and programming of new courses as do the Edufora (see 2.6.3.).

7.4. General description of main branches of study

All educational institutions described in this section are in one way or another regulated by law or decree.

No real private initiatives are included.

7.4.1. Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP)

As at most of the other education levels, Social Advancement Education (OSP) is organised by all the

educational networks (onderwijsnetten): Communities, Provinces, and Municipalities, free

denominational and non-denominational organising bodies (inrichtende machten) (detailed information is

included in Chapter 2). Since the Decree of 2 March 1999 the institutions for Social Advancement

Education are called Centres for Adult Education (Centra voor Volwassenenonderwijs) (CVO). The

origins of what is now referred to in Belgium as Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale

Promotie) (OSP) can be traced back to two kinds of institutions in the 19th century: adult schools and

industrial schools. The latter were established in large cities and were a form of adult education with a

typically technical programme for the ‘élite’ working people. Classes were given on Sundays and

weekday evenings by primary school teachers. At the outset, the promoters of adult education gave free

Adult Education 147

play to their imagination by organising the widest variety of training courses depending on the requests

and level of experience and knowledge of those wishing to attend the classes.

In 1933, serious efforts were already undertaken to standardise adult education within the framework of

technical education. In 1957, legal regulations standardised the training and qualifications provided. A

reclassification of the 1957 organisation and categories took place in 1966 and resulted in the following

structure:

- lower secondary cycle;

- upper secondary cycle;

- 1st stage upper cycle;

- 2nd stage upper cycle.

These categories have changed. The third and the fourth category were reorganised into part-time higher

education outside the university after 1970 (see previous chapter about higher education) (Law of 7 July

1970). As explained before, secondary education has recently been divided into three stages. Since the

Decree of 2 March 1999, the Social Advancement Education has acquired this organisational structure

and is only been taught in stages two and three. The Social Advancement Education thus has two stages,

namely stage 2 and stage 3.

Some courses within the Social Advancement Education are modified in the context of the reorganisation

of the vocation-oriented education (both vocational and technical education), that is explained in the

chapter about secondary education.

7.4.1.1. Admission requirements, target group

A distinction can be drawn between the admission requirements for secondary and higher Social

Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie).

To be admitted to secondary education in adult education, one should be older than the age of 18. But

also an adolescent can join this programme when he or she either 16 or of 15 and has followed the first

two school years of full-time secondary education. Course attendants who are younger can also be

admitted if they want to take a language course. Depending on the moment someone joins the

educational route, a certain previous education can be recommended.

Admission to the higher social advancement education programmes requires one of the following

certificates:


1) a “diploma” of secondary education;

2) a certificate of Complementary Vocational Secondary Education (Aanvullend Secundair

Beroepsonderwijs) (ASBO) or a diploma of full-time Higher Education (voltijds Hoger Onderwijs);

3) a certificate or diploma of higher Technical Secondary Education (Technisch Secundair Onderwijs)

(TSO) or a document recognised by the Flemish Community that shows that the student has

successfully completed Vocational Secondary Education (Beroepssecundair Onderwijs) (BSO);

4) a diploma or certificate that by law, decree, European directive, or international agreement is

recognised to be equivalent to one of the above.

If the student has not got any of these certificates, but has reached the age of 21, he/she can be admitted

upon passing of an entrance exam. For certain courses specific previous education is required.

7.4.1.2. General objectives

The Law of 7 July 1970 has given the proper adult education its current title: Social Advancement

Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP), as well as a wider range of functions. A distinction

was made between two types of social promotion: vertical promotion or a way to make up secondary or

higher education and horizontal promotion or complementary training and/or retraining for people

employed in industry and other sectors of professional life.

The Decree of 2 March 1999 stipulates that Social Advancement Education has the task of teaching

knowledge, skills, and attitudes to the course participant for social integration, for participating in further

education, for exercising a profession, or mastering a language and enabling the student to obtain a

recognised certificate.

7.4.1.3. Vertical and horizontal promotion

The regulation on educational leave offered people in employment the possibility of following courses

with a fairly high number of hours per year and at the same time a certain form of financial compensation

for loss of income through absence from work. In view of the limited success of this system, a modular

system was introduced in 1987 (Belgian Royal Decree of 6 November 1987) based on the notion of

capitalisable units or credit system (kapitaliseerbare eenheden) that exists now besides a lineair organised

part within Social Advancement Education (OSP). In this system, several partial certificates may be

accumulated. Introducing this system reaffirmed the main purpose of Social Advancement Education as

providing basic training and vocational retraining and, in the second place, promoting social integration.

One of the basic principles of the modular system is that the certificates of different educational

institutions are interchangeable.

Since 1970, short-term training courses with the purpose of promoting ‘horizontal promotion’ have been

organised next to the vertical promotion of students by long training courses of several years’ duration

that aim at enabling the student to reach the same or a higher level than that achieved in previous full-time

Adult Education 149

studies, in the Social Advancement Education (evening classes or in the so-called Second Chance

Education (Tweedekansonderwijs) (further information under section 7.4.4.). These short courses allow

for the broadening of knowledge without having to take a higher qualification; they are intended for those

who wish to specialise, familiarise themselves with a new form of technology, or update their skills.

7.4.1.4. Curriculum, subjects, number of hours

Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP) courses are usually held in

schools. They were formerly referred to as evening or Sunday classes, and continue to be generally held

in the evening; some Adult Education Centres (Centra voor Volwassenenonderwijs) (CVO) also provide

courses during the day. Most courses for adult education are held during the week, but some take place at

weekends. Short training courses consist of a maximum of one year of training (generally a minimum of

20 weeks) with no conditions regarding previous studies.

The Decree of 2 March 1999 makes a distinction between three groupings of methods. The first methods

are the distinction mentioned above between the modular and linear system for Social Advancement

Education. Another distinction can be drawn between face-to-face instruction (contactonderwijs),

Distance Education (Afstandsonderwijs) and combined education (gecombineerd onderwijs). Finally,

there is contract teaching (contractonderwijs).

There are 33 study areas (studiegebieden) recognised in Secondary Education for Social Promotion. The

government divides the areas of study and/or categories into courses and options. The first of these 33

study areas is general education. This area of study contains at least the general education courses

General Secondary Education (Algemeen Secundair Onderwijs) (ASO), Technical Secondary Education

(Technisch Secundair Onderwijs) (TSO), and Secondary Vocational Education (Beroepssecundair

Onderwijs) (BSO). The attainment targets (eindtermen) for these areas are the same as for similar courses

and options of full-time Secondary Education. The other 32 areas of study are more oriented towards a

specific practical profession.

On the recommendation of the Flemish Education Council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) (VLOR), the

government determines the vocational training profiles based on the vocational profiles

(beroepsprofielen).

7.4.1.5. Methods, evaluation of participants, certification, and trainers

The decision on methods belongs to the freedom of the organising bodies (inrichtende machten).

Consequently, there are no official guidelines. Two organisational models are being used: 1) Linear

courses: these courses cover one school year or more. Lessons are given 32 to 40 weeks from the

beginning of September until the end of June. 2) Modular courses: in a modular course the curriculum is

divided in a number of modules in which theory and practice is taught in an integrated way. Through a

further division of units, the student is able to compose his or her own learning package. A modular

course can cover one year or part of one year. These courses have different starting dates. Each Adult


Education Centre (Centrum voor Volwassenenonderwijs) is free to determine the scheduling of the

courses.

In the modular system, the centre organises at least one examination at the end of each module. In the

linear system the centre organises at least one exam for each subject at the end of the school year.

Certificates are formally equivalent to those of ordinary secondary and education of colleges of higher

education (hogeschoolonderwijs). In one particular case, there is no equivalency: a certificate of social

advancement secondary education (upper cycle) does not give access to higher education as does the

Certificate of Secondary Education (Diploma Secundair Onderwijs). There are six different types of

certificates in Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP), each linked to

different study results.

Trainers in this sector are ‘teachers’. Their legal status and qualifications are similar to the conditions in

ordinary secondary and education of colleges of higher education (More information on teachers status is

included in Chapter 8).

7.4.2. Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) or Distance Education

(Afstandsonderwijs)

The forerunner of what is referred to as Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) or

Distance Education (Afstandsonderwijs) was officially created in Belgium in 1959 and recognised by the

Law of 5 March 1965. In the context of the constitutional reform of 1980, this form of education was

transferred to the Communities. Since the Decree of 2 March 1999, the Law of 5 March 1965 has been

nullified and Guided Individual Studying is partly integrated in part-time adult education. After all, in

addition to face-to-face education (contactonderwijs), combined education (gecombineerd onderwijs) is

now possible, which means that part of the education can be organised through Distance Education.

The Decision of the Flemish Government of 30 June 2000 introduced the name ‘Guided Individual

Studying’ (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS) for this specific form of adult education. However, the

term ‘Distance Education’ (Afstandsonderwijs) is also still used.

On the level of higher education, there is a co-operation project with the “Open Universiteit Heerlen”

(Heerlen Open University) in the Netherlands. Flemish students may attend at this university Distance

Education (Afstandsonderwijs) and are supported by the guidance services of the Flemish universities

(MVG, Departement Onderwijs, 1995a).


There are no admission requirements for Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren)

(BIS). Enrolment is permitted at all times. This type of education is adapted to the level of the student; it

is mainly intended for adults who need to make up deficiencies in their education or are obliged to retrain,

or for those preparing for examinations before the Examination Board of the Flemish Community

Adult Education 151

(Examencommissie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap), leading to a lower secondary or higher secondary

education diploma. A student who passes either of these examinations may proceed to normal education

at the secondary or higher education level. Courses may also be offered to prepare candidates for the

examination for the civil service (Decree of 2 March 1999). Evidently, courses can also be chosen out of

personal interest.


Guided Individual Studying has the special aim of giving the course participants the opportunity to obtain

knowledge and skills to prepare them for the examinations of full-time secondary education and

examinations for the civil service organised by educational institutions and by the Examination Board of

the Flemish Community (Examencommissie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap) (see 7.4.5.). Guided

Individual Studying rests on the principle of learning independent and individual regarding place, time,

and rate independent of the mentor or other course participants. Direct contact between these persons,

therefore, is exceptional.


All major subjects, based on the existing curricula in ordinary secondary and higher education, are

available for students in Guided Individual Studying.

For courses at the secondary education level, preparatory courses for administrative exams and other

courses of general interest, the Education Department of the Ministry of the Flemish Community has a

special service that is responsible for the organisation, the production of materials, and the support of the

participants: Service for Distance Education (Cel Afstandsonderwijs). For passing exams the participants

are referred to the Examination Board of the Flemish Community or the “Vast Wervingssecretariaat”

(Permanent Recruitment Office) (WVS) (more information is included in section 7.4.5.). This means that

no examinations are organised within the framework of Distance Education.

7.4.2.4. Methods, evaluation of participants, certification, and trainers

It should be emphasised that there are different structures to inform and guide a student in the choice of

courses in function of his/her level of knowledge, the amount of free time available, and his objectives.

All these details are requested at the time of enrolment. The student’s file is examined by an educational

consultant who helps him/her determine the level of the courses he/she wants to follow, as well as the

study tempo. Depending on the study plan opted for, the student receives one or more lessons a week.

These courses use mass education but are at the same time individualised. As well as many solved

examples, each lesson includes a task that must be sent back to the service, accompanied, if necessary, by

questions or requests for additional explanations and information. These tasks are returned to the student

with corrections and comments, and, if required, by a typical example giving a correct version of the

answer. In the case of modern language courses, cassettes are generally used.


The private sector has also become involved in correspondence courses and set up ‘schools’ or centres in

different towns and cities, in particular in fields such as languages and information technology.

No certificates are granted at the end of the course. Students willing to earn an official certificate can sit

in the exams organised by the Examination Board of the Flemish Community (Examencommissie van de

Vlaamse Gemeenschap). Nevertheless, the Department for Education can grant a certificate that indicates

a student has taken a course or completed a teaching package.

The teaching staff, both those who plan the courses and those who correct the tasks, are all specialist

teachers in the particular subject being taught. In the case of administrative subjects, the teachers are all

top-ranking civil servants. The tutor evaluates the progress of the student and gives educational advice to

the course participant. The Flemish Government appoints the tutor for a renewable term of two years.

The tutors are either selected from teachers who have in the previous two years been teaching in at least

part-time education in a recognised instruction centre or from trainers who have at least in the previous

two years been teaching in a training institute recognised or established by the Flemish Community. In

the absence of candidates with experience in an instruction or training institute, it is possible to appoint

other experts. As to the preparation of the examinations for the civil service, tutors can also be chosen

from among the civil servants of level A of a public administration or of an equivalent level.

7.4.3. Adult basic education (Basiseducatie)

In 1985 the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) began an experiment adult basic education

(basiseducatie) in five cities or areas of the region. The goals were:

- to explore the possibilities of a policy of basic education for adults who have had little education;

- to construct a network of institutions and integrated programmes for basic education.

This experiment went on for three years and - thanks to continuous reflection and research into the

programmes - led to proposals regarding an integrated system of basic adult education, with local or

regional centres. Since then the Decree of 12 July 1990 established twenty-nine local centres and one

support centre. All the traditional educational networks (community, grant-aided official, and grant-aided

free) and all the different types of organisations Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale

Promotie) (OSP), social-cultural education, etc.) participate in the management bodies of the local

centres.

The centres organise training programmes for low-qualified adults: basic language and arithmetic skills,

social skills, citizenship, and preparation for another course or work. This type of education is adapted as

much as possible to the individual situation of the participants by:

- courses of different levels;

- intensive and less intensive courses, both during the day and in the evening;

- possibility of access at different times of the year;

Adult Education 153

- anticipating the real questions and problems of life of the participants;

- intensive guidance;

- free courses and paid educational leave are available.

Course participants have very different reasons for participating in adult basic education (basiseducatie).

Half of them are oriented to social skills. Retaining a job or improving one’s position on the job market

are also motives. More than 40% cite this reason, sometimes combined with other reasons. Few

participate in adult basic education (basiseducatie) only with the intention to follow another course

afterwards, for instance, in Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie). In most

cases the driving force is an educational motive combined with other motives (MVG, departement

Onderwijs, 2001f).

All these centres receive support from one central support centre: Flemish Support Centre for Adult Basic

Education (Vlaams Ondersteuningscentrum voor de Basiseducatie) (VOCB). A special course for

trainers in these centres has been established following the Decree of 16 April 1996 on teacher and in-

service training. Colleges of higher education (hogescholen) (see 8.1.5.) offering programmes in both

fields of education and social-agogic work may offer a complementary course in tertiary education

(voortgezette opleiding) equivalent to 40 study points for those aiming a teaching employment in the

centres.

7.4.4. Second Chance Education (Tweedekansonderwijs ) (TKO)

Flanders nowadays has 10 centres for Second Chance Education (TKO). To be admitted, participants

must have reached age 18 and a knowledge base at the primary education level (not a primary/elementary

education certificate) is a prerequisite for the second stage of secondary education. To be admitted in the

third degree of secondary education, the student must either have a diploma of the previous stage or must

pass equivalent tests organised by the centre.

The courses prepare the participants for taking part in the examination sessions of the Examination Board

of the Flemish Community (Examencommissie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap) to obtain, without

attending normal secondary schools and courses, the certificates of the first and second stage of secondary

education, as well as the “Diploma Secondary Education“. Second Chance Education is also available for

adults who not necessarily want to obtain a diploma but want to refresh certain courses. The participants

follow during the day or in the evening for a period of 2 or 3 years a package of subjects they can choose

themselves. The provision of education is limited to 4 courses of study in general academic secondary

education, 2 in technical secondary education, and 2 in vocational secondary education. The Second

Chance Education (TKO) has its own educational approach and uses its own educational methods.


7.4.5. Examination Board of the Flemish Community (Examencommissie van de Vlaamse

Gemeenschap)

The Examination Board of the Flemish Community (Examencommissie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap)

enables people to obtain, without attending normal secondary schools and courses, the certificates of the

first and second stage of secondary education, as well as the “Diploma of Secondary Education”

(certificate after the third stage of secondary education). Also students of higher education can obtain a

degree without attending lessons:

- first section (eerste afdeling) for the first and second stage of secondary education;

- second section (tweede afdeling) for the assignment of the Diploma of Secondary Education (Diploma

Secundair Onderwijs) based upon a general academic oriented study;

- third section (derde afdeling): Diploma of Secondary Education based upon a technical, art or

vocation-oriented study;

- fourth section (vierde afdeling) Diploma of hospital nursing and/or diploma in psychiatric nursing

(Diploma in ziekenhuisverpleegkunde en/of het diploma in de psychiatrische verpleegkunde).

This examination boards used to consist of separate bodies for higher education as well but hey have been

abolished. However this does not mean there are no Examination Boards of the Flemish Community

(Examencommissies van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap) for higher education. They are now part of the

concerning university or college of higher education (hogeschool). Every candidate is now entitled to

take part in the higher education examinations of any college of higher education (hogeschool) or

university without regularly attending all the classes. He or she will have to register as non-enrolled

student. Doing exams for the Examination Board of the Flemish Community (Examencommissie van de

Vlaamse Gemeenschap) is an alternative and exceptional way to obtain a university degree or a degree of

a college of higher education (hogeschool) (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001f).

For the preparation and correction of the exams, teachers from secondary education are invited to join the

different sections.

Civil servants may pass administrative exams for different levels of promotion at the “Selor”, a selection

office of the Belgian government (see: http://www.selor.be).

7.4.6. Flemish Unemployment Agency (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en

Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB)

In the context of the development since 1945 of a Social Security system, a request was made by the

government to organise vocational training programmes for the unemployed. As an answer to that

request, an extensive network of training centres has been established to provide training courses in the

secondary and tertiary sectors. The 1961 Laws on Economic Expansion not only introduced a new

Adult Education 155

designation, the National Unemployment Agency (Rijksdienst voor Arbeidsvoorziening) (RVA), but also

and above all brought about a change in the objectives, contents, and target groups.

The reform of the Constitution in 1988 led to the transfer of the educational aspects of this service to the

Communities, and this resulted, once again, in a change of name and slight differences between the

service provided in each Community (Gemeenschap). Thus, the RVA has become the Flemish

Unemployment Agency, at least for the educational aspects of the problem of unemployment. Today the

Flemish Minister of Employment and Tourism is responsible for this sector.


Two main educational objectives prevail:

- to train the necessary qualified workers;

- to provide job-seekers or people in employment with training that will enable them to find a job or

remain in employment.

Different formulas are provided: a career guidance service, short vocational training courses in training

centres, individual training in companies, financial assistance for collective training in companies on the

way to reorganisation or conversion. Only the training-course-oriented activities will be dealt with in this

description.


General objectives, curricula, and methods are strongly interwoven and depend on the concrete focus of a

particular course or initiative.

The different initiatives are grouped under three headings: training for the secondary and tertiary

employment sectors and other more specialised initiatives for unemployed people.

7.4.6.2.1. Vocational training - secondary sector

The major part of the training is carried out in the centres of the Flemish Unemployment Agency

(Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB). These centres offer two types

of programmes: training in the so-called secondary or technical-industrial sector and training in the

tertiary or ‘services’ sector. In the entire country, there are approximately 400 sections covering a wide

range of trades in, among others, the building, metal, electrotechnical-automation, transport, chemical,

wood, and textile industries.

Since 1975, the number of job seekers engaged in training for the secondary sector has constantly

declined. In 2000, 36,062 training courses (21,155 employees and 14,907 job seekers) were successfully

completed in the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001b).


These training courses involve 38 hours of training per week, spread over periods ranging from several

months to a year; the programmes are divided into modules that allow them to be organised to suit the

individual and adapted to the necessary polyvalence.

Requests for training received from companies are examined individually and the programme and tempo

of the training course are negotiated.

7.4.6.2.2. Vocational training - tertiary sector

The number of participants in vocational training in the tertiary sector has risen since the end of the

1970s. Training centres for the tertiary sector are polyvalent in the sense that they offer programmes that

cover all the different skills required on the tertiary job market such as languages (particularly English),

secretarial work, company administration and management, general information technology, and

information technology applied to management and office automation. It is interesting to note that one of

the methods applied successfully in this area is the ‘company simulation’ method where trainees perform

the different executive tasks and phases of work actually done in a company.

In the Flemish Community the centres provided training to 42,004 people (28,395 employees and 14,907

job seekers) in 2000 (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001b). Three factors appear to influence the

number of job-seekers who enrol for a course: the evolution of employment in the concerned sector, the

interest of companies in this form of short, inexpensive training, and the increasing importance of applied

computer technology, which, by the way, is well represented in the supply of training at the centres.

Programmes for further training in management and computer technology are organised on weekdays for

job-seekers and on Saturdays for those in employment.

7.4.6.2.3. Other programmes for unemployed persons

Both the Flemish and the federal government have already taken a lot of measures to counter the long-

term unemployment of low-educated people. In 1989 the Flemish Reintegration (Weer-werk) campaign

was established in order to reintegrate in the job-market long-term unemployed people and those who live

of the substistence level.

After this campaign, a number of other initiatives were launched. The Youthwork Guarantee Plan

(Jeugdwerkgarantieplan) (JWGP) ran from 1994 until 1995 and focused on youth unemployment. The

Work Experience Plan (Werkervaringsplan) (WEP) was established in 1996 for low-educated, long-term

unemployed people. In 1997, another work experience plan was introduced, the Work Experience Plus

plan (WEP-plus).

Experience with previous projects led towards the establishment of course guidance (trajectbegeleiding).

The method of this course guidance was introduced since the beginning of the 90’s. It implies in-depth

and personal guidance of the unemployed person and consists of several steps: introduction, training,

guidance towards the job-market, help with the commencement of employment and help and guidance on

Adult Education 157

the workfloor. In 2000, 8 employees and 2,767 job-seekers participated in the course guidance (MVG,

Departement Onderwijs, 2001b; Verhoeven & Elchardus, 2000: 186).

Moreover the Flemish Unemployment Agency (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en

Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) offers application training (86 employees and 9,803 job-seekers in 2000) and

personal education (151 employees and 5,708 job-seekers in 2000) (MVG, Departement Onderwijs,

2001b).

7.4.6.3. Curriculum, subjects, number of hours, methods, evaluation of participants, certification,

and trainers

The general objectives, curricula, and methods are strongly interwoven and depend on the concrete focus

of a particular course or initiative. There is no formal evaluation in this form of education.

Participants may obtain a certificate for certain courses they have attended. These certificates have no

formal or legal value: they are not recognised as equivalent to certificates from the formal education

sector.

Although the Flemish Unemployment Agency (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en

Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) has its own centre for pedagogical training and study, the VDAB-centres

recruit trainers who have been trained as teachers.

7.4.7. Flemish Institute for Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig

Ondernemen) (VIZO)

The oldest institution for extra-curricular vocational training is the system of apprenticeships in the sector

of independent trades. As early as the Middle Ages, corporations and trade guilds in cities such as

Bruges, Ghent, Brussels, and Antwerp developed systems of ‘on-the-job’ apprenticeships with a hierarchy

of apprentices, mates, and masters, and a corporation or guild council to supervise the conditions of

admission to the trade. It was not until 1906 that a ministerial decree first made ‘apprenticeship

contracts’ official and granted an allowance to employers who took on young apprentices. In 1947, an

official framework for training and further education of craftsmen and tradesmen was set up. The current

structure and the different types of vocational training programmes of the self-employed classes were

established by the Royal Decree of 4 October 1976.

The continuing training for the self-employed classes has been federalised since the 1980 institutional

reforms and is now under the responsibility of the Communities. In Flanders, the training programmes

have been managed since 1991 by an autonomous institution with the status of a non profit-making

association: the Flemish Institute for Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen)

(VIZO). The VIZO training centres (erkende VIZO-centra) are recognised and subsidised by the Flemish

Institute for Entrepreneurship (VIZO, 1996).


The Flemish Minister of Finances and Budget, Innovation, Media and Town and Country Planning is

responsible for this category of education.

For a number of professions, there are legal regulations that bind the practice of those professions to a

training programme. On 10 February 1998, a new Program Law for promotion of entrepreneurship was

approved. This Law changed several aspects of the establishment regulations and has thus consequences

for the education and training. Three important changes are:

- Knowledge of business administration is compulsory for each starting small or medium-sized business

executing activities for which listing in the trade and craft register is required.

- The regulated professions are classified in categories of professions on a common basis. Within the

framework of these categories, certain general requirements must be met and, if appropriate, specific

professional skills must be demonstrated.

- The practical experience of those starting a profession without experience or training is given by

‘training’ organised and supported by the ‘Kamer van Ambachten en Neringen’ (VIZO, 1997).

This Program Law of 10 February 1998 has yet to be implemented.

Detailed information on this service is also included in the CEDEFOP Study on Belgium.

7.4.7.1. Types of training

Four different aspects are important. Continuing education consists of a basic training for the acquisition

of the skills needed to practise an independent trade. This training may be the apprenticeship or the

entrepreneur training. For self-employed people, a scheme of extended continuing education is available.

Finally, there is also a more specialised and often demand-driven set of training initiatives.

7.4.7.1.1. Continuing education for self-employment for youngsters: apprenticeship

From the age of 15 or 16 years old on, a youngster may enter an apprenticeship contract with an

employer-instructor. He gets the opportunity to learn the profession in the day-to-day practice of the

enterprise, four days a week. The apprentice spends the fifth day in a “VIZO-centrum” (VIZO training

centre), where he/she obtains an additional vocational training and a general and social education course.

The contractual apprenticeship system is signed by the apprentice and the company official responsible

for the training and includes:

- practical training within the company (four days a week);

- complementary theoretical training providing general (120 hours a year + 120 hours extra for pupils of

15 years old) and vocational education. This complementary training is provided by recognised

training centres.

Normally, the apprenticeship takes three years (or less, if there is a certain amount of preliminary

training).

Adult Education 159

The training fits into the framework of part-time compulsory education as defined by the Law of 29 July

1983. They provide full alternating education, the complementary nature of which is assured in the best

conditions thanks to the continuous link between training courses and the actual work in the field.

Indeed, those giving the theoretical and practical classes are professionals in the particular field, which

assures the symbiosis between the two aspects of the alternating education system.

The apprenticeship is intended for young people of at least 15 years of age who have completed at least

the first two years of secondary education. The contract is signed by the apprentice and his legal

representative, on the one hand, and the employer-instructor, on the other, through an apprenticeship

secretary. The contract stipulates the obligations of the company and of the apprentice, while the

conditions of employment are laid down in the work regulations document of the company. The secretary

is responsible for the personal and social guidance of the apprentice. On successful completion of his/her

training, the apprentice receives a certificate that gives him/her access to the entrepreneur training. With

this certificate, one also meets certain establishment requirements concerning professional knowledge of

the regulated professions. This certificate is not, however, equivalent to a diploma of full-time secondary

education.

7.4.7.1.2. For starters and growers: the entrepreneur training

The entrepreneur training prepares participants for the general, technical, commercial, financial, and

administrative management of an independant profession or a small or medium-sized business (up to 50

employees). In general this training exists of two components: coursework and practical experience or

apprenticeship or practical training.

The course work covers business administration and vocational knowledge. These courses are taught in

recognised centres. Young people wishing to follow this type of training must have successfully

completed an apprenticeship or else have completed another type of training supplemented by adequate

professional experience (Decision of the Flemish Government of 23 February 1999).

7.4.7.1.3. For self-employed persons, managers and their close collaborators: the permanent training

system

The extended training scheme comprises three groups of courses:

- further training courses, the main aim of which is to give at regular intervals an introduction to

new problems occurring in companies;

- retraining courses, providing in-depth training in new and complex technologies or updating the

knowledge of those who have been progressively introduced to the problems dealt with in the further

training courses;

- language courses.


7.4.7.1.4. Other courses

Reemployment schemes give company managers, where necessary, the opportunity to acquire knowledge

and skills required for the exercise of another independent occupation or trade by means of appropriate

training.

Most training centres for the Self-Employed Classes also offer a good number of courses that are, not

grant-aided by the authorities as well as courses organised by the employers organisations.


- For youngsters: the apprenticeship

As mentioned above, a distinction is made between the course General Sociale edcuation and the course

Vocational training concerning the apprenticeship. The Vocational training is directed towards the

acquisition of an initial basic knowledge for practising a profession, in which the course only has a

supplementary function compared to the practical training in the enterprise. The course General social

education is a course in which, via the methods of thematic project work and separate training moments

for language and calculation, the personality of the pupils is developed. In accordance with the

legislation regarding compulsory education, 15-years-old pupils must take a supplementary course

package in “general social information” of 120 hours. In concrete, this is realised by means of an

additional half day a week.

Since the course year 1989-1990, the pedagogical-didactical remediation with coaches is generally

applied with great satisfaction. These catch-up activities are intended for pupils who are in arrears as far

as their formation is concerned but who make normal progress in their formation “on the floor”. It is the

intention to get resolve these partial shortcomings in a limited period of time and in such a way that the

pupils acquire sufficient basic insight to take the normal courses in social education successfully.

Because of characteristic psychological or social circumstances, some youngsters do not feel at ease in

the normal class group, although they have the ability to cope with their apprenticeship. Already in the

course year 1988-1989, the initiative to guide a number of these pupils intensively and individually in

smaller groups resulted in positive experiences. It is the intention to let them move to the normal course,

a process in which they possibly keep taking remedial courses with a coach-teacher.

Finally, there is also co-operation with the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor

Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLB’s).

- The entrepreneur training

The programmes are closely related to the concrete needs of the labour-market. Each year the courses are

up-dated, and new courses are added.

The courses in business administration offer general knowledge of management focused on general,

commercial, financial, administrative and personnel management. They also cover the commercial,

Adult Education 161

financial, administrative and personnel management, intersectoral or sectoral, for specific professions.

The vocational knowledge courses focus on attainment targets that are technical and entrepreneur-focused

and that aim at vocational skills and complete the practical training (Decision of the Flemish Government

of 23 February 1999).

The entrepreneur training normally takes two years: 8 hours in a week (4 hours for business

administration, 4 hours for professional knowledge) for 32 weeks a year. For a number of professions the

course takes three years.

7.4.7.3. Evaluation of participants

Before the apprenticeship, there are different evaluation moments for the pupils. At the end of the first

and second formation year, they have to take a transitional examination, which consists of an A test

(general social education) and a B test (theoretical vocational knowledge). At the end of the third year,

there is a final examination, which consists of an A, B, and C test. The C test includes the practical part

of the examination. The entrepreneur training applies a similar evaluation.

Participants may obtain a certificate for certain courses they have attended. Those certificates have no

formal or legal value: they are not recognised as equivalent to certificates from the formal education

sector. An exception has to be made for the contractual apprenticeship. Young people who have chosen

this training programme in order to meet the requirements of the compulsory education law (part-time

compulsory education) (see 2.2.) obtain a certificate of secondary education. This certificate, however, is

not recognised as equivalent to the diploma of secondary education (Diploma Secundair Onderwijs ).

Another exception involves entrepreneur training. A diploma of entrepreneur training is a legal

prerequisite to become self-employed (Self-employed people without this certificate have to submit other

guarantees to the authorities concerning accountancy, etc.).

7.4.8. Agriculture training

Vocational training in agriculture, which was formerly under the authority of the Minister of Agriculture,

has been transferred to the responsibility of the Communities by the institutional reform Law of 8 August

1980. Although it now belongs to the Communities, the Royal Decree of 23 August 1974 has not been

changed in the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap). Today the Flemish Minister of

Environment and Agriculture is responsible for agricultural training.

This form of continuing education is subdivided into six types:

- Type A consists of remedial courses for agricultural workers who have received insufficient basic

training;

- Type B consists of courses or placements providing specific training to participants wishing to

establish themselves in agriculture; this type of training focuses on specific types of farms and the

emphasis is on the study of modern organisation and exploitation methods.


- Type C consists of courses providing periodically and per type of farm complementary and in-depth

training in agricultural technology and management or of courses providing specific skills as required.

- Type D consists of study sessions, conferences, guided visits, and contact days so as to ensure a

permanent exchange of information.

- Type E consists of one-day proficiency courses for persons engaged as instructors in vocational

training in agriculture.

- Type F consists of the training of personnel responsible for the training and supervision of

associations of producers and co-operatives (Jennes, 1997).

Types A and B include at least 75 hours of training and Type C at least 20 hours. These activities are

organised by recognised centres or organisations. Participants must be at least 18 years of age and

working in agriculture or a related sector.

Vocational training in agriculture is also organised through professional organisations and in particular by

professional associations.

Although the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) also provides training courses for instructors

and teachers, the centres recruit trainers with a teacher‘s diploma.

7.4.9. Part-time Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO)

This type of education is in a way an odd programme out among the adult education sector as will be

explained in the following sections. The programmes are being offered on a part-time basis (evenings,

Wednesday afternoons, weekends) by nearly 170 institutes (most of them, although not exclusively,

organised by the municipalities). T hese institutes are called ‘academies’ and are only entitled to organise

programmes of Part-time Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO). Every academy has to

organise at least two successive degrees (Peeters, Blondeel & Scheck, 1994).

These courses do not belong to the compulsory education system. Consequently, an enrolment fee has to

be paid. The Decree of 31 July 1990 has introduced important reforms in Part-time Art Education

(Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO). Meanwhile several changes have been made to this Decree by the

Decisions of the Flemish Government of 10 March 1998, 8 June 1999 and 14 December 2001. The

enrolment fee amounts to € 153.69 for adults for the school year 2000-2001 (with reductions for certain

groups) and € 47.10 for youngsters with a reduction of 35% if several members of the same family are

enrolled.


Also the Part-time Art Education (DKO) has an hierarchical organisational structure with several levels:

for example, one cannot start a specialisation course without sufficient training at a lower level.

Adult Education 163

Admission tests may be organised for the different classes. Exemption from part of the programmes is

possible for equivalent courses attended at other full-time or part-time art education courses.

The special thing, however, is its population: 75% of the students are under 18. So in a way it is not

really ‘adult’ education. Courses are offered to ‘youngsters’ and ‘adults’. According to the Decree of 31

July 1990 ‘youngsters’ are defined as younger than 15 years on the 31st of December of the school year

of enrolment or who have met this criterion in the previous year and remained enrolled without

interruption ever since. Otherwise, one is defined as an ‘adult’.


Part-time art education responds to the general artistic interests of the participant, gives the possibilities to

develop one’s artistic ambitions, or may provide professional training, with possibilities in professional

life. There are three main objectives: to practise art oneself, to learn to discover art, and to prepare

youngsters to higher art education.


All courses are organised for 40 weeks a year with a minimum of 1 and a maximum of 12 periods a week.

All courses are grouped into four levels: a lower degree, a middle degree, a higher degree, and a

specialisation degree.

Four mainstream programmes are possible: dance, music, word craft and visual arts. Optional courses

within mainstream programmes are possible.

The complex overall structure of the courses can be summarised as follows (Decree of 31 July 1990):

LOWER DEGREE - complementary to basic education (basisonderwijs):

- separate dance and music courses for ‘youngsters’ and ‘adults’;

- word craft and visual arts courses for ‘youngsters’ only;

- music courses take four years for ‘youngsters’ and ‘adults’ (an extension to six years is possible under

certain conditions);

- word-craft courses take four years for ‘youngsters’ (an extension to six years is possible under certain

conditions);

- dance courses for ‘youngsters’ take four years (an extension to six years is possible under certain

conditions);

- dance courses for ‘adults’ take two years;

- visual arts courses for ‘youngsters’ take two to six years.


MIDDLE DEGREE - complementary to secondary education

- separate dance and word-craft courses for ‘youngsters’ and ‘adults’;

- no separate music and visual arts courses for ‘youngsters’ and ‘adults’;

- dance, word-craft, and music courses take three years;

- visual arts courses take six years.

HIGHER DEGREE

- the higher degree courses on dance, music, and word-craft for both ‘youngsters’ and ‘adults’ are

complementary to secondary education and take three years;

- the higher degree courses on visual arts, for both ‘youngsters’ and ‘adults’, are equivalent to the first

two years of the thirth degree of full-time Art secondary education (Kunstsecundair Onderwijs) (KSO)

and take four years of at least 10 weekly periods each or five years of at least 8 weekly periods.

SPECIALISATION DEGREE

- the specialisation degree courses on dance, music, and word craft, for both ‘youngsters’ and ‘adults’,

are complementary to secondary education and take two years;

- the specialisation degree courses on visual arts, for both ‘youngsters’ and ‘adults’, are equivalent to a

specialisation year (7th year) of full-time art secondary education (KSO) and take two years.

7.4.9.4. Methods, evaluation of participants, certification

The decision on methods belongs to the freedom of the organising bodies (inrichtende machten).

Consequently, there are no official guidelines, although small groups and even individual teaching are

common.

The rules for the organisation of exams and the criteria for their evaluation have to be specified for each

course by the Minister of Education. In general, specific certificates, complementary to basic or

secondary education are granted. In some cases these certificates are equivalent to some certificates of

ordinary secondary education.

In general, the trainers are trained in the education-oriented programs of higher art education.

7.4.10. Trainers

In the Flemish Community, the training of trainers in adult education is almost completely integrated into

teacher-training programmes. Trainers for adult education, if any qualification is asked for, have a

diploma of teacher.

Adult Education 165

Four exceptions, however, are to be mentioned:

- the Flemish Unemployment Agency (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding)

(VDAB) has its own centre for pedagogical training and study;

- the Flemish Institute for Entrepreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen) (VIZO)

also organises a so-called complementary pedagogical training or further training courses, which aim

to improve the pedagogical qualities of company officials employing an apprentice;

- the Flemish Community also provides training courses for instructors and teachers in the agricultural

sector;

- for the Basic Adult Education (basiseducatie) a special complementary course in tertiary education

(voortgezette opleiding) for teachers is offered by some colleges of higher education.

Nevertheless, in many cases experts from business or administrations are invited as lecturers for a few

presentations or as teachers responsible for a particular course. In most of those cases their expertise is

recognised as qualification to teach. In that case no further teacher-training certificates are required as

conditions for an appointment.

Determinative for the selection of the teachers is their experience. In the absence of candidates with

experience, other experts can be appointed.

7.4.11. Statistics

Table 7.1. Number of students in the Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale

Promotie ) (registration period: 1 February 2000 – 31 January 2001)

Community

Education

Grant-Aided Free

Education

Grant-Aided

Official Education

Total

Secondary

Linear 27,614 47,623 27,246 102,483

Secondary

Modular 44,245 50,244 35,940 130,429

Higher Education

Linear 2,834 6,731 2,591 12,156

Higher Education

Modular 1,834 4,880 2,182 8,896



Table 7.2. Participation in the Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) in 2000

Courses Participants in 2000

Languages 24,945

Information Science 6,492

Sciences 3,506

Miscellanea 1,764

Administration 1,358

Mathematics 1,302

Economics 910

Technics 336

Total 40,613


Table 7.3. Number of participants in basic adult education (basiseducatie ) (year 2000-2001)

Males % Females % Total

1997-1998 6,006 40.6% 8,773 59.4% 17,779

1998-1999 6,748 39.9% 10,154 60.1% 18,902

1999-2000 7,788 40.0% 11,684 60.0% 19,472

2000-2001 7,788 40.0% 11,684 60.0% 19,472


Table 7.4. Obtained certificates/ diploma’s in the Examination board of the Flemish Community

(Examencommissie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap) for full-time secondary education in

2000

First

examination

period

Second

examination

period

1st division: certificate of the 1st stage 20 4

1st division: certificate of the 2nd stage 29 18

2nd division (general secondary education) 69 49

3rd division (technical, art and vocational secondary education) 144 124

4th division: diploma hospital nursing 7 4

4th division: diploma psychiatric nursing 8 1

Total 277 200


Adult Education 167

Table 7.5. Number of completed courses at the Flemish Employment Agency (Vlaamse Dienst voor

Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) in 2000

Employees Job seekers Total

VDAB Centres

Secondary sector 21,155 14,907 36,062

Tertiary sector 28,195 16,809 45,004

Quartaire sector 5,119 4,621 9,740

Personal education 151 5,708 5,859

Application training 86 9,803 9,889

Course guidance 8 2,767 2,775

Other Centres

Enterprise Creation Centres 98 - 98

Recognised centres 530 - 530

Individual programmes - 5,224 5,224

Training/advise 1,764 - 1,764

Definition of the profile of job seekers (a.o. tests) - 5,561 5,561


Table 7.6. Education provided by the “Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen”: courses,

periods and participants in 2000-2001

Courses Periods Participants

Apprenticeship

- General training 446 52,940 6,403

- Vocational training 710 84,276 6,630

Entrepreneur training

- Business administration 631 77,974 10,546

- Vocational knowledge 1,518 187,783 19,337

Extended Training - 14,528 -


Table 7.7. Number of participants in Part-time Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO) on

the 1st February 2001

Visual Arts Music/Dance/Word craft

Community Education 2,481 6,488

Grant-aid. Official Education 44,618 81,565

Grant-aided Free Education 3,890 1,908

Total 50,989 89,961

Total Part-time Art Education 140,950


CHAPTER 8. TEACHERS AND EDUCATIONAL STAFF

The Decree of 16 April 1996 on Teacher Training and In-service Training focuses on the integration of all

the forms of teacher training into one coherent framework and brought about a dramatic change in in-

service training. The Decree provided for the development of professional profiles for the different

teaching positions. Minimum requirements by means of a competence-based teacher profile had to be

adopted by the Flemish Parliament based on recommendations of the Flemish Education Council

(Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) (VLOR) and developed by the Department of Educational Development

(Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling) (DVO). On 15 December 1998, the Flemish Parliament approved

the Decree concerning the Decision of the Flemish Government of 29 September 1998 on the professional

profiles of teachers. Each profile consists at least of competencies common to all teachers (knowledge,

skills, attitudes) and competencies specific to a particular educational level.

The Decree suggests 10 profiles common to all teachers, i.e.

1) the teacher as a guide in processes of learning and development;

2) the teacher as an educator;

3) the teacher as an expert in a particular field of study;

4) the teacher as an organiser;

5) the teacher as innovator and researcher;

6) the teacher as a partner of parents or care suppliers;

7) the teacher as a member of the school team;

8) the teacher as a partner of people offering initiatives valuable for education;

9) the teacher as a member of the teaching community;

10) the teacher as a participant in culture.

Each profile provides an extended set of special skills a teacher needs to have. Moreover the Decree

mentions ten attitudes that should be inculcated in future teachers: 1) the capacity to decide; 2) openness

for relations with others; 3) a critical attitude; 4) eagerness to learn; 5) the capacity to organise; 6)

openness for collaboration; 7) a sense of responsibility; 8) creativity; 9) flexibility; and 10) eagerness for

correct language usage and communication.

The common core competencies represent a study load of at least 45 study points. A distinction is made

between the initial (three year) training for pre-school teacher (kleuterleider(ster), primary school teacher

(onderwijzer(es) ) and qualified secondary school teacher - group 1 (geaggregeerde voor het secundair

onderwijs - groep 1) and the academic initial teacher training, qualified secondary school teacher -

group 2 (geaggregeerde voor het secundair onderwijs - groep 2). Complementary teacher courses in


tertiary education (Voortgezette lerarenopleidingen) programmes will focus on achieving the necessary

competencies by a teacher for an aspect of a particular teacher profile not focused on during initial teacher

training (Decree of 16 April 1996). In-service training might be organised, which would be mainly

school driven. Guidance programmes for newly qualified teachers entering their job for the first time are

encouraged. At the pre-school and primary levels, funding for in-service training may be used to develop

these schemes. At the other educational levels, such financial support is not available. Schools have to

pay for them with their normal funds.

In 2001, teacher training was evaluated in view of the government’s intention to enhance the teaching

profession. The Flemish government wanted to know the consequences of recent policy on the teacher

training. The most important conclusion was that the job profiles and the derived basic skills as stipulated

by decree in 1998 are not attainable. According to the steering group, they are too broad,

undifferentiated, and not operational. Moreover, there are no standards available to measure the

attainment of these job profiles and basic skills, and the courses take insufficient account of them.

Consequently a basic revision of the basic skills is necessary (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001f).

8.1. Initial training of teachers

Teacher training in the Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) is fully integrated into the higher-

education structures. Consequently, reference will sometimes be made to Chapter 6 for matters such as

certification, methods, and evaluation. Thus, teacher training is not a separate sector or structure within

the education system, nor is it organised in specialised, independent institutions (Tistaert et al., 1996).

In general, five different kinds of teachers are to be distinguished (Decree of 16 April 1996):

- the pre-school teacher (kleuterleider(ster)) teaches general and social education to children 3 to 6

years of age. He/she is trained in colleges of higher education (hogescholen);

- the primary school teacher (onderwijzer(es)) teaches general and social education to children 6 to 12

years of age. He/she is trained colleges of higher education;

- the qualified secondary school teacher -group 1 (geaggregeerde voor het secundair onderwijs - groep

1) teaches specific subjects to children 12 to 16 years of age (the first and second stages of secondary

education, the third stage of technical secondary education for certain subjects, and the third and

fourth stages of vocational secondary education). He/she is trained in colleges of higher education;

- the qualified secondary school teacher -group 2 (geaggregeerde voor het secundair onderwijs - groep

2) teaches specific subjects to pupils 14 to 18 years of age in the second, third, and fourth stage of

secondary education. He/she is university trained or (for some branches) in 2-cycle colleges of higher

education;

Teachers and Educational Staff 171

- the secondary school teacher for vocational courses (praktijkleraar) teaches vocational skills in

technical and vocational secondary education (mainly second and third stages). He/she takes either

some of the courses for the lower secondary teacher or in courses of Social Advancement Education

(Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP).

All these trained teachers may also teach in other educational initiatives as described in Chapter 7.

8.1.1. Initial training of teachers for pre-school, and primary education, and the first stage

of secondary education

8.1.1.1. Historical overview

Historically, teacher training for the pre-school, primary and the first stage of secondary education level

was organised in separate institutes, namely teacher training colleges (normaalscholen). Originally, it

was organised as a kind of ‘upper secondary education’. Later on it became higher education. From

1970 on, the teacher training colleges were integrated into the structural framework of higher education.

After the 1995 merger in higher education (see 6.3.), these institutes became teaching training

departments of the colleges of higher education.

8.1.1.2. Specific legislative framework

- The Decree of 13 July 1994 relating to colleges of higher education in the Flemish Community.

- The Decree of 16 April 1996 on Teacher Training and In-service Training.

- The Decree of 15 December 1998 concerning the Decision of the Flemish Government of 29

September 1998 concerning the professional profiles of teachers.

8.1.1.3. The organisation of initial training and admission requirements

The initial teacher training at this level is organised by the organising bodies (inrichtende machten)

responsible for the colleges of higher education offering 1-cycle higher education.

The admission requirements are exactly the same as for higher education in general, so everyone who has

a diploma of secondary education can take a teacher training.

8.1.1.4. Curriculum, branch of study, specialisation

Based on the competence profiles (see 8) adopted by the government, it is the responsibility of the teacher

trainers to develop - under the supervision of the organising bodies appropriate curricula and syllabuses.

The Decree of 15 December 1998 provides a description of special competencies (attitudes, skills, and

knowledge) typical for future pre-school teachers.

The training programmes for pre-school teachers and primary school teachers are given in tables 8.1. and

8.2..


Table 8.1. Example of a Training Programme for pre-school teachers (hours per week):

Year 1st 2nd

3rd

Educational Sciences 8 9 10

Agogic Proficiency - 2 3

Dutch 4 3 2

Mathematics 1 1 1

Observation of the environment/

Exploration of the environment

2 2 1

Family Education 2 1 -

Music training: expression

Physical education 4 2 2

Musical education 4 2 2

Plastic arts education 4 2 2

Proficiency - 3 -

Computer science and media - 1 1

Optional (religion/non-denominational

ethics)

2 2 2

Table 8.2. Example of a Training Programme for primary school teachers (hours per week)

Year 1st 2nd

3rd

Educational Sciences 6 8 9

Agogic Proficiency - 2 3

Dutch 4 3 2

Mathematics 3 2 1

French 2 2 1

Observation of the environment/

Exploration of the environment

6 3 2

Physical education 2 1 2

Musical education 2 1 2

Plastic arts education 2 1 2

Proficiency - 3 -

Computer science and media 1 1 1

Optional (religion/non-denominational

ethics)

2 2 2

In the training of qualified secondary school teachers - group 1 (geagregeerde voor het secundair

onderwijs - groep 1) different options or specialisations are possible. Every curriculum will be split up

into core modules and a study-in-depth module. Each core module counts for 3 points. The in-depth-

subjects should always be chosen among the main subjects chosen by the candidate. This gives him/her

the right also to teach this subject in the second or third stage of secondary education. Such core modules

are theoretically a free combination of different units representing a common value of 3 points (Decree of

16 April 1996). In reality, the choice depends on what the teacher training course is able to offer:


1-point units are: Geography, history, English, mathematics, physics, Latin, biology, French, Dutch,

religion, non-denominational ethics, economics, technology, information technology, sewing, recreation

gymnastics, general education (for vocational secondary education).

2-points units are: A. Mechanics-electricity, nutrition and nursing, sewing, business, beauty care and

hairdressing, timber and construction, and biotechnology, agriculture, and horticulture; B. Music, plastic

arts education, and physical education.

Recreation gymnastics may only be chosen in combination with physical education.

One of the components of the core module (with the exception of Latin and technology) may be chosen as

a supplementary in-depth-subject. In addition, other equivalencies to in-depth courses are possible:

- German,

- Chemistry (only for candidates who have chosen physics and biology as the core module).

In some cases, two components may be chosen as supplementary in-depth-subjects: general education in

combination with a component of the following group: geography, history, English, mathematics,

physics, biology, French, Dutch, religion, non-denominational ethics, economics.

Table 8.3. Example of a Training Programme for the qualified secondary school teacher - group 1

(geaggregeerde voor het secundair onderwijs - groep 1) (hours per week)

General subjects 1st year 2nd year 3rd year

Educational science 4 5 5

Dutch (except when it is an

subject-in-depth)

3 2 1

Optional (Religion/non-

denominational ethics)

2 2 2

Computer science and media 1 1 1

In-depth-subject (e.g. French)

(1)

Component 1 (e.g. History) (1) Component 2 (e.g. geography)

(1)

8 5 5

(1) this amount of hours counts for the 1st, the 2nd, and the 3rd year, but for some chosen subjects there

may be few differences in the amount of hours provided, as presented in this example.

For each of the chosen subjects, didactics and the practice of teaching are also given along with the

theoretical knowledge.

8.1.1.5. Methods, evaluation, and certificates

As teacher training is part of higher education, the same can be said about its methods as about the

methods in higher education in general (see 6.3.6.). Trained teachers for the pre-school level obtain a

graduate diploma with the degree of pre-school teacher (kleuterleid(st)er). Trained teachers for the first

and second stage of secondary education, third stage of technical secondary education in the fields of

beauty care, hairdressing and sewing, nutrition and nursing, and the third and fourth stage of vocational


secondary education obtain a diploma with the degree of qualified secondary school teacher - group 1

(geaggregeerde voor het secundair onderwijs - groep 1).

One of the major problems in this field was the lack of support given to young teachers at the outset of

their professional careers. With the establishment of the ‘replacement pool’ (vervangingspool), this

problem is being tackled (see 8.2.1.). Starting in the school year of 2001-2002, students of the last year of

the initial teacher training course of one cycle can have independent work experience. Independent

teaching practice is a period in a practice school during which the student performs all the tasks of the

teacher independently. This practical training counts for 15 of the 60 study points. When such

independent teaching practice is carried out, the student, together with the college of higher education

(hogeschool) and the practice school, formulates an agreement that contains at least the following

elements: the duration of the teaching practice, the period of the school year when the teaching practice

takes place, the assignments, the person responsible for the guidance of the student and how that

responsibility is exercised, the conditions stipulated by the practice school, the person responsible for the

evaluation of the student and which subjects are replaced by the teaching practice. The duration of the

independent teaching practice is at most 9 weeks for the school year. With this measure, the students gain

professional experience during their study. It was introduced because of the present shortage of teachers


8.1.2. Initial academic training of teachers for upper secondary education

The qualified secondary school teacher - group 2 (geaggregeerde voor het secundair onderwijs - groep 2)

teaches specific subjects to pupils aged from 14 to 18 years of age in the second, third, and fourth stages

of secondary education. He is trained at the universities or (for some branches) in 2-cycle education at

colleges of higher education. In colleges of higher education this teacher training is called the “initial

training of academic level of teachers for upper secondary education” (6.3.2.). The qualified secondary

school teacher - group 2 has a diploma with the degree of licentiate (licentiaat) or master of arts (meester)

(if trained in audio, visual, plastic arts or music and dramatic arts). Teacher training for these candidates

is at least a supplementary part-time programme.

Teachers holding a university degree in classical studies may teach Latin and Greek in the first stage of

secondary education (lower secondary) as well.

8.1.2.1. Historical overview and specific legislative framework

A minimalist part-time scheme for teacher training at the university, complementary to discipline-oriented

study, was set by law in 1929. For many years, attempts were made to change this law but without

success prior to 1996.


The specific legislative framework consists of:

- Decree of 16 April 1996 on Teacher Training and In-service Training.

- The Decree of 15 December 1998 concerning the Decision of the Flemish Government of 29

September 1998 concerning the professional profiles of teachers.

- Flemish Circular Letter of 19 July 1999 concerning the alteration of the decision concerning

certificates, salary scales, and the salary regulations in secondary education.

8.1.2.2. Organisation

Academic initial teacher training is organised by either the faculties or departments that are also

responsible for the organisation of the basic course at the universities or the colleges of higher education.

The admission requirements are exactly the same as for higher education and universities as a whole, but

the diploma cannot be granted until after the licentiate or master degree is earned.

8.1.2.3. Curriculum, branch of study, and specialisation

Integrated into second-cycle academic training, at least 270 hours of study activities are organised as part

of the academic initial teacher training. Students who already have completed their academic training and

have obtained a diploma must attend these training courses. Another 600 to 750 hours of study activities

as part of the academic initial teacher training have to be attended (including at least 1/3 of the time for

monitored teaching practice). These activities may be attended parallel to the main (subject-oriented)

basic training or afterwards. A combination of both (partly parallel, partly afterwards) is possible as well

(Decree of 16 April 1996).

The academic teacher training consists at the Catholic University of Leuven (Katholieke Universiteit

Leuven) (K.U.Leuven) of 4 components:

- subjects that are related to the 2nd cycle of the basic academic training (at least 270 hours);

- theoretical subjects that are specific for teacher training;

- practical initiation (3 seminars);

- school experience.

8.1.2.4. Evaluation, certificates

The degree awarded, after completion of a discipline-oriented study, is that of qualified secondary school

teacher - group 2 (geaggregeerde voor het secundair onderwijs - groep 2). Originally, this kind of teacher

is referred to by means of his discipline-oriented title licence, equivalent to four or five years of academic

level study (licentiaat) or master (meester).


8.1.3. Initial training of teachers for secondary education: vocational and technical

courses

The secondary school teacher for vocational courses (praktijkleraar) teaches vocational skills in technical

and vocational secondary education (mainly second and third stage). His training consists of courses of

the training programme for the qualified secondary school teacher - group 1 (geaggregeerde voor het

secundair onderwijs - groep 1) or in courses of the Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor

Sociale Promotie) (OSP). As far as the former training is concerned, we can refer to 8.1.1. (core module

comprising 2-points units under selection A). This section (and the following ones) will only comment

on the latter.

8.1.3.1. Historical overview and specific legislative framework

This part-time training scheme was first organised in 1957 when the legislation for technical and

vocational education was updated. From 1970 on, it has been fully integrated into the part-time higher

education programmes of the Social Advancement Education. From 1987 on, the programme has been

organised in a modular way.

Important legislative framework concerns the Ministerial Decree of 6 November 1987 integrated into the

Circular Letter of 15 October 1992, the Decree of 2 March 1999 organising a number of matters

concerning adult education, and the Circular Letter of 9 July 1999 concerning the organisation of

education for Social Promotion.

8.1.3.2. Organisation

The initial teacher training is organised under the responsibility of the organising bodies (inrichtende

machten) offering Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie). There are no

special admission requirements. Depending on their certificates and work experience, candidates are

dispensed for some parts (modules) of the programme.

8.1.3.3. Curriculum, branch of study and specialisation

Within the framework of the Social Advancement Education, one may be trained as a teacher for the

instruction in vocational training courses or certain technical courses, for which no ‘full-time’ training is

available by attending Social Advancement Education. This kind of training, which is open to both men

and women, takes the form of evening or weekend classes. As in the case of the other types of teacher

training, these study courses focus on both theory (didactics) and practice. As part of practical training,

candidates receive a short introduction to teaching and practice under the supervision of an instructor. In

the Flemish Community this type of training has been reorganised according to modular principles (credit

system). Depending the certificates/diplomas already obtained, the training takes at least the equivalent

of 3 to 5 part-time semesters.


8.1.3.4. Evaluation, certificates

This training prepares candidates for an exam leading to the Certificate of teaching skill (Getuigschrift

Pedagogische Bekwaamheid) (GPB), which allows the holder to teach technical subjects in technical and

vocational secondary education.

The candidates trained under the conditions of a full-time teacher training system, obtain the

qualifications appropriate for their training programme.

8.1.4. Initial training of teachers for colleges of higher education and for teachers of

universities

There is no formal initial teacher training for college of higher education (hogeschool) and for universities

teaching positions. In some cases, the universities themselves offer INSET opportunities to their junior

and senior staff.

8.1.5. Complementary teacher courses in tertiary education (Voortgezette leraren-

opleidingen)

Complementary teacher courses in tertiary education programmes are intended to provide the necessary

competencies for an aspect of a particular teacher profile not included in the initial teacher training. They

are given by the colleges of higher education.

New legislation has set out the minimum requirement for the complementary teacher courses in tertiary

education (Decision of the Flemish Government of 8 August 1997):

- the minimum requirement for the complementary teacher course in tertiary education (voortgezette

lerarenopleiding) in basic adult education is 40 study points;

- the minimum requirement of the complementary teacher course in tertiary education (voortgezette

lerarenopleiding) in primary education for pre-school teachers (kleuterleider(ster)) is 90 study points;


lerarenopleiding) in pre-school education for primary school teachers (onderwijzers) is 60 study

points;


lerarenopleiding) in physical education for pre-school teachers (kleuteronderwijzers(essen) and

primary school teachers (onderwijzers(essen)) is 30 study points;


lerarenopleiding) in religion or non-denominational moral education is 30 study points;



lerarenopleiding) in subjects of the core curriculum in the first year B or the 2nd year Preparatory

Vocational Secondary Education (Beroepsvoorbereidend Leerjaar) (BVL) is 30 study points.


lerarenopleiding) for a supplementary in-depth-subject of the core curriculum or for the subjects

German or chemistry for qualified secondary school teachers - group 1 (geaggregeerden voor het

secundair onderwijs - groep 1) is 30 study points;


lerarenopleiding) in primary education for qualified secondary school teachers - group 1

(geaggregeerden voor het secundair onderwijs - groep 1) is 60 study points;

- the minimum requirement of the complementary teacher course in tertiary education (voortgezette

lerarenopleiding) in special education is 60 study points.

By virtue of the Decree of 18 May 1999, colleges of higher education can organise a complementary

teacher-training course in tertiary education to meet a wider range of educational needs, remedial

learning, and intercultural education if these colleges give initial training of teachers. The complementary

teacher course in tertiary education in religion and non-confessional moral philosophy for primary

education has also been created.

8.2. Conditions of service for teachers

The Decree on basic education (basisonderwijs) and the Decree relating to secondary education have

established new regulations on the conditions of employment for teaching staff.

The school board is responsible for the personnel policy. They are the ‘employers’ of the teaching staff.

The modalities for recruitment, evaluation, appointment, dismissal, etc. are established by decree by the

Flemish government in the capacity of financier (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2001). The statute of the teaching

staff is regulated by two decrees, one for community education and one for grant-aided education (both of

27 March 1991). In theory, there is more freedom of action in grant-aided education. In community

education the school head has the authority to decide on the temporary appointments of staff members.

The Governing Body (Raad van Bestuur) of the school group (scholengroep), functioning as the

organising body (inrichtende macht) of the schools assigned to the school group, has the authority to

decide about the permanent appointment of staff members. These decrees apply to the teaching staff of

basic education (basisonderwijs), secondary education, special education, Part-time Art Education

(Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs), adult education, the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor

Leerlingenbegeleiding) and the boarding schools. The conditions of employment for the teaching staff in

higher education is regulated by the Decree of 13 July 1994 for the colleges of higher education

(hogescholen) and the Decree of 12 June 1991 for the universities.


Staff members are divided according to whether they fulfil a recruitment post (wervingsambt) - the basic

teaching job-, a selection post (selectieambt) - such as deputy director, internal educational guide,

supervisor - or a promotion post (bevorderingsambt) - as school head.

8.2.1. Conditions of service for teachers at the pre-school, the primary school, and the

secondary school level

In general, the conditions of employment of teachers are about to change at certain points as a

consequence of the implementation of new legislation concerning higher education and the universities,

the Decree of 16 April 1996 on Teacher Training and In-service Training, the Decree of 25 February

1998 on basic education, the Decree of 14 July 1998 on secondary education, the Special Decree of 14

July 1998 concerning the community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs) and the Decree of 8 June 2000

concerning urgent measures with regard to the teaching profession. A short overview of the most

important aspects of the conditions of employment of the teaching staff is presented in the following

sections.

The new legislation tries to establish one single legal framework for the working conditions of all

teachers in all the educational networks. This has never been the case at all in the past. One of the other

driving forces behind the ongoing changes is to give more flexible opportunities to schools and to provide

more career perspectives for teachers.

Recently, the Decree of 8 June 2000 concerning urgent measures with regard to the teaching profession

was approved. This Decree is a first implementation of the government’s aim to revalue the teaching

profession. The current shortage of teachers is, according to the Flemish government, an important

symptom of a lack of social status of the teaching profession. This undervaluation together with the

ageing of the teachers and the economic growth in general is resulting in huge problems in replacing

absent teachers.

The Decree contains three measures to relieve the shortage. First, the Decree provides for better

renumeration of overtime and additional jobs. This is more important for teachers of secondary education

than for primary school teachers. At the primary school level, this measure concerns only teaching at

home. The second measure is the possibility of calling back certain staff members who are on leave, have

been assigned non-active status, have taken an early retirement, or are retired but younger than 65. The

condition is that the person in question agrees to come back. Third and most important, the Decree

establishes a replacement pool (vervangingspool) of teachers. As a reaction to the problems of finding

teachers to replace absent teachers, the government has created a pool of teachers who provide short-term

replacement. In this way, young teachers are guaranteed work and a salary for a period of a year. The

governing body (inrichtende macht) of schools decides whether or not to ascribe to the pool.


8.2.1.1. Specific legislative framework

- Decree of 27 March 1991 concerning the legal status of particular members of staff in the Community

education.

- Decree of 27 March 1991 concerning the legal status of some members of staff in the grant-aided

educational networks (onderwijsnetten) and the grant-aided Centres for Educational Guidance (Cnetra

voor Leerlingenbegeleiding).

- Decree of 25 February 1997 on basic education.

- Special Decree of 14 July 1998 concerning Community Education.

- Decree of 14 July 1998 determining various measures concerning the secondary education and

modifying the Decree of 25 December 1997 on the basic education.

- Decree of 8 June 2000 concerning urgent measures with regard to the teaching profession (and

aditionally the Decree of 13 July 2001 concerning changes of the Decree of 8 June 2000).

- Decree of 13 July 2001 concerning Education XIII- Mosaic.

8.2.1.2. Access to the profession, appointment

Access to the teaching profession in the Flemish Community depends on the level of academic

achievement. For secondary, primary, and pre-school education a teacher needs to have successfully

completed a teacher-training programme. Other requirements are (Decrees of 27 March 1991):

- being a citizen of the European Union (exceptions are possible because the government can grant

exemptions);

- enjoying civil and political rights (exceptions are possible because the government can grant

exemptions);

- being holder of a certificate of competency determined by the Flemish government;

- complying with the linguistic legislation (Dutch being the official teaching language);

- being of irreproachable character;

- complying with the military service laws.

A teaching career starts with a temporary appointment in a recruitment post (wervingsambt). In the

community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs) the member of staff signs the educational project, the

attachment -and neutrality declaration of community education at the first employment. If there are

vacant teaching periods or when a teacher has to be replaced for a time, the vacant post cannot be taken

automatically by a new teacher. First of all, the school boards (schoolbesturen) have to take into account

staff members with a permanent appointment who are available in the same or another educational

institution - because of reasons of loss of all or part of their teaching assignment - to fill up the vacant

teaching periods. Those permanently appointed staff members have the right to claim a vacant post over


other colleagues, and they are obliged to accept a vacant post offered by the school board. These

precedence rules are strictly regulated in slightly different ways in community and in grant-aided

education (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2001). When there are no permanently appointed staff members

‘available’, an important criterion for precedence in the recruitment procedure is the seniority of the

candidates for the vacant post in both the official or grant-aided education. The criteria for this procedure

differ in the community and the grant-aided education, (see below) (Devos et al., 1999).

A second step in a school career is the permanent appointment in a vacant recruitment post. Here too, the

availability of other appointed staff members has to be taken into account, so seniority takes precedence

in the recruitment (Devos et al., 1999).

Permanently appointed members of the teaching staff can move to another school. In grant-aided

education, mutation is a possibility but not a right. In community education it was a right, but now the

local school councils (lokale schoolraden) (LORGO’s) have to assent. From 1 January 2000, however,

these local school councils have disappeared. From then, the school groups (scholengroepen),

functioning as organising bodies (inrichtende machten), will have the authority to approve. In community

education, an evaluation of the permanently appointed staff members is required by decree, which is not

the case in grant-aided education.

The appointment in a selection post (selectieambt) or a promotion post (bevorderingsambt) is less

restricted as regards the availability of other staff members. The criteria will be established by the school

boards (schoolbesturen), and the candidates have already to be permanently appointed in a recruitment

post. In grant-aided education, this appointment can only be temporary (maximum 2 years) (Devos et al.,

1999).

Especially for secondary education, a distinction is made between three types of qualifications: required

qualifications (vereiste bekwaamheidsbewijzen), qualifications deemed to be sufficient (voldoend geachte

bekwaamheidsbewijzen), and other qualifications (andere bekwaamheidsbewijzen).

The list of required qualifications spells out exactly what teaching qualifications are required to pursue a

given activity. The qualifications deemed to be sufficient state what qualifications will be accepted for a

specific post in the absence of the required qualifications. The required qualifications and those thought

be sufficient may both lead to a permanent post after a temporary appointment of at least 240 days. The

third category of qualifications, ‘others’, may be taken into consideration for an appointment, but solely

on an ad hoc and temporary basis.

The Circular Letter of 19 July 1999 has taken some measures to increase the availability of personnel and

the autonomy of the schools in the recruitment of new personnel. From then on the qualified secondary

school teacher – group 2 - degree is no longer necessary for a secondary school teaching certificate. The

licentiates who have educational qualification of qualified secondary school teacher - group 1

(geaggregeerde voor het secundair onderwijs - groep 1) or a Certificate of teaching skill (Getuigschrift

Pedagogische Bekwaamheid) (GPB) are considered to be a licentiate with the qualification of a qualified

secondary school teacher - group 2 (geaggregeerde voor het secundair onderwijs - groep 2).


The administrative regulations are controversial on two points. First of all, it is quite difficult in the

Flemish Community to find candidates with the required qualifications to give practical courses in

technical and vocational education. The people taken into consideration for this type of post must be

prepared, if they have the right qualifications, to accept a lower wage than they would receive in industry.

Moreover, they have to accept the risks inherent in a temporary appointment.

The second controversial item concerns teaching in the second stage of general and technical secondary

education. Under the legislation, both university- and college of higher education (hogeschool) trained

teachers may be appointed in the second stage. The decision to appoint teaching staff is the responsibility

of the organising body of a school establishment. If a large number of posts are available, qualified

secondary teachers - group 1 (geaggregeerden voor het secundair onderwijs - groep 1) are more likely to

be admitted into the second stage of secondary education, for, unlike university-trained teachers, they are

generally able to teach two or three subjects. If a school should decide that pupils who are likely to go on

to university or 2-cycle higher education need to be taught by an academically trained teacher as soon as

possible, that is, in the second stage of secondary education, then the choice will fall to a university or a

2-cycle higher education graduate.

Since the school year of 2001-2002, a separate number of hours for nursery workers is financed or

granted in ordinary pre-school education. This measure is a first step to come to better guidance

and optimisation of the care for the youngest preschoolers. The total number of hours allocated is

calculated on the basis of the number of regular pupils and the number of school sites. 8 hours for

nursery workers are granted as soon as the school counts 35 preschoolers. For each additional 55

preschoolers extra, one hour is added. Per extra school site, the school receives two extra hours (Decree

of 16 July 2001).

Recently, the government has created a replacement pool (vervangingspool) of teachers partly in order to

facilitate access to the teaching profession. This replacement pool is a group of teachers who provide

short-term replacements and are available for the entire Flemish region and all educational networks

(onderwijsnetten) of ordinary and special primary and secondary educational level. The teachers of this

pool are at the disposal of all the schools that ascribe to the pool. The pool was established in the school

year 2000-2001 for a period of three years.

Every year the government annouces the number of teaching posts of the replacement pool and the

manner of appointment for the following school year. The Flemish Unemployment Agency (Vlaamse

Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding) (VDAB) is responsible for the creation and the

functioning of the pool. The Flemish Unemployment Agency assigns each admitted candidate to an

anchor school (ankerschool) and an educational area (onderwijszone). The anchor school is the school to

which the teacher is appointed during the periods he or she is not working as a short-term replacement. In

this school, the teacher is charged with non-regulatory replacements, in-service training or other

pedagogical tasks.


The aim of the pool is twofold. First, it is to enable the schools to find for absent teachers more easily

substitutes. Second, the pool guarantees young graduates work and a salary for at least one year.

However, the pool concentrates not only on this kind of teachers but also on teacher returners and other

employees who are considering a teaching career.

After one school year the replacement pool (vervangingspool) is being adjusted. A number of small

changes were made which however do not change the general principles of the replacement pool

(vervangingspool). For the school year 2001-2002 24% of the basic schools (basisscholen) in the grant-

aided free education (gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs) have registered. 99% of the basic schools of the

community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs) have registered. In the grant-aided official education

(gesubsidieerd officieel onderwijs) 89% of the basic schools join in. For the school year 2001-2002

almost all schools at secondary education participate in the replacement pool (vervangingspool). In the

grant-aided free education (gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs) 96% of the secondary schools have registered.

All of the secondary schools of the community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs) have registered. In

the grant-aided official education (gesubsidieerd officieel onderwijs) 99% of the secondary schools joined

in (Persdienst Minister Vanderpoorten, 15.06.2001).

8.2.1.3. Professional status

Teaching staff members are employees in the private education institutes and civil servants of a kind in

public education institutes. However, in the capacity of financier, the Flemish government has

established the modalities for recruitment, evaluation, appointment, dismissal, etc. (see the following

sections). The status of the teaching staff is regulated by two decrees, one for community education and

one for grant-aided education, both consisting of the same basic principles. So, in fact, specific status is

provided by decree to the teaching staff different from the ordinary status of personnel in the public and

private sector because of the singularity of the field of education and its specific needs.

The Decree on the basic education (basisonderwijs) provides a framework in which the assignment of the

teaching staff has to be defined, but until now it has not been applied. The assignment of the teaching

staff has to be established annually in the job description (functiebeschrijving), that is drawn up in

consultation between the school head and the concerned member(s) of the teaching staff. When this does

not result in an agreement, the school board will decide about the matters upon which the parties do not

agree. A job description consists of two parts: first, the tasks that have to be fulfilled by the teacher and,

second, the competence and skills required to execute those tasks. The job description also assimilates

the specific aims of the institutions. As a result of the commitments made at the end of the previous

evaluation period, personnel and developing aims are also added to the job description. The job

description contains primarily the rights and duties concerning permanent education and training. For the

teacher who teaches religion or non-denominational ethics, agreement is required from the qualified

agency of the concerned religion or philosophy of life. The government provides models of job

description that may be used in the establishing of the job descriptions. The government has specified the

tasks that cannot belong to the assignment of the teacher such as the organisation of a bus trip, additional


lessons after school time, and home visits. The Decree on the basic education (basisonderwijs) has

stipulated no starting date for the introduction of the job descriptions (functiebeschrijvingen). As from

the school year 1997-1998 convenants can be made between (umbrella’s of ) school boards

(schoolbesturen) and representative unions to introduce the job descriptions (functiebeschrijvingen) in

some schools. Until now this has not happened yet.

The Decree of 14 July 1998 relating to the secondary education provides a framework in which the

assignment of the teaching staff has to be defined (Art. 126 of the concerned Decree). The assignment of

the teaching staff has to be established from now on in the job description. This job description differs

from the job description of basic education (basisonderwijs). It is compulsory for every staff member

appointed for at least 104 days. However, the organising body can decide to prepare a job description for

staff members appointed for a shorter term. A job description consists of three parts: first, the tasks and

the institutions related assignments and the way they have to be fulfilled by the teacher; second, the

objectives specific for the school and for the person and its development, as a result of the arrangements

agreed at the end of the former evaluation period; and third, the rights and duties concerning continuing

education and further education. The costs for imposed further education are borne by the organising

body.

As a consequence of the reorganisation of the secondary education, a new evaluation system is

established for all educational networks (onderwijsnetten). This new evaluation system is closely linked

with the job description. Each staff member of a secondary school should be evaluated at least once in

three years. An evaluation can be concluded with the endconclusion “insufficient”. An evaluation with

conclusion “insufficient” has rather serious consequences. These consequences depend on the statute of

the concerned staff member. A temporarily appointed staff member applying for definite appointment

who had an evaluation with “insufficient” is dismissed. A permanently appointed staff member or a staff

member assigned for continuous duration who had an evaluation with “insufficient” must be re-evaluated.

The new evaluation period must comprehend a period of at least eight months and at most twelve months.

Those staff members who had two successive evaluations of “insufficient” or three evaluations of

“insufficient” in a career under the same organising body (inrichtende macht) for the same position are

dismissed. The job description and the evaluation system in the secondary education had to be introduced

gradually. From 1 September 2000 on, convenants were to be made up by the Flemish Government, the

organising bodies, and the unions to introduce them in the schools. Until now, no convenants have been

made up, however, which means that the Flemish Government has to establish the introduction of the

convenants. This has not happened yet. In all respects, the job descriptions apply for all staff members

from 1 September 2004 on and the evaluations apply for all staff members from 1 September 2006 on

(Schepers, 2000: 294-296).


8.2.1.4. Promotion, advancement

The legal regulations set out priority rules for appointment. First of all, the school boards

(schoolbesturen) have to take into account staff members with a permanent appointment who are

available in the same or another educational institution - because of reasons of loss of some part of their

teaching assignment - for filling up the vacant teaching periods.

Three main categories can be distinguished in grant-aided education. They are listed in order of priority

below (Devos et al., 1999):

1. those who have accumulated at least 240 seniority days of service in a major position under the same

school board distributed over at least two school years;

2. those who have accumulated at least 480 seniority days of service (mainly for the same school board)

in whatever major position, distributed over at least three school years;

3. all other candidates.

For the community education, the following categories can be distinguished (Devos et al., 1999):

1. those who have accumulated at least 480 seniority days of service in the same position in the same

school group (scholengroep);

2. those who have accumulated at least 240 seniority days of service in a position in the same school

group (scholengroep) or those who have accumulated at least 720 seniority days of service in a major

position;

3. all other candidates.

As of 1 January 2000, the local school councils disappeared. From then on, school groups

(scholengroepen) come in effect as organising bodies for the schools assigned to the school group

(Special Decree of 14 July 1998 concerning Community Education).

A permanent appointment is only possible in community and in grant-aided education if a person has

accumulated at least 720 seniority days of service in a major position (at least 360 in the concerned

position). Here, too, the ‘available’ personnel are first considered. As a consequence of the Decree of 14

July 1998 relating to the secondary education, an additional condition for a permanent appointment in

secondary education is that on the 31st of December preceding the permanent appointment, the staff

member is temporary appointed for continuous duration. A staff member is entitled to an temporary

appointment for continuous duration, if he or she has accumulated at least 720 seniority days of service,

of which 600 effectively achieved, distributed over at least three school years, and he or she may not have

received as a last evaluation with final conclusion ‘insufficient’. This precondition does not apply to

personnel that are reassigned or reemployed (Decree of 14 July 1998 concerning secondary education).

Decisions about career perspectives have to be taken by the school board of the school. An inspector

might be asked for advice, but his opinion is not ‘legally’ binding as such.


8.2.1.5. Transfers, occupational mobility

Horizontal occupational mobility is rather limited at the time. Permanently appointed members of the

teaching staff can move to another school. In grant-aided education, mutation is possible but it is not a

right. In community education, the school groups, functioning as organising bodies, have the authority to

agree.

The Decree on Education VIII of 15 July 1997 permits permanently appointed staff members to suspend,

with permission, the execution of their assignment partially or entirely for another assignment in another

post on a temporary basis.

8.2.1.6. Dismissal, career change

A permanently appointed staff member may be dismissed without notice as a consequence of a

disciplinary measure or if he or she has received a negative evaluation two years in a row (only in official

education).

A permanently appointed staff member may leave his or her job on his or her own initiative with a notice

period of at least 15 days. Temporarily appointed staff members have to respect a notice period of 7 days.

Legally, staff members with a temporary appointment may always be dismissed (with a notice period of

30 days or without a notice period in case of dismissal because of urgent reasons). In community

education, an evaluation of the temporarily appointed staff members is required by Decree but not in

grant-aided education, and a negative evaluation can be a reason for dismissal. The reasons for dismissal

must always be given (Devos et al., 1999).

When permanently appointed staff members do not fulfil the commitments in accordance to their statute,

the school board (schoolbestuur) may impose sanctions such as dismissal, suspension, transfer to a

temporary appointment or a lower rank, transfer to another service, financial penalties or a reprimand

(Heyvaert & Janssens, 2001). Individually, the school head cannot sanction the staff member. This is the

competence of the school governing body (schoolbestuur), but in practice the school head plays an

important role in this matter (Devos et al., 1999). The concerned member of the teaching staff may

appeal to a Chamber of Appeal (Kamer van Beroep) - one for the grant-aided free education

(gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs) and one for the grant-aided official education (gesubsidieerd officieel

onderwijs) - or to the Council of Appeal (Raad van Beroep) that is competent for the community

education (gemeenschapsonderwijs). These are administrative courts that are specific for education. This

organs deal with appeals against disciplinary measures taken with respect to permanently appointed staff

members and have an advisory task in relation to the dismissal of temporarily appointed staff members.

The Council of Appeal also hears appeals against negative evaluations. Evaluations are obligatory in

official education of temporarily and permanently appointed staff members (Devos et al., 1999).


8.2.1.7. Salary

Research in 1997-1998 has shown that Flemish teachers receive a salary which is for all levels and for all

career moments above the average in the European Union (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2000d). The

structure of the salary system, however, is very complicated. There are nineteen different salary scales.

The amount of the pay depends on various elements (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2001):

- the sort of post;

- whether the appointment is temporary or permanent;

- the administrative situation (active, non-active, etc.);

- the required certificates and the pay scales that are related to it;

- the nature (additional post, main post, etc.) and assignment of the post (full-time, part-time, etc.);

- seniority;

- personal and family situation (additional financial benefits like holiday pay, family allowances,

compensation for travel expenses, and the-end-of-the-year premium);

- other compensations (compensation for child care before and after school time, compensation for

supervision at noon, etc.).

The pay scales are related to a specific certificate and give the minimum wage and maximum wage over

one year and a number of periodical increases (annually, biannually, and at the end) in line with seniority.

These pay scales are index-linked to the rise in consumer prices.

Salaries account in 2001 for about 69% (MVG, Departement Onderwijs, 2001b) of total spending on

education, even though in Belgium, too, the time has come to start thinking about upgrading the role of

teachers, especially when it comes to salaries. The malaise now emerging in the teaching profession is

partly caused by the growing gulf between teachers’ salaries and those of employees with similar

qualifications in the private sector.

On closer examination, teachers do appear to have a special salary status in the sense that they are paid

according to the amount of services provided (that is by the number of course hours), but they are not at

liberty to choose how many hours of courses they give. The political measures proposed to make the

rules on services (and therefore on salaries) less rigid ran into opposition from the trade unions.

Another problem that needs to be considered has to do with the professional costs incurred by teachers: in

most cases they have to pay out of their own pockets for manuals and teaching aids. The teachers’ wage

claims could also be interpreted to some extent as a call for extra operating resources for schools.

Belgium’s spending on salaries as a percentage of total expenditure on education is reported to be higher

than in most other countries of the European Union, which is as good as saying that the operating and

capital resources are relatively low (European Commission, 1996).


Finally, problems to do with teachers’ salaries are inextricably linked with their status. On the one hand,

the budgetary resources to increase teachers’ wages are limited, and, on the other, teachers are being

assigned non-active status, which represents an extra cost that is difficult to reduce. Teachers assigned

non-active status are expected to take over as temporary teachers, but this is only true to a limited extent

for there are all sorts of obstacles (barriers between the networks, levels, and specialised subjects) that

impede movement within the teaching profession. This leads to a paradoxical situation in which the

number of teachers assigned non-active status and the number of teachers hired on temporary contracts

stay more or less constant.

An attempt to solve this kind of problems is the creation of the replacement pool (vervangingspool) which

operated across educational networks (see 8.2.1.).

In 2001, a comparative study of the salaries of teaching staff was commissioned by the Flemish

government. This research concerned the salaries of the support staff as well as the teaching and the

management staff. Not only the basic salary but also the total salary package with all components of a

salary such as the possibility to a permanent appointment, the vacation, and the pension were taken into

account. The results showed that most of the staff are paid in a competetive way compared to jobs in the

private sector. However, a few problems were noted. Indeed, not all jobs are equally marketable. The

teaching staff scores relatively well as they are situated in the middle of the market. For managerial staff

functions, the total salary is a lot less compared to similar jobs in the private sector. The salary of the

support staff is also relatively low (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001f).

8.2.1.8. Working time

a) Teachers at pre-school and primary school level

The school assignment (schoolopdracht) is a body of tasks that a teacher carries out in connection with

the school. The government defines the minimum and maximum number of hours of the school

assignment for each job. The weekly school assignment of full-time teaching staff consists of maximum

26 hours in ordinary and special education. Normally, the school signment is carried out in the period of

presence of the pupils at school. The school assignment consists of the main assignment (hoofdopdracht)

(the teaching for the teaching staff) and additional tasks. The participation in parents’ evenings or

personnel meetings are not included in the school assignment. Also the minimum and maximum number

of teaching periods for the main assignment of teachers is defined by the government. The weekly main

assignment amounts to a minimum of 24 teaching periods in ordinary education (22 teaching periods in

special education) and a maximum of 28 teaching periods in ordinary and special education for a full-time

teacher in basic education (basisonderwijs) (Decision of the Flemish Government of 17 June 1997).

b) Teachers at the secondary school level

At present an official week in Flanders has 38.5 hours of work. Teachers working hours still are

indicated as ‘hours of actual teaching’. Proposals have been launched to change this system in the near

future.


Table 8.4. Weekly working hours of teachers in secondary education

UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION TEACHER (GROUP 1 OR 2 QUALIFICATION)

Teachers giving general courses: Minimum - 20 wp

Maximum - 22 wp

Teachers giving technical and vocational courses: Minimum - 24 wp

Maximum - 28 wp

Teachers giving vocational courses: Minimum - 30 wp

Maximum - 33 wp

LOWER SECONDARY EDUCATION TEACHER (GROUP 1 OR 2 QUALIFICATION)

Teachers giving general courses: Minimum - 22 wp

Maximum - 24 wp

Teachers giving technical and vocational courses: Minimum - 24 wp

Maximum - 28 wp

8.2.1.9. Holiday and leave

The annual vacation exists of the official vacations, official vacation days when there are no classes, and a

few days that every educational institution may choose for itself.

Furthermore, there is the possibility of circumstantial leave (maximum 8 days a year) (in case of

marriage, death of a relative, etc.) and exceptional leave in the event of circumstances beyond one’s

control (illness or accident of a relative who lives under the same roof with the teacher). There are also

legal absences to allow teachers to fulfil civil duties or civil assignments (lawsuits, local elections, etc.).

Furthermore, for permanently appointed staff members, there are many legal reasons for a leave of

absence such as leave for a reduced work load justified by social or familial reasons or because of

personal affairs, educational leave, leave for fulfilling some public posts, and political leave (Heyvaert &

Janssens, 2001).

As in other sectors, the teaching career may be interrupted. Under certain conditions, temporarily and

permanently appointed staff members may interrupt their professional activities for a certain period of

time and receive a benefit. The most important condition is related to the way the concerned staff

member is replaced (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2001).

8.2.1.10. Retirement pension

All teachers receive a pension based on the principles laid down in the (Belgian) national legislation. The

pension system in the education sector is one of the elements over which the Flemish Community has no

authority.

The pension is based on the years of service and the salary. Different schemes have been set up for

teachers who want to retire earlier. To receive a pension, a teacher must (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2001):


- submit an application (a personal application is always required even when the person is compelled by

law to end his professional career);

- be permanently appointed;

- reach the required age (60 years);

- have the required number of years of service (5 years).

The average pay of the last 5 years of service (always considered as in full-time and active state) is taken

as the basis for the calculation of the pension. The calculated sum may never be higher than three fourths

of the average pay of the last 5 years. Since 1982, a maximum absolute amount has been established: €

4,954.72 gross a month (on 1 June 2001). Moreover, guaranteed minima are also established and differ

according to the ‘cause’ of retirement. The guaranteed minimum (on 1 June 2001) for a pension ‘because

of seniority’ amounts to € 997.48 gross a month for single persons and € 1,171.84 gross a month for

married persons. The person has to have reached the age of 60 years and have 20 years of service. A

pension ‘because of physical incapacity’ guarantees 50% for single persons and 62.5% for married

persons of the average pay during the last five years (if the pay was less than € 22,499.66 (1 June 2001))

then this amount will be taken as reference). Other incomes of the person and his wife are subtracted

from this sum but this is limited. A supplement of € 1,541.08 a year is provided to persons who are

retired because of a severe handicap incurred during their career that has led to the ending of their career

(Heyvaert & Janssen, 2001).

8.2.2. Conditions of service for teaching staff at colleges of higher education

(hogescholen)

As indicated in Chapter 6, the government has worked out similar rules for all tertiary education. Some

differences, however, have to be highlighted. Due to the recent merger in higher education, quite a lot of

new legislation has been implemented from 1995/96 onwards, including many transitional measures.

8.2.2.1. Specific legislation framework

The Decree of 13 July 1994 splits up the (teaching) posts into three groups:

- Group 1: junior practical lector (praktijklector), senior practical lector (hoofdpraktijklector), junior

lector (lector), and senior lector (hoofdlector);

- Group 2: auxiliary staff: research assistant (assistent), doctor assistant (doctor-assistent), and senior

research assistant (werkleider);

- Group 3: junior lecturer (docent), senior lecturer (hoofddocent), assistant professor (hoogleraar), and

full professor (gewoon hoogleraar).


The first group is only for departments with 1-cycle courses and the second group only for departments

with 2-cycle courses. The third group may be assigned to both, but the position of full professor is

subject to additional conditions (see further).

In general, the duties of junior lector, senior lector, junior lecturer, senior lecturer, professor, and full

professor consist of one of the following tasks or a combination thereof (institutes as a whole have to

guarantee all three of them): the provision of education, the carrying out of supporting assignments, the

implementation of project-based scientific research, the provision of services to society and organisational

and administrative tasks (Decree of 20 January 2001).

The auxiliary staff supports the previous categories in two-cycle courses doing research, teaching, and

guidance under their leadership. Full-time research assistants are allowed to spend at least half of their

working time preparing their theses. Activities relating to the preparation of doctoral theses are carried

out under the supervision of a university-based supervisor. The doctorate is taken at this university

(Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996).

The Group 1 posts are only for 1-cycle courses. These staff members provide (vocational oriented)

education and study guidance. Their job description can also include project-based scientific research,

the provision of services to society, and administrative tasks.

The board of the colleges of higher education (hogescholen) determines the staffing level on a annual

basis. The decree, however, puts forward a few conditions:

- the combined number of senior practical lector (hoofdpraktijklector) and senior lector (hoofdlector)

must not exceed 20% of the combined number of all Group 1 posts;

- the combined number of Group 2 posts has to amount to at least 36% of the combined number of

Group 2 and 3 posts;

- the number of senior lecturer (hoofddocent), professor (hoogleraar) and full professor (gewoon

hoogleraar) posts should not exceed 25% of the combined number of Group 2 and 3 posts;

- the number of permanent posts should not exceed 64% of the combined number of Group 1, 2 and 3

posts expressed in full-time equivalents. The collective labour agreement (collectieve

arbeidsovereenkomst (cao)) VI stipulates that this percentage will be increased to 72% from 1 January

2002 on.


Formal qualification requirements are (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996):

- junior practical lector (praktijklector) and senior practical lector (hoofdpraktijklector): diploma from a

1-cycle basic course;

- junior lector (lector), senior lector (hoofdlector), research assistant (assistent), and senior research

assistant (werkleider): a university or a 2-cycle course diploma;


- doctor-assistant (doctor-assistent), junior lecturer (docent), senior lecturer (hoofddocent), professor

(hoogleraar), and full professor (gewoon hoogleraar): the degree of doctor.

The required proofs of competency are supplemented by additional seniority conditions. The latter may

be combined with relevant professional experience which then forms part of the required proofs of

competency.

Candidates for the position of full professor have to meet additional criteria (Verhoeven & Beuselinck,

1996) :

- the appointing institute needs to be involved in a joint research agreement with a university within the

disciplinary field concerned;

- he/she has to have at least six years of seniority in a group 3 or equivalent position;

- the scientific competence of the candidate has to be evaluated by a commission comprising three full

professors at three different Flemish universities.

Four administrative positions are possible: temporary appointment, extension of contract, permanent

appointment, and promotion.

Recruitments for a vacancy are only possible in the Belgian Gazette (Belgisch Staatsblad), except for

appointments of less than a year. The members of the educational staff who are responsible for religious

education or ethics are appointed by the board of directors of the college (hogeschoolbestuur) in

consensus with the proper authorities of the ideology concerned. Recruiting for a vacancy must be

preceded by publication in the Belgian Gazette, except for appointments of less than one year.


Contractually, members of the teaching staff are employees in subsidised colleges of higher education or

a kind of civil servant in funded colleges of higher education. The college staff is paid by the Flemish

government. Although the legal status of teaching staff at the subsidised and funded colleges of higher

education is not totally the same, the difference of the legal status between them is small. In colleges of

higher education, the Board of Directors (Raad van Bestuur) or the board of directors of the college may

assign vacancies to candidates on a temporary or permanent basis. Only research assistants are always

temporary. Assignment to a position takes place through recruitment, promotion, or changing jobs. The

positions of senior practical lector (hoofdpraktijklector), senior lector (hoofdlector), and senior research

assistant (werkleider) may only be obtained by promotion or changing jobs (Verhoeven & Beuselinck,

1998).

The Decree on Education X of 18 May 1999 requires the board of directors of the colleges of higher

education to establish regulations concerning the evaluation of the staff members before 1 May 1999.

These regulations have been evaluated by the commissioner-co-ordinator of the Flemish Government.


The evaluation is obligatory for each staff member and is carried out at least every five years. There are,

however, exceptions. First, when the evaluation is ‘insufficient’, another evaluation has to be conducted

the next year. Second, when the member of the staff has just been appointed, nominated, or promoted,

he/she shall be evaluated after three years. The board of directors of the college has to set up a board of

appeals to which the staff member can appeal concerning the evaluation. At the end of the academic year

2000-2001, all staff members should have had their first evaluation. Information about the completion of

this evaluation is not yet available.


In colleges of higher education, seniority combined with useful professional experience is required for

promotion to the posts of senior practical lector (hoofdpraktijklector), senior lector (hoofdlector), senior

research assistant (werkleider), senior lecturer (hoofddocent), and professor (hoogleraar). In the case of

internal promotion, candidates must have at least two years’ seniority as practical lector (praktijklector) to

become senior practical lector (hoofdpraktijklector). In the case of external promotion to senior lecturer

(hoofddocent), candidates need to have at least four years’ relevant professional experience outside

education or at least two years’ seniority as lecturer (docent) at another college or university. Promotion

to full professor (gewoon hoogleraar) requires the following conditions. First, the college of higher

education must be actively involved in scientific research in co-operation with a university within the

field of the vacancy. Second, the candidate must have been a lecturer (docent), senior lecturer

(hoofddocent), or professor (hoogleraar) for six years at a college or university and, during that time, have

been responsible for quality research. The competence of candidates within their specific scientific field

is judged by a jury or committee of three full professors (gewone hoogleraren) from different universities



Horizontal occupational mobility in colleges of higher education (hogescholen) is very limited which is

mainly caused by the individual connection between the staff member and the school. Usually, the staff

member is appointed at one specific college of higher education and that appointment can not simply be

transferred to another college of higher education. Although few information is available, it may be

assumed that vertical occupational mobility in colleges of higher education is also limited (Information

received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department).

8.2.2.6. Dismissal, career change

Under normal conditions, members of the teaching staff may be dismissed with a notice period of 3

months for each period of 5 years of service (a new period of five years just started is considered to be a

full period). A staff member may be dismissed (with a notice period) as a consequence of a disciplinary

measure or when he has received a negative evaluation two years in a row or five times in his career at the

college of higher education. The teaching certification of staff members entrusted with religious


education or ethics can be legally withdrawn on the decision of the proper authorities of the ideology

concerned. This decision has to be justified with explicit reasons (Decree on Education X).

A permanently appointed staff member may leave his job on his own initiative with a notice period of at

least sixty days. Temporary appointed staff members have to respect a notice period of thirty days.

Under exceptional conditions (e.g. fraud), no notice period has to be applied.

The board of directors of the college has the power to punish staff members in case of shortcomings

concerning their duties. Disciplinary measures may be a reprimand, financial penalties, suspension,

transfer from a permanent to a temporary appointment, or transfer to a lower category with a lower salary

scale and dismissal (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1997).

8.2.2.7. Salary

All salaries are fixed by law (see table 8.9.). The colleges of higher education have the right to pay staff

members, who are entrusted with additional administrative tasks, a bonus of up to 20% of a normal salary



Each staff member has an individual job description comprising teaching and other duties. Full-time

members of staff may not have any other function or job. They can ask for an exemption if these other

professional commitments are also beneficial to the educational institution and do not exceed two half

days a week.

8.2.2.9. Holiday and leave

Legislation provides for the teaching staff at least 9 weeks of holidays. The regulation concerning

holidays is defined by the Board of Directors (Raad van Bestuur), or board of directors of the college.

The Academic Council (Academische Raad) has the consultative authority concerning the educational

aspects of these matters (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2001).

Furthermore, the Decree on the colleges of higher education states that the Flemish Government will

establish the conditions for leave. For the time being, the current regulations still apply (see 8.2.1.9).


The Regulation for the retirement pension is identical to the regulation for teachers in basic- and

secondary education (see 8.2.1.10.).


8.2.3. Conditions of service for teaching staff at universities

8.2.3.1. Specific legislation framework

The Decree of 12 June 1991 represented a fundamental break with earlier laws on the composition of

academic staff. The former division into teaching and research staff has been replaced by a distinction

between two categories of staff:

- independent Academic Personnel (Zelfstandig Academisch Personeel) (ZAP) comprising these

positions:

junior lecturer (docent), senior lecturer (hoofddocent), professor (hoogleraar), full professor (gewoon

hoogleraar), and extraordinary professor (buitengewoon hoogleraar);

- auxiliary Academic Personnel (Assisterend Academisch Personeel) (AAP) comprising:

practical junior lector (praktijklector) or practical assistant (praktijkassistent), research assistant

(assistent), and doctor-assistant (doctor-assistent).

A extraordinary professor (buitengewoon hoogleraar) is someone who holds a part-time position on the

same level as a full professor.

In general, the duties of junior lecturer, senior lecturer, professor, full professor, and extraordinary

professor comprise one of the following tasks or a combination of them (institutes as a whole have to

guarantee all three of them): doing scientific research, providing academic education, and providing

scientific services to society.

The auxiliary staff supports the previous categories in two-cycle courses, doing research, teaching, and

guidance assignments under their leadership. Full-time research assistants are allowed to spend at least

half of their working time preparing their theses under the supervision of a university-based supervisor.

The board of the universities determines the staffing level on an annual basis.

All appointments are made by the organising body of the Universities. The concrete rules and procedures

may vary from university to university. The Decree of 18 May 1999, however, imposes the condition that

the composition of the academic staff may consist at most of 70% of Independent Academic Personnel

(Zelfstandig Academisch Personeel), in terms of full-time units.


Formal qualification requirements are the following (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996):

- An important condition to be appointed a member of the Independent Academic Personnel is to hold a

doctorate or PhD (doctoraat) or a diploma deemed equivalent in accordance with European

Community directives. The universities are responsible for determining the seniority conditions for

appointment to a given rank.


- To be appointed a member of the Auxiliary Academic Personnel (Assisterend Academisch Personeel)

(AAP), one must hold a second-cycle university diploma of licentiate (licentiaat) or a diploma deemed

equivalent according to European Community directives. Research assistants may be appointed for a

two-year period. This period may be renewed twice. Doctoral research assistants are appointed for a

maximum of two terms of at most three years. For appointment for the second term, the evaluation of

the scientific research conducted must be positive (Decree on Education X). Practical research lectors

may be appointed for renewable periods of a minimum of one year and a maximum of five years.

The continuation of an appointment of a member of the AAP depends on a positive evaluation. The

board of directors of the university determines a job description and profile for every function (Decree of

18 May 1999).


All candidates who have the required qualifications are free to apply for a post. Contractually, academics

are employees in private higher education institutes or a kind of civil servant in public higher education

institutes. The academic staff is paid by the universities. Although the legal status of the academics of

private and public higher education institutes is not totally the same, the difference of the legal status

between them is small. The university boards may assign vacancies to candidates on a temporary or/and

permanent basis. Auxiliary Academic Personnel (Assisterend Academisch Personeel) (AAP) are

appointed temporarily. Independent Academic Personnel (Zelfstandig Academisch Personeel) (ZAP) are

appointed permanently, except for extraordinary professors (buitengewoon hoogleraren) as they are part-

time university staff (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1998).

In fact, there are some evaluation moments in an academic career: temporary appointment, extension of

contract, permanent appointment, and promotion. At the “Katholieke Universiteit Leuven”, there is a

fifth evaluation moment: at the allocation of educational assignments. In the framework of the quality

assurance system, individual lecturers are included in the evaluation, and the information obtained can be

used in the context of staff appointments and promotion (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1998).

The board of directors of the university determines the rules for the evaluation of the performance of the

members of the academic staff. At least every five years, every member of the academic staff should be

evaluated. If the staff member is appointed temporarily or permanently or promoted, an evaluation will

be made three years thereafter. The evaluation procedure should be provided with the opportunity for an

appeal to an independent appeal authority so that the rights of the staff members are absolutely

guaranteed by the procedure. If the performance and the results are considered as insufficient, the board

of directors of the university can decide not to add the year to the years of service for one year for the

next salary increase. If the final judgement of the evaluations is insufficient or occurs three times during

someone’s professional career, the board of directors of the university can dismiss the individual. The

first evaluation for every member of staff should be carried out by 31 December 2002 at the latest. The

board of directors of the university must inform the Flemish Government about the evaluation procedures.


The effects and results of the evaluation procedures used by the universities will be evaluated in 2006 by

the Flemish Government (Decree of 18 May 1999).

Note that Independent Academic Personnel (Zelfstandig Academisch Personeel) (ZAP) are also evaluated

outside the statutory context of the university, such as in the competition for national and international

research funds.


University academic staff almost invariably start as lecturers. Concerning the promotion to Independent

Academic Personnel departmental and/or faculty assessment committees evaluate applications for

promotions. Other criteria besides that of a diploma, determine promotion. Those seeking to become

lecturers (docenten) must, on the basis of their prior achievements, be able to demonstrate that they will

be able to engage in effective research and have good teaching skills. Individuals wanting to become

senior lecturers (hoofddocenten) must have proven research records and be effective teachers. Indicators

include publications, participating in conferences, being members of editorial boards, and attending

relevant training courses. Those promoted to professor (hoogleraar) are expected to be creative and

productive researchers, as shown by heading research projects and acquiring research funding, to be

effective teachers, and to have broad educational experience. To become ordinary or extraordinary

professors (gewone of buitengewone hoogleraren) candidates must be first-rate researchers with national

or international reputations in their academic discipline. As educators, they are expected to have the

necessary teaching skills, broad educational experience, and leadership qualities. The Flemish

government has made universities responsible for determining seniority conditions for appointment to a

given ZAP rank (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996).

The Decree of July 1991 on the universities only specifies minimum requirements for promotion

concerning seniority: a lecturer (docent) has to be at least 2 years on that post for the promotion to senior

lecturer (hoofddocent). An appointment or recruitment as professor (hoogleraar) requires membership of

the Independent Academic Personnel for at least 4 years; the same holds for the posts of ordinary and

extraordinary professor (gewoon en buitengewoon hoogleraar).

The Decree of 18 May 1999 concerning Education specifies these requirements. Promotion may be made

after internal publication and after the selection procedure determined by the board of directors of the

university. As an exception to this, promotion to an immediately higher academic degree and the

subsequent degree can be made without the internal publication and without selection if this promotion is

part of a previously determined career plan and is within the limits of the staff allocation. This exception

only applies to people who function and achieve very well. The first promotion to an executive function

should always take place after internal publication and selection. The promotion has to be justified,

which means that the board of directors of the university has to consider the knowledge, experience,

technical and personal skills, and potential of the candidates in function of the job description and

function profile (Decree of 18 May 1999).



Horizontal occupational mobility in universities is rather limited. Vertical occupational mobility is also

limited, because the regulations concerning personnel and wages. At most 70% of the academic staff

may consist of Independent Academic Personnel (Zelfstandig Academisch Personeel) and total personnel

costs can be at most 80% of working expenses. In 1999, there were 115 promotions of Independent

Academic Personnel (ZAP) in all the universities except the K.U.Leuven (no figures available). This

figure accounts for approximately 8% of all Independent Academic Personnel (ZAP). The small Flemish

universities grant very few promotions.

The mean age of promotion for senior lecturer (hoofddocent) is 42.7 years old, for professor (hoogleraar)

45.9 years old and for full professor (gewoon hoogleraar) 50 years old (Information received from the

Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department, 2001).

8.2.3.6. Dismissal

As mentioned in 8.2.3.3. the board of directors of the university can dismiss a member of the staff if the

final judgement of two successive evaluations are ‘insufficient’ or when this member has had three

negative evaluations during his/her career. In these circumstances a period of notice is granted the length

of which is equal to the period needed to enjoy the benefits of Social Security and unemployment

insurance. During this period of notice, the member of staff is considered to be appointed temporarily,

and the board of directors of the university give the member of staff other assignments. The member still

receives the same gross salary as in the office he/she was previously appointed. The member of staff can

relinguish this period of notice entirely or partially (Decree of 18 may 1999).

8.2.3.7. Salary

The salaries of members of the teaching staff are presented in table 8.9.. In principle, universities may, in

addition, reward staff for special achievements. Universities do use the possibility of merit pay related to

scientific services, postacademic training and emeritus professors younger than 65 who continue their

activities. However, only a limited number of staff members seem to get those merit pays (Information

received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department).


Each member of staff has an individual job description of his/her teaching and other duties. Full-time

members of staff may not have any other function or job. They can ask for an exemption if these other

professional commitments are also beneficial to the educational institution and do not exceed two half

days a week.

8.2.3.9. Holidays

Regulations concerning holidays and leaves are established by the board of directors of the university.



The (Belgian) national legislation concerning the pension is identical for all teachers of the different

educational levels (see 8.2.1.10.).

8.3. In-service training


The Decree of 16 April 1996 on Teacher Training and In-service Training introduced an entirely different

scheme for In-service Training initiatives. A brief historical overview is useful to understand these far-

reaching changes.

Prior to 1989 the Flemish Community had no real INSET policy. Up to then, inspectors often lectured at

conferences. The first systematic policy scheme was legally enforced by Decree in 1989. It was a

strongly supply-driven system (Peeters, 1992; Peeters et al., 1996).

It was decided that each year a special appropriation for continuing training should be written into the

education budget. The sum earmarked for this item in 1993 was roughly 230 million BEF and 363

million BEF in 1999 to be shared out between the three networks on the basis of certain funding

allocation formulas. However, 25% of the resources had to be devoted to priorities decided upon by the

Flemish Government, such as the requirement to organise continuing training activities to do with school

management. At least 10% of the available resources had to be devoted to bodies outside the education

system or to the universities. Finally, an adequate level of funding had to be set aside to pay for outside

experts to evaluate the projects.

Every year, the three educational networks (onderwijsnetten) were entitled to propose continuing training

projects within the limits of their budget allocations. The projects were evaluated by a group of experts

and an official commission. It was up to the Commission to decide how to allocate the budget between

the projects that were proposed.

The new decree has changed this policy into a demand-driven scheme. This change in policy resulted

from an in-depth evaluation of the present scheme and the political intention to enlarge local autonomy to

schools. The schools now have the responsibility and receive the funding for their own in-service training

policy.

Apart from the schools, the Community Education (Gemeenschapsonderwijs) (previously the

Independent Council for Community Education (Autonome Raad voor het Gemeenschapsonderwijs)

(ARGO) and the representative organisations of the organising bodies (inrichtende machten) of grant-

aided education receive funds for the training of personnel who do not come under the in-service training

policy at school level (personnel of the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor

Leerlingenbegeleiding)) or pedagogical support services (pedagogische begeleidingsdiensten) for

example), and for initiatives of in-service training, specific for their own educational projects.


Furthermore, the Flemish government may finance on its own initiative projects of in-service training on

the basis of the established policy priorities. The Minister of Education will regularly determine the

priorities. Thus projects of in-service training that answer these priorities are funded by the government.

This is an instrument for the guidance of important reforms of education. The priorities for the school

year 2001-2002 are: effective management, feeling good at school and in the classroom, quality assurance

and quality improvement, integration of cross-curricular attainment targets (eindtermen), detection and

handling of learning disabilities, individual educational plan (handelingsplan), technics and technological

education, creative education and mentors for starting teachers (Ministerial Decision of 12 April 2001).

Recently, the government has made some initiatives to stimulate the in-service training concerning ICT.

Therefore regional expert’s networks (regionale expertisenetwerken) are established. These networks are

forms of cooperation focused on an in-service supply in order to teach teachers to integrate the

information and communication technology in their lessons (Decree concerning Education XII-Ensor of

20 October 2000; Decision of the Flemish Government of 10 December 1999).

Regional technological centres (regionale technologische centra) can organise in-service projects

concerning new technologies (see paragraph 5.3.9.)

The Educational department of the Flemish government also established a database for all in-service

programs for teaching staff. For more information see: http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/nascholing/

default.htm).

8.3.2. Specific legislative framework

- The Decree of 16 April 1996 on Teacher Training and In-service Training.

- The Decision of the Flemish Government of 22 October 1996 on the regulation of the procedure for

the allocation of in-service training projects at the initiative of the Flemish Government.

- The Decision of the Flemish Government which modifies the Decision of 22 October 1996.

- The Decision of the Flemish Government of 10 December 1999 concerning the procedure and the

conditions guaranteeing an in-service supply on the new media.

- The Decree of 20 October 2000 concerning education XII-Ensor.

8.3.3. Types of in-service trainings

Under the previous scheme, in-service training centres under the three educational networks were set up

to co-ordinate continuing training activities. After 1984, it was arranged for teachers taking part in

continuing training schemes to be replaced at school by novice teachers, who were thus provided an

opportunity to gain professional experience. This logic is reversed totally. Schools no longer have

‘privileged’ partners; they can choose the partners they want (Peeters et al., 1996).

http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/nascholing/%0bdefault.htm

http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/nascholing/%0bdefault.htm


There are no fixed rules for the structural organisation of in-service programmes. All variations are

organised (at school, in training centres, one day, several days).

The methodological approaches come under the authority of the organising bodies. Therefore, no official

rules have been issued.


There are no real admission requirements. All teachers have the right to participate in in-service

programmes. Financial concessions have also been offered to make continuing training activities more

attractive to potential trainees. Thus, continuing training schemes are free for teachers taking part in

them: there are no enrolment fees and travel expenses are refunded.

8.4. Other staff

Teaching and management staff members are divided according to whether they fulfil a recruitment post

(wervingsambt) - the basic teaching job -, a selection post (selectieambt) - such as deputy director,

internal educational guide, supervisor - or a promotion post (bevorderingsambt) - as school head

(directeur). Besides the teaching and management staff, there are many other categories of personnel in

the educational system like paramedical personnel, assistant educationalists, administrative workers,

technical and other personnel involved in the daily operation of the school and maintenance of the school

infrastructure (meester-, vak- en dienstpersoneel). Special education also has psychological, medical,

social, and orthopedagogical personnel provided. All these categories are in turn divided into the formal

categories of recruitment post (wervingsambt), selection post (selectieambt), and promotion post

(bevorderingsambt) (Heyvaert & Janssens, 2001).

Auxiliary administrative staff is provided for the secondary education level. Administrative support for

pre-school and primary school are still very limited. In secondary schools two categories of auxiliary

administrative staff support the administration of the schools, i. e. administrative collaborators

(administratief medewerkers) and educational auxiliary staff (opvoedend hulppersoneel). The first

consists of junior clerks (opstellers) and clerk typists (klerk-typists). The second category is consists of 1)

educator-caretaker (opvoeder-huismeester ), 2) executive secretary (directiesecretaris), 3) secretary

librarian (secretaris-bibliothecaris), and 4) educator (studiemeester-opvoeder).

In higher education, besides the members of the board of directors, a distinction is made between the

teaching staff, administrative and technical personnel, and people with special mandates. Under the

transitional arrangements for the school years 1999-2000 until 2005-2006, the staff members of the

category of educational assistant and administrative personnel are transferred to the category of support

staff on the basis of the new norms (according to a weighting system of the students, positions may be

allocated in a school) (Decree of 18 May 1999).


8.5. Statistics

Table 8.5. Full-time teaching staff jobs according to the education budget, broken down by

educational level and compared in time (1992-2001)

92-93 93-94 94-95 95-96 96-97 97-98 98-99 99-00 00-01

Basic 41,179 41,398 41,176 41,513 41,799 42,383 43,276 44,106 45,254

Special basic 4,123 4,235 4,323 4,457 4,510 4,658 4,780 4,862 4,961

Secondary 54,596 53,723 53,931 54,304 54,510 54,335 53,987 53,524 53,744

Special

secondary

4,028 4,055 4,116 4,213 4,328 4,371 4,468 4,507 4,530

Colleges 8,385 8,407 8,378 7,753 7,402 7,413 7,455 7,516 7,617

Social

advancement

(secondary)

2,224 2,232 2,238 2,262 2,275 2,311 2,394 2,611 2,952

Social

advancement.

(higher)

437 452 457 472 464 465 472 500 538

Part-time arts

ed.

2,839 2,859 2,842 2,960 3,050 3,086 3,103 3,154 3,164

Total 117,811 117,361 117,461 117,834 118,338 119,022 119,935 120,780 122,760


Table 8.6. Number of full-time staff units at the universities (1 February 2001)

Independent academic personnel (ZAP) 2,508

Auxiliary academic personnel (AAP) 1,826

Administrative and technical personnel 4,334

Total 8,050



Table 8.7. Full-time non-teaching staff jobs according to the education budget, broken down by

educational level and compared in time (1992-2001)

92-93 93-94 94-95 95-96 96-97 97-98 98-99 99-00 00-01

Basic education 1,462 1,365 1,300 1,247 1,203 1,123 1,044 1,009 963

Special basic. 907 967 1,057 1,204 1,289 1,384 1,526 1,632 1,773

Secondary educat. 8,291 7,998 7,772 7,529 7,368 7,173 6,853 6,449 6,314

Special secondary 492 518 540 567 575 606 619 626 689

Colleges 1,221 1,212 1,249 1,287 1,254 1,300 1,360 1,432 1,518

Social advancement

(secondary)

148 141 138 135 137 146 154 164 243

Social advancement

(higher)

16 13 13 16 15 15 15 15 21

Part-time arts ed. 131 125 118 120 122 121 119 123 120

Others (1) 2,269 2,249 2,332 2,269 2,270 2,304 2,362 2,614 3,083

Total 14,937 14,588 14,519 14,374 14,233 14,172 14,052 14,064 14,730

(1) staff members of the inspectorate, guidance centres, educational guidance (not available for 1995).


Table 8.8. Annual gross salaries of members of teaching staff (full-time) in EUR (1 September 2001)

Start End (max. years of seniority)

Basic education 21,359.40 35,219.82

Secondary education (first stage) 21,359.40 34,219.82

Secondary education (diploma of

licentiate) 26,751.08 47,173.44

(Heyvaert & Janssens, 2001)

Table 8.9. Annual gross salaries of academic staff (full-time) at colleges of higher education

(hogescholen) in EUR (1 June 2001)

Grade Start End (max. years of seniority)

Practical lector 27,700.91 43,541.61

Senior practical lector 28,818.51 47,166.45

Lector 29,768.34 50,190.70

Senior lector 32,869.49 53,291.56

Assistant 29,768.34 50,190.70

Doctor assistant 32,869.49 53,291.56

Lecturer 35,300.14 55,721.90

Senior lecturer 37,954.18 59,188.64

Professor 43,988.71 64,410.47

Full professor 56,973.67 87,040.37

(Heyvaert & Janssens, 2001)


Table 8.10. Annual gross salaries of academic staff (full-time) at universities in EUR (1 June 2001)

Grade Start End (max. years

of seniority)

Assistant 30,358.92 51,377.28

Doctor assistant 37,605.00 58,622.40

Lecturer 38,697.12 57,041.04

Senior lecturer 44,193.48 69,615.60

Professor 51,885.00 79,199.88

Full professor 58,114.68 88,783.68

(Information received from the K.U.Leuven, Personnel Department)

CHAPTER 9. EVALUATION OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM


The supervisory power of the authorities over the education system and especially the outcomes has been

a very sensitive issue in Belgian and now Flemish education. The sentence about control being subject to

permanent attention on behalf of the Government in the Dutch Constitution was explicitly rejected in the

preparation of the first Belgian Constitution in 1830. Special emphasis was placed on freedom of choice

for parents and, in this connection, the freedom to organise schools by organising bodies (inrichtende

machten). Therefore, some educational networks had their own inspectorate until the Decree of 17 July

1991. State inspectors have long played a key role in monitoring and optimising education. The

monitoring procedure is carried out indirectly during the preparation of syllabuses and the assessment of

the standard of diplomas and directly by verifying the level of studies. The organising bodies take

responsibility for preparing syllabuses and submitting them for approval to the minister.

9.2. Institutional self-evaluation

The Flemish education system does not have a strong institutional tradition of formal self-evaluation. As

a matter of fact, self-evaluation has been encouraged with the new inspection system and the current

schemes for external support to schools; this principle is also established in the most recent laws on

higher education (both universities and colleges of higher education (Decree of 12 June 1991 and the

Decree of 13 July 1994).

Materials for self-evaluation will be developed in the years to come, but the implementation of self-

evaluation procedures will remain under the exclusive authority of the organising bodies (Van Petegem,

1996). Self-evaluation systems at the pre-school, primary and secondary level have been developed (Van

Petegem, 1998; Devos, Verhoeven e.a., 2000; Laevers, s.d.); the Decrees related to the colleges of higher

education and the universities provide a system of quality assurance in which the principle of self-

evaluation is an essential element.

9.3. Evaluation of higher education

First, we describe the evaluation system of higher education. The decrees related to the colleges of higher

education (hogescholen) and the universities have established the framework of the quality assurance

system at the higher level; this system of quality control differs greatly from the system for pre-school,

primary, and secondary education.

The decrees on the universities and on the colleges of higher education impose a dual quality-assurance

structure on the institutions of higher education and establish a framework for monitoring the quality of

education by the institutions themselves. However, it is not true that these decrees have introduced a


quality assurance system to be implemented by the institutions themselves. On their own initiative, the

universities had already established such systems of quality assurance. The legislation aimed to establish

a more professional approach to such forms of quality assurance and made it compulsory (Verhoeven &

Beuselinck, 1996).

The Decrees on the colleges of higher education and the universities require them to engage in quality

assurance themselves, while the government assumes responsibility for monitoring quality at these

institutions. In the first case, a distinction is drawn between internal (see section 9.3.1.) and external

quality assurance (see section 9.3.2.). The quality assurance systems of the government consists of

examining the internal and external quality assurance system of the institutions and regularly organising

“a comparative study into the quality of educational activities” for specific courses or groups of courses.

The government will also see to it that the results of this research are incorporated into the policy of the

institutions in question and will monitor the account taken of the results.

In the framework of the convention of Bologna and the following revision of the higher educational area,

an international transparant system of quality assurance, namely the accrediting will be established (see

paragraph 6.1.1.).

9.3.1. Internal quality assurance

As far as internal quality assurance is concerned, each institution has a duty to monitor its education and

research activities on a continual basis. All colleges of higher education and universities are obliged by

the decree to set up internal quality assurance systems.

9.3.1.1. Internal quality assurance in colleges of higher education

Each college of higher education is expected to assess permanently the quality of the teaching and the

research of the college, and the actions to improve the situation should be reported in the annual report of

the college. Students should be actively involved in this process. It should also be sought as much as

possible to incorporate into the self-evaluation process the views of graduates and people from the

professional field to which the course is linked. Self-evaluation should result in a report, the status and

distribution of which is determined by the college board. At present, most of the colleges apply the

EFQM (European Foundation for Quality Management) system, although different applications are used.

One of these evaluation instruments is PROZA (Projectgroep Ontwikkeling Zelfanalyse -instrument

kwaliteitszorg = Project group for the development of an self-evaluation instrument for quality

assessment). Different steps have to be taken by the administration and the evaluation team of the college

of higher education:

- Preparation of the self-evaluation: Who will be the co-ordinator? What has to be assessed? How

should be scored? Etc.;

- Composition of the evaluation team;

Evaluation of the Education System 207

- Steps to be taken, e.g. individual self-evaluation, discussion of the individual questionnaires in group;

plan of actions to be taken to improve the situation (Schoofs, 1997-98, Decree of 18 May 1999

concerning Education X).

A study by the Flemish Council for Higher Non-University Education (Vlaamse Hogescholenraad

(VLHORA)), “Optimisation of the Non-University Higher Education” (2000) shows that there still is a

lack of clarity concerning quality assurance and more specifically the autonomy of colleges of higher

education (hogescholen) in this matter. Internal quality assurance is still insufficient. Only 15 out of 23

colleges of higher education (hogescholen) evaluated student counselling. 14 colleges of higher

education (hogescholen) evaluated the teaching of the teachers and the practical training. Other elements

were evaluated less frequently: personnel management (10), strategic management (11), personnel

evaluation (11), resourcemanagement (10), and personal leadership (8). Moreover, the report shows that

most colleges of higher education (hogescholen) choose a system of Integral Quality Assurance (Integrale

Kwaliteitszorg (IKZ)). This means that not only education and scientific research but also the systematic

control and continuous improvement of the working of the college of higher education (hogeschool) in

total are covered by the quality assurance program. Consequently, Integral Quality Assurance (Integrale

Kwaliteitszorg (IKZ)) concerns all aspects of the organisation of the college of higher education

(hogeschool) and becomes a matter for all sections (Rottiers, 2001; Bronders, 2001).

9.3.1.2. Internal quality assurance in universities

Each university has to apply this system as a permanent form of quality assurance. The minimum

conditions with which it must comply are set out by VLIR in the following steps (Hulpiau, 1994: 20):

- The system should take a course or group of related courses as its point of departure.

- The system should relate to all academic and advanced academic courses.

- The implementation of a self-evaluation process forms an essential component of the quality

assurance system. Students should be actively involved in this process. It should also be sought as

much as possible to incorporate in the self-evaluation process the views of graduates and people from

the professional field to which the course is linked. Self-evaluation should result in a report, the status

and distribution of which will be determined by the university board.

- The self-evaluation process may draw on the list of points established in consultation between the

universities and the intermediate co-ordinating body with respect to external quality assurance. This

can serve to strengthen the link between internal and external quality assurance.

- The way in which internal quality assurance is elaborated and followed up is reported in the annual

report.


- Self-evaluation, which is viewed as a form of monitoring within the overall system of internal quality

assurance, should be carried out with a frequency established by the university board with account

being taken of factors such as the duration of the course and the frequency of external quality

assurance. This entails the amendment of the decree.

It should be noted once again that this was not the first time the universities have taken steps to examine

and improve the quality of their education.

9.3.2. External quality assurance

9.3.2.1. External quality assurance in colleges of higher education

As for external quality assurance, each institution is obliged to conduct a comparative quality survey in

collaboration with Belgian or foreign higher education institutions at least every eight years.

At least every five years, a comparative quality survey has to be conducted in basic courses of 1 cycle and

every eight years in 2 cycles. This comparative survey may include national as well as foreign colleges of

higher education. Students should be actively involved in this process. The views of graduates and

people from the professional field to which the course is linked should be incorporated in the self-

evaluation process. Self-evaluation should result in a public report, and it should be clear that the college

should take action to improve the situation where it has be seen as deficient.

The Decree on Education X of 18 May 1999 determines that the basic courses of 2 cycles should be

reviewed according to the above-mentioned scheme. Therefore, an agreement is made with VLHORA in

order to organise this external quality procedure. As far as the external quality assurance of the basic

courses of 1 cycle is concerned, the survey will be conducted by an external committee of experts,

appointed by the Minister of Education. According to the decree, this quality assurance system for the

basic courses of 1 cycle will last until 2002-2003.

If, in the opinion of the Flemish government, the results of a quality evaluation of the external visitation

commission is below a certain level, the board of directors of the colleges of higher education has to

present a plan within six months thereafter in which it indicates the measures it intends to take to

remediate the shortcomings. Subsequently, the board of directors of the colleges of higher education

reports annually on the implementation of the plan and about the effects the implemented measures.

After four years, the board of directors of the colleges of higher education arrange for an external

judgement of the quality of the educational and research activities. A public report is made of the results.

If, after this process, the quality of a course at the college of higher education is still considered to be

insufficient or not reasonably considered to belong to this type of education, the Flemish government can

decide;

- that the course and the registered students of this course are no longer qualified for any funding;

- or that the board of directors of the colleges of higher education is no longer allowed to grant a degree

for this course (Decree of 18 May 1999 on Education X).


9.3.2.2. External quality assurance in universities

Quality assurance in the universities is regulated by a system of external review where review committees

visit and evaluate all the courses of a certain subject area. The committees consist of external experts

who review the courses critically and make suggestions for improvement. The review system has two

complementary components, internal and external. The internal quality assurance consists of the

institution’s self-study, which has to be conducted before the visitation by the external review committee.

The external component is provided by external experts who evaluate the faculties and the courses. There

is a strong connection between the components: the external component can stimulate the internal one,

and the internal component is the basis for the external component (Vlir, 2001).

First, each of the relevant study fields at each university has to write a self-study reporting the results of a

critical self-analysis (over a period of six months), whereby the various groups associated with the course

are involved Independent Academic Personnel (Zelfstandig Academisch Personeel), Auxiliary Academic

Personnel (Assisterend Academisch Personeel) and students. The data collected in the self-study are

evaluated within a period of one year and are collected in an extended report. Then the visitation

committee (visitatiecommissie) has to answer the question if a course achieves the objectives set at the

outset on the basis of the self-study carried out by the specific faculty, recent evaluation reports, student

surveys, courses, study books, visits to the faculties, discussions with all possible interested parties

connected to the course, and so on.

The committee then drafts a course report designed to enable each faculty to work on improving its

quality. The faculties are given the opportunity to respond to the report. Once all the faculties in a

particular field of study have been examined, a general report is produced in which various aspects of the

education provided by the institution is placed in a comparative perspective. The final report, comprising

a general section and the course reports, is also intended to inform the Community (Gemeenschap) about

the status of education in the specific field of study. Thus, it is published. The committee consists of

experts who are not employed by any of the faculties concerned (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996).

If, in the opinion of the Flemish government, the results of a quality evaluation of the external visitation

commission is below a certain level, the board of directors of the university has to present a plan within

six months thereafter in which it indicates the measures it intends to take to remediate the shortcomings.

Subsequently, the board of directors of the university reports annually on the implementation of the plan

and about the effects the implemented measures. After four years, the board of directors of the university

arrange for an external judgement of the quality of the educational and research activities. A public

report is made of the results. If, after this process, the quality of a course at the university is still

considered to be insufficient or not reasonably considered to belong to this type of education, the Flemish

government can decide:

- that the course and the registered students of this course are no longer qualified for any funding;

- or that the “universiteitsbestuur” (board of directors of the university) is no longer allowed to grant a

grade for this course (Decree of 18 May 1999 on Education X).


The first review round of the universities ended in 2001 and almost all academic courses have now been

reviewed. On the basis of this first review round, the Flemish Interuniversity Council (Vlaamse

Interuniversitaire Raad (VLIR)) detected a few problems. These bottlenecks resulted in a few changes in

the procedure of the review system for the second round, which starts in 2002. First, the Flemish

Interuniversity Council (Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad (VLIR)) decided to include quantitative figures

and comparable tables in the review reports. From the second round on, the courses will be evaluated on

17 aspects of quality such as educational profile, objectives and attainment targets, structure and content

of the curriculum, examination and evaluation, pass rates, student profiles, and student numbers. The

committee will formulate a conclusion (a score on a five-point scale) for all aspects in the final report.

However, no general final conclusion for the course will be formulated. Second, the research component

of the education will be given more attention in the review. Data about the research output of the staff

will also be requested. Third, the committees will investigate what has been done with the

recommendations given in the first round. Finally, the framework of evaluation and reference of the

committee will be presented in advance to the concerned faculties (Vlir, 2001).

9.3.3. Quality assurance by the government

The quality control of the government consists of an inquiry of the internal and external quality assurance

and a possible comparative investigation concerning the quality of the educational activities in certain

courses or group of courses. Moreover, the government will check if the results of this inquiry are

incorporated in the policy of these institutions and impose a sanction if these results are insufficiently

taken into account. This kind of meta-evaluation has been already applied for the universities

(Auditcommissie Kwaliteitszorg, 1998). No actions have yet been taken for a meta-evaluation in the

colleges of higher education.

9.4. Evaluation at pre-school, primary and secondary level: general frame-work

The monitoring of the education system involves an interplay among different parties, including the

inspectorate and the organising bodies. The latter are involved on the basis of their special role in

curriculum development. Since 1989, the relations between the different partners have changed

dramatically. For this reason, a brief historical overview is useful and so is integrated into the next

section.


In the last decade, an evolution in curriculum development and supervision has taken place. In the past,

curricula were developed by the organising bodies. Each organising body autonomously determined its

teaching methods and its educational project (see also section 2.1.). These curricula were submitted to the

Education Minister for approval. Up to 1989, the Minister of Education, being at the time organising

body of all the State schools, used the curricula developed for State schools as the point of reference.


After the federalisation of Belgium and the installation of the Independent Council for Community

Education (Autonome Raad voor het Gemeenschapsonderwijs) (ARGO) in Flanders, drafting the

curricula had to be reformed. This was done by the Decree of 17 July 1991.

This decree starts from a number of premises, one of which clearly points to the curricula. On the level of

the curricula, the minimum expectations of the Community (Gemeenschap) regarding education may be

stipulated by the authorities.

The decree opts for a more dynamic view on education - inspired by trends in educational research and

international education policy developments - and for new reference concepts, the attainment targets

(eindtermen) and developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) concept.

At the same time, a clear distinction was introduced between the monitoring of the education system by

the Inspectorate and the school-support function by the newly established network-related pedagogical

support services (pedagogische begeleidingsdiensten).

9.4.2. Curriculum development and control

Attainment targets (eindtermen) and developmental objectives are minimum objectives regarding the

knowledge, insights, skills, and attitudes schools must offer to their pupils. The subject- or subject-area-

related attainment targets (vak- of leergebiedgebonden eindtermen) regarding knowledge, insights, and

skills have to be attained by the pupils (except those regarding attitudes). The attainment targets that

cannot be assigned exclusively to one subject, like learning attitudes and social skills, have to be aimed at

by the schools (Maes, 1998). Developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) also have to be aimed at

by the schools. They are formulated for education from pre-school up to secondary education (special

and ordinary education). In practical terms, this means that there will be attainment targets and

developmental objectives for:

- the end of pre-school school (Decree of 15 July 1997);

- the end of primary school (Decree of 15 July 1997);

- the end of the first stage in secondary education (Decree of 24 July 1996 (a)) and for all educational

forms the second and third stage (Decree of 18 January 2002).

The attainment targets and developmental objectives will be formulated for adult education and special

education as well. As to special education this is partly realised (Decision of the Flemish Government of

1 December 1998 defining the developmental objectives of special primary education type 2). From a

pedagogical standpoint, attainment targets and developmental objectives are characterised by teaching

content linked with the pupil behaviour in response to this content. These attainment targets and

developmental objectives are considered to be achievable for the majority of pupils under normal

conditions. These objectives function exclusively as an instrument for checking the education system by

the authorities. For the pupils, certification by the class council (klassenraad) is based on the attainment


of the curriculum objectives provided by a school, not on the basis of the attainment of the attainment

targets and developmental objectives, integrated into the approved curricula, as such.

The attainment targets and developmental objectives have to be integrated into the curricula. They

function as official minimum conditions for the drafting of programmes by the organising bodies or their

educational networks (onderwijsnetten). These curricula have to be submitted by all organising bodies

for approval by the Minister of Education. Criteria for the approval procedure have been established.

The attainment targets and developmental objectives are formulated by the Departement of Educational

Development (Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling) (DVO) and approved by the Flemish Parliament,

upon the recommendation of the Flemish Education Council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) (VLOR).

The inspectorate is using the attainment target framework as a criterion in the evaluations/reviews of

schools. This initiative is an important element in the development of a more systematic and dynamic

monitoring system of the education system in Flanders.

9.4.3. Attainment targets and developmental objectives

The overall definitions for the attainment targets and developmental objectives became, as a consequence

of the 1996 modifications to the 1991 Decree, rather complex and elusive as a result of the fragile

equilibrium between freedom of education and governmental control.

Five definitions are critical:

- developmental objectives are minimum objectives to be aimed at in ordinary pre-school education;

- attainment targets are minimum objectives to be aimed at and achieved in ordinary primary education;

- attainment targets are minimum objectives to be aimed at and achieved in ordinary secondary

education;

- developmental objectives are minimum objectives to be aimed at in the first year B and the 2nd year

Preparatory Vocational Secondary Education Beroepsvoorbereidend Leerjaar (BVL) for details on the

structure of secondary education);

- developmental objectives are minimum objectives to be aimed at in special primary and secondary

education according to type and/or form (see also section 10.9 for details on the structure of special

education).

In ordinary primary education an additional distinction is made between subject-area-related attainment

targets (leergebiedgebonden eindtermen) and cross-subject-area attainment targets

(leergebiedoverschrijdende eindtermen). The latter refer to more basic goals that cannot be assigned

entirely to one subject area but only to the context of more subject areas taken together. Still, they are

important and have to be aimed for. The subject-area-related attainment targets regarding attitudes have

only to be striven for; after all, it is difficult to monitor reliably attitudes and the effects of cross-subject-


area attainment targets (learning attitudes and social skills), in contrast with the subject-area-related

attainment targets regarding knowledge, insights, and skills (Maes, 1998).

In ordinary secondary education, a similar distinction is made between subject-related attainment targets

(vakgebonden eindtermen) and cross-subject attainment targets (vakoverschrijdende eindtermen). As in

primary education, the latter (learning attitudes, social skills, education for citizenship, health education,

and environmental education) only have to be aimed at. Here, too, the subject-related attainment targets

regarding attitudes only have to be aimed at for the same reasons as for primary education. They also

refer to the attainment targets to be developed for determining the fundamental options and characteristics

of the chosen branch of study at the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th stages of secondary education. These objectives

will be developed and adopted by means of a less formal procedure that permits such things as a more

flexible adaptation to labour-market requirements of mainly technical and vocational secondary education

(Maes, 1998).

In special basic and secondary education, no attainment targets are determined. In view of the division of

educational types and educational forms, the specificity and diversity of the target group, and the

individualised method of approaching the pupil, only developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) are

determined. This is a list of objectives from which the class council (klassenraad) in consultation with the

parents selects the most relevant objectives for the individual pupil or group of students from that

moment. These objectives are recorded in the action plan (handelingsplan) a document that deals with the

selected objectives. At present, the developmental objectives for Type 2 and Type 8 are defined. The

developmental objectives for the Types 1 and 7 are being prepared. To divide the developmental

objectives, the subject areas of ordinary education are used.

No attainment targets or developmental objectives whatsoever will be developed for philosophical or

religious subjects (see for background information section 1.3. and for information on control section

9.4.2.2.).

Furthermore, deviations from the established development objectives and/or attainment targets are

possible. A school board (schoolbestuur) can judge that the development objectives and/or attainment

targets do not provide the space to express its own educational and didactical views and/or are

incompatible with those views. In that case the school board can apply the Flemish government for an

exemption. Reasons have to be given, and the school board has to propose alternative development

objectives and/or attainment targets. The Flemish government judges on the similarity between the

proposed development objectives and/or attainment targets and the established ones.

9.4.4. Department of educational development (Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling)

(DVO)

In order to implement the inspectorate tasks in the best possible manner, a special service has been

created by the Decree of 17 July 1991: the Department of Educational Development. The Department of

Educational Development has the task of giving scientifically based recommendations to the Flemish


government and the minister responsible for education. This concerns four main things. First of all, this

service will, for all schools, establish attainment targets and developmental objectives for pre-school,

primary, and secondary education upon which a quality evaluation will be based. From a pedagogical

standpoint, attainment targets and developmental objectives are characterised by teaching content linked

with pupil behaviour in response to this content. The attainment targets and developmental objectives

thus developed are ratified by the Flemish authorities upon the unanimous recommendation of the

Flemish Education Council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) (VLOR).

The Department of Educational Development (DVO) has still four other important tasks (the Decree of 17

July 1991 and the Decree of 13 April 1999):

- developing analysis and evaluation instruments in order to audit schools as regards such things as the

realisation of attainment targets;

- developing criteria for the approvement of curricula and individual educational plans

(handelingsplannen);

- the working out of proposals concerning the development of the educational structures;

- the working out of proposals concerning the introduction and in-service training of members of the

Inspectorate.

9.4.5. The inspectorate

The Decree of 17 July 1991 organises the structure and functioning of the inspectorate for all educational

levels, excluding the universities and 2-cycle education of colleges of higher education

(hogeschoolonderwijs) (Michielsens, 1993; MVG, Departement Onderwijs, 1995b).

Half of the members of the inspectorate are recruited from teaching staff (for at least 10 years) from the

official schools and half of them from the grant-aided free schools (vrij gesubsidieerde scholen). They

are divided into several groups: basic education (basisonderwijs), secondary education, higher education

(one-cycle courses), adult education and Part-time Art Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO).

Furthermore, there is also an inspectorate for the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor

Leerlingenbegeleiding).

Article 113 of the new Flemish Decree of 14 July 1998 concerning Education IX modifies the Decree of

17 July 1991. This article stipulates that the general control and management of the Inspectorate is

entrusted to an inspection council (inspectieraad).

This Inspection Council consists of the inspectors-general of the several divisions of the Inspectorate and

the director of the Department of Educational Development (Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling) (DVO).

The chief co-ordinating-general of the Inspectorate is the chairman of the Inspection Council. The

Inspection Council has, as its main concerns, the effective functioning of the educational inspectorate and

the management of the quality-assurance tasks that the Inspectorate, on the order of the Flemish

Government, executes with respect to the educational institutions and the centres. Therefore, the


Inspection Council promotes co-operation between the divisions of the Inspectorate. The Inspection

Council is also regularly in contact with the Education Department and, if necessary, makes suggestions

in accordance with educational policy. The Inspection Council co-ordinates and manages the concepts,

instruments, and procedures that are used within the framework of the tasks of the Inspectorate. The

Inspection Council also co-ordinates the preparation of the annual report of the Inspectorate on the state

of the education system. The Inspectorate checks if the school is performing its social assignment and/or

if the resources of the Community (Gemeenschap) are being used in a judicious way (the school

inspection). For that, the Inspectorate advises on whether the school may be recognised or subsidised or

not. Moreover, the Inspectorate has an advisory function towards educational policy. Information about

the effects of the policy on the school level and as regards education in general are crucial for the further

development of educational policy. One of the ways this is provided is in the annual reports of the

Inspectorate on the state of the education system.

Alternative procedures apply for Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie).

This Inspectorate as a team has full responsibility for all the subjects taught at schools with the exception

of philosophical or religious courses.

Since 1989 a clear distinction has been made between the Inspectorate evaluating the level of teaching

and learning based on the attainment targets (eindtermen) and developmental objectives

(ontwikkelingsdoelen) under the authority of the Minister of Education and supporting individual teachers

or teacher teams under the authority of the organising bodies.

9.4.5.1. Tasks of the inspectorate

By law, the tasks of the Inspectorate are (Maes, 1998):

- monitoring compliance with and implementation of the curricula by the educational institutions that

are approved by the government;

- checking if the subject or subject area-related attainment targets (vak- of leergebiedgebonden

eindtermen) are being achieved and if the development objectives and/or the cross-subject or subject-

area attainment targets (vak- of leergebiedoverschrijdende eindtermen) are being striven for with

sufficient zeal by the educational institutions;

- checking on the application of school time;

- inspecting the hygiene of the school accommodations, compliance with the language laws, the

teaching equipment and the school equipment;

- advising on the funding of the educational institutions;

- advising on educational policy.


The Inspectorate not only checks if a number of legal prescriptions regarding education are been

respected but also examines the broader school context such as the school climate, the relations between

the different groups, and the infrastructure.

The Inspectorate is not qualified to evaluate the teaching methods or the school development plan

(schoolwerkplan) of the educational institution, which are covered by the principle of educational

freedom, or to inspect the courses of religion or non-denominational moral education.

The legal representative bodies of each recognised philosophical or religious community themselves

organise the inspection and support of the philosophical and religious courses taught at school. They are

also responsible for the development of the curricula and the organisation of in-service training for the

teachers involved (see 9.4.7.2.).

9.4.5.2. Monitoring procedures

The working method of the Inspectorate has five phases. The first phase involves gathering data on the

school, which are then analysed. These data are derived from several sources: information provided by

the general administration, previous Inspectorate visits, and so on, and also by the schools themselves,

both directly and in writing. The inspector-reporter (inspecteur-verslaggever) draws up an overview of

the data, which can be considered an initial introduction to the school ‘from a distance’ (Laumen, 1992;

MVG, Departement Onderwijs, 1995b).

In the second phase, the inspector-reporter (inspecteur-verslaggever) visits the school and compares the

information report with the reality. Thus, the report is supplemented and the risk of a distorted

interpretation is reduced. In particular, in the second phase, the school’s own interpretation of its own

activities plan is verified. The intention, therefore, is to acquire information about the objectives of the

school activities plan, whether they can be realised or not, and the reasons for this. The second phase is

concluded by making final revisions in the information report.

The third phase constitutes the essence of quality monitoring. An inspection team - three or four

inspectors in basic education (basisonderwijs) and six to eight inspectors in secondary education - goes to

the school to analyse the functioning of the school by means of a number of indicators and general

standards. This takes about a week. Although in principle the inspectorate operates as a team, individual

inspectors visit classrooms because a group of inspectors would make objective observation of classroom

activities impossible. It is important, in consultation with the local school, to draw up a work plan for the

school visit.

In the fourth phase, all the data gathered are compiled and thoroughly discussed by the inspection team.

This discussion leads to the preparation of the final report describing the weak and strong points of the

school.

Finally, in the fifth phase, the draft report of the fourth phase is discussed with the school concerned, and

the definitive final report is prepared.


The concluding part of the inspection report may be (Maes, 1998):

- positive;

- negative, which may become positive if the deficiencies are corrected;

- a negative advice: this leads to the withdrawal of the recognition of a school or a part of a school.

At present, the Inspectorate uses the evaluation instrument of the Department of Educational

Development (Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling) (DVO) only in primary education. The evaluation

instrument for secondary education is being prepared. In the other educational sectors, the instruments

are drawn up by the Inspectorate itself.

9.4.5.3. Relation between inspectorate and school

A great deal of attention is paid to the relationship between the Inspectorate and the school. The school

analysis must take place in an atmosphere of mutual confidence. Only then can the final report contribute

- as an external evaluation - to the optimum improvement of the school’s operation (Michielsens, 1992;

MVG, Departement Onderwijs 1995b).

The inspection report is not a scientific report in the strict sense of the word but rather a commentary that

is compared and checked with the facts. The report is written for the purpose of guidance of the school

after the school analysis has been completed. The inspection report has two ‘end users’ in mind. The

first is the Minister of Education, who implements the political options of the Flemish Parliament. He

must be enabled to conduct a policy based on information relating to the genuine developments within the

field of education itself. The second user is the organising body of the school involved, which is entitled

to this external evaluation, to help it to provide its own pedagogical support in the best possible way.

9.4.5.4. Alternative monitoring procedures

In some case other procedures are used, e.g. for Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale

Promotie) (OSP). The inspection is not carried out by a team during one extended visit to the school.

Instead, a ‘consecutive method’ is applied. Here, the inspection procedure is spread over a longer period

and is conducted by one or more members of the Inspectorate, sometimes assisted by external experts.

This enables another kind of monitoring to be applied. This method is also used for Part-time Art

Education (Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs) (DKO).


9.4.5.5. The Inspectorate for the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor

Leerlingenbegeleiding)

The Decree of 17 July 1991 lists the tasks of the Inspectorate for the Centres for Educational Guidance

(Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLB’s):

- giving advice on the centres’ financial and support conditions;

- verifying the execution of the legal provisions that the centres have to comply with;

- verifying the policy plan or policy contract;

- verifying the application of the language legislation, the hygiene, the state of the facilities, and the

quality of the equipment;

- verifying the quality policy as stipulated in the Decree concerning the Centres for Educational

Guidance of 1 December 1998;

- giving advice on educational policy for the operation of the Centres for Educational Guidance

(CLB’s);

- preparing and verifying the visitation commission’s investigation;

- investigating complaints by external persons at the government’s request;

- verifying the conditions of the contractual, additional assignments of the Centre for Educational

Guidance (CLB);

- all other tasks required by law or decree.

Because of the limited size of the corps and the special way the Centres for Educational Guidance

operate, they work mostly in the field,- the ‘consecutive method’ is used (see previous section). Over a

period of at most two years, members of the Inspectorate visit the same institution on average five times.

Certain aspects are then looked at, such as the administration or the role of the board of directors. The

Centres for Educational Guidance (CLB’s) are periodically visited by a visitation commission that checks

the execution of the policy plan or policy contract with the school and the quality policy. The

Inspectorate is part of the visitation commission, which consists of various experts. The Inspectorate of

the centres also collaborates on policy-preparing and policy-evaluating assignments at the government’s

request.

9.4.5.6. Evaluation of the inspectorate

An evaluation system for the staff members of the Inspectorate and the Department of Educational

Development (Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling) (DVO) has also recently been introduced by the

Decree of 14 July 1998 on Education IX. In effect, this decree stipulates that an evaluation must be

conducted of every staff member who works for more than three months in one year in the services of the

Inspectorate or the Department of Educational Development (DVO).


The evaluation consists of the judgement of the performance of the staff member in his or her present

position in function of previously set expectations. The evaluation is performed on the basis of a job

description. The expectations are established at the beginning of the evaluation period by mutual

agreement between the evaluators and the staff member. Two aspects can be distinguished: the relatively

permanent task and the period-bounded objectives. The task is established in a job description containing

two parts: the result areas, which are the tasks that have to be performed, and the competences, which are

the skills and qualities needed by the staff member to do the tasks. Annual objectives can also be agreed

upon.

In principle, the evaluation is conducted annually. All staff members of the Inspectorate and the

Department of Educational Development (DVO) are evaluated by at least two superiors. The evaluators

have at least two different ranks. A training programme for evaluators is compulsory for all the members

of the Inspectorate and the Department of Educational Development who will evaluate other staff

members. Only those evaluations conducted by staff members who have had this training are valid.

The evaluation procedure itself proceeds as follows. First, the staff member prepares a self-evaluation.

During an evaluation discussion between the staff member, who explains his or her self-evaluation, and

one or more evaluators, all aspects of the performance of the staff member are discussed. The evaluation

is written down by the evaluator(s) in an evaluation report with justifying reasons. This report contains

no final conclusion, except in the case of the evaluation “insufficient”. The staff member receives the

report after the evaluation discussion and is allowed to add his or her remarks. The evaluation report,

including the remarks, is kept in a personal evaluation dossier.

A staff member who does not agree with an evaluation of “insufficient” can appeal to the Council of

Appeal (Raad van Beroep). This Council of Appeal issues a recommendation with justifying reasons.

However, the ‘Inspection Council (Inspectieraad) is entitled to decide definitively about the assignment of

the rating “insufficient”. The inspectors-general, the chief co-ordinating-general, or the director of the

Department of Educational Development (Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling) (DVO) who does not

agree with an evaluation of “insufficient” can appeal to the Flemish government. The decision of the

Flemish government in such a case is binding. The decision accompanied by the reason for it that is

appealed, is also added to the evaluation report of the staff member.

A permanently appointed staff member of the Inspectorate or the Department of Educational

Development can be dismissed due to professional incompetence if he or she has received an evaluation

of “insufficient” for two continuous years or three times in his or her career at the Inspectorate or the

Department of Educational Development (DVO). The temporarily or contractually appointed staff

member of the Inspectorate or the DVO is dismissed if he or she has received one evaluation of

“insufficient”.


9.4.6. Pedagogical support services (Pedagogische Begeleidingsdiensten)

The pedagogical support services (pedagogische begeleidingsdiensten), already presented within the

framework of the discussions leading to the establishment of the Community Education

(Gemeenschapsonderwijs) (previously the Independent Council for Community Education (Autonome

Raad voor het Gemeenschapsonderwijs) (ARGO), contribute to educational quality and provide external

support for the schools, for the purpose of realising the pedagogical projects specific to an organising

body (inrichtende macht). They are established separately for each educational network (onderwijsnet)

(MVG, Departement Onderwijs 1995b).

As far as moral and religious courses are concerned, these support services have no authority. For them,

special procedures apply.

9.4.7. Special arrangements

This section focuses on two special quality-assurance procedures: monitoring and support in relation to

philosophical and religious courses, and city-based inspectors.

9.4.7.1. Control and support in relation to moral or religious courses

The Constitution guarantees to all pupils enrolled under the conditions of the Compulsory Education Law

two weekly periods of moral or religious education at school as part of the curriculum.

These courses are not subject to any government supervision whatsoever, as long as the fundamental

principles of democracy are respected. Nevertheless, the Decree of 1 December 1993 organises a

framework for inspection and educational support in these subjects at the basic and secondary education

level and in teacher training at the colleges of higher education (hogescholen).

For each recognised or religious community, one association or authority is acknowledged as the legal

representative of that community. Those representative bodies organise the inspection and support of the

moral and religious courses taught at school. They are also responsible for the development of the

curricula and the organisation of in-service training for the teachers. The appointed inspector-advisors

(inspecteur-adviseur) have several well-defined tasks and responsibilities, including:

- inspection of all learning materials used;

- inspection of the physical conditions of classrooms used for teaching philosophical or religious

courses;

- inspection of the level and quality of the teaching and the learning;

- advising the government on initiatives to be considered.


The inspector-advisors give information concerning the application of the legal and administrative

regulations to:

- the recognised agencies of the recognised religions and the recognised association for non-

denominational ethics concerning the content, the curricula and the professional competence of the

teachers;

- the co-ordinating-general (Inspecteur-Generaal) - the head of the Inspectorate.

The co-ordinating-general at the Education Department (Ministry of Education) is administratively

responsible for this group of inspector-advisors.

9.4.7.2. City-based inspectorate

A few larger cities (e.g. Antwerp, Ghent, and Mechelen) have their own inspectorate staffs. They are

considered senior civil servants of the municipal education authority as organising body (inrichtende

macht) of grant-aided official education (gesubsidieerd officieel onderwijs).

9.5. Evaluation at community level

Quality control is based upon analysis of the school and full scrutiny of the school. There has been an

evolution from intermittent, subject- and teacher-related inspection to systematic evaluation of the total

functioning of the school (Maes, 1998). The inspectorate uses a model with context, input, process, and

output indicators.

The school in all its aspects is considered responsible for the quality of the education. Supervision of the

attainment targets (eindtermen) and developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) is an important part

of school analysis, carried out by the inspectorate. To that end, inspectors may focus on certain learning

areas or subjects and organise a test in those fields. When conducting these tests, feedback may be given

to schools in terms of the overall categories. Each year, the Inspectorate presents a summary of the main

conclusions of their inspections to the Flemish Parliament.

9.5.1. Evaluation at community level: basic education

Inspection of basic education (basisonderwijs) for 2001 concentrated on the following domains: the work

climate - specifically the planning load and the material working conditions of the personnel - the

participation of teachers, children and parents, the willingness to change and innovate by school teams,

and the equal opportunity policy. The most important conclusions of this analysis will be presented

below.

First, the Inspectorate interviewed the teachers about their experiences with the planning load (non-

teaching related tasks) and material working conditions. Generally, the teachers seem to think it is

essential to keep a number of planning, preparatory, report documents. The overlap with other documents

and assignments is experienced as excessive planning load. Not only administrative tasks but also


additional activities such as after-school activities and festivities are experienced as ‘planning load’.

However, it is not so much the planning load as the pressure of work that is experienced as being a

problem.

Short-term planning such as lesson preparation and class registers is evaluated by almost all interviewed

teachers as ‘useful for the working in the classroom’. Long-term planning (such as school development

plan (schoolwerkplan)) are considered as less useful. More than 80% of the interviewed teachers think

that reports of staff meetings and workgroups are useful for the functioning of the school. The

Inspectorate gave 84% of the schools a positive evaluation concerning the extent to which all these

documents contribute to the quality of the education.

To register the developmental evolution of the children, the teachers use a number of different

instruments: registrations of pupil’s results, individual progressreports, evaluational notes, diagnostic

tests, error analysis, monitoring systems, remedial plans, and individual educational plans

(handelingsplannen), and the reporting of all this to parents and colleagues. In general, these instruments

are experienced as being worthwile. The Inspectorate gave 79% of the schools a positive evaluation

concerning the extent to which all these instruments contribute to the quality of the education.

In general, the Inspectorate evaluated the material working conditions as being ‘sufficient’. However, a

number of schools need to catch up in the matter of media, furniture, and other facilities.

The second domain of inspection was the participation of teachers, children, and parents. We present the

most important conclusions:

- In most schools, teacher participation is increasing in the area of school life and school policy.

However, teachers are mostly involved in organisational aspects of the school functioning. A

discrepancy was found between the school head’s view and the view of other team members

concerning participation. The heads evaluate the participation a lot higher than the teachers.

- Pupil participation is not yet widespread in basic education (basisonderwijs). This kind of

participation is partly determined by the school culture but is best implemented on the level of the

classroom. At the school level, the Inspectorate did not find continuity in this matter, except in

schools with a specific educational project (pedagogisch project) such, as alternative schools.

- Most schools have the structural facilities to give parent participation a real chance. In basic schools,

parents do (however, often limited) have an influence on school life but not yet on school policy.

Often they are used only as a sounding board only to confirm the policy the school presents. No

connection is found between the influence of the participation council (participatieraad) / school

council (schoolraad) and the parent’s committee. Futhermore, questioning of parents is not yet part of

the school culture. Parents are often seen primarily as clients and less as participants in education.

Third, the Inspectorate investigated the willingness of school teams to change and innovate. The

Inspectorate used the school organisation features of the CIPO model as starting points: collective

purposiveness, internal leadership, communication and consultation and the professional development of


the team members. The conclusion is that the attitude towards change is strongly related to the school

climate and the school culture. In schools where the well-being and involvement of teachers are high

priorities, there is more willingness to change and innovate.

Furthermore the Inspectorate drew the following conclusions:

- educational innovations can only have a permanent effect on the working of the classroom and the

school if the school team has a strategic plan and a joint sense of purpose;

- changes and innovation need to be supported by internal leadership grounded in participation,

willingness to listen, and trust;

- internal and external consultation contribute strongly to the implementation of innovation and change;

- schools need to invest in the team member’s craftmanship so the developing process does not

stagnate.

Finally, the Inspectorate considered the equal opportunity policy.

The first half of the temporary project extending care (zorgverbreding) 2000-2002 was evaluated. In total

1,478 allocation plans were submitted of which 66% were approved. The Inspectorate evaluated the

project as ‘favourable’. The extending care (zorgverbreding) makes an important contribution to the

quality of the educational system. However, a few problems were detected. A gap was found

between schools that need extra teaching periods and do not get them and schools that have developed a

tradition of extending care (zorgverbreding). In some schools the intervention is unilaterally directed to

cognitive development. The cooperation with the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor

Leerlingenbegeleiding) is not as good as it could be. In many schools, there is no tradition of evaluating

the application plan with the whole school team, and the involvement of all the parents in the working of

the school is difficult. The Inspectorate concluded from all this that the system of application plans needs

to be replaced. All the initiatives concerning extending care need to be united in one system. This will be

done in the new integrated equal opportunity policy.

The first part of the temporary project educational priority policy (onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid) 2000-2002

was also evaluated by the Inspectorate: 583 application plans were analysed. Only one school got a

negative rating. The Inspectorate evaluated the project as ‘favourable’. Thanks to this project, the

teachers developed a view in which the empathic approach to immigrant children is crucial. The

Inspectorate thinks that extra teaching periods for schools in need are necessary to obtain an equal

educational level and educational output. Cross-cultural education is integrated in the school culture of

many schools, and extra teaching periods may result in more expertise for teachers and in the

development of a joint view concerning the approach to diversity, racism, and other discriminatory

behaviour.

Also the policy of non-discrimination was evaluated. This policy has, according to the Inspectorate,

resulted in a social debate about the presence of immigrants in schools and to more awareness of the

problems of immigrants on the part of teachers. In this respect, the evaluation and mediation committee


of the Flemish Education Council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) (VLOR) received 19 complaints about

discrimination in basic education (basisonderwijs). The most common reason for a complaint was the

refusal to enroll a pupil.

Finally, the policy on the reception of immigrants was evaluated. In 2001 there were 344 schools with

extra teaching periods for the reception of immigrants. These schools had in total 3,489 non-Dutch

speaking new pupils and 6,062.5 extra teaching periods were assigned by the Education Department

(departement Onderwijs). The Inspectorate evaluated the project as ‘favourable’. In most visited schools,

the application of the extra teaching periods was considered positive to very positive. Because of a lack

of personnel, the teaching periods were not used in some schools.

The Inspectorate of special basic education (basisonderwijs) focused on four main domains: special basic

education type 2, the planning load of teachers in special basic education, the working conditions in

special basic education, and the educational priority policy (onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid).

Concerning special basic education type 2, the Inspectorate focused on the process of individual

educational planning (handelingsplannen) and on the organisational features of the school that contribute

to this process. In general, both educational as organisational features were evaluated positively.

Concerning the planning load, special schools use many different documents. The teachers mentioned the

following documents the most: the class register, the individual file, the individual educational or therapy

plan, the group educational or therapy plan, observation and evaluation documents, student monitoring

system, school reports, day, week or year plans and lesson preparations. However, none of these

documents was considered indispensable by all the teachers, nor was there one document that is

considered by most teachers as being not useful. The experience of planning load is related to different

aspects in different combinations different from school to school and from teacher to teacher.

The Inspectorate found that the daily working conditions have a great deal of influence on the well being

of the teachers positively as well as negatively. The Inspectorate focused on working conditions related

to the children on the individual and the group level (such as working with small groups, learning

pressures, and consultation between team members), material working conditions, and infrastructure

conditions.

The Inspectorate analysed the temporary project educational priority policy (onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid) in

42 schools. All these schools work with a Centre for Educational Guidance (Centrum voor

Leerlingenbegeleiding), follow in-service training, and accept the guidance of the Educational guidance

service (Pedagogische Begeleidingsdienst). In special basic education the special teacher for individual

education of immigrants (bijzondere leermeester individueel onderwijs-migranten) plays a major role in

the realisation of the application plan of the educational priority policy (onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid). The

Inspectorate reported a movement from individual working with pupils to joint working with colleagues

in order to develop new content or ways of working (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001a).

Belgium has volunteered to participate in the “Thematic Review of Early Childhood Education and Care

Policy” (ECEC) between autumn 1998 and summer 2000. This is a project in the framework of the


Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The conclusion of the review team

about the Flemish childhood education and care policy was very positive: “The pre-school institutions a

symbol of what needs to be maintained, an insititution that is universal in principle, localised and free,

and is characterised by concern for the personal, social and intellectual development of children. Current

levels of quality control and research are also at high level across both care and education. In short, our

recommendations are for improvements to a system that is already comprehensive and well-managed, and

offers many useful examples for other countries” (OECD, 2000).

In May 2002, the Education Department of the Ministry of the Flemish Community will conduct a

periodical survey of the attainment targets (eindtermen) for mathematics and reading comprehension.

This periodical survey is a large-scale test of a representative sample of Flemish students. Its objective is

to determine the present situation and the evolution of the quality of a specific educational area. More

specifically, this survey tries to work out the extent to which the pupils of the sixth grade in Flanders have

a thorough knowledge of the attainment targets (eindtermen) for mathematics and reading

comprehension. In the future, more of these surveys will be carried out in basic education

(basisonderwijs) and also in secondary education. Each time the focus will be on a specific part of the

attainment targets (eindtermen). These surveys will be repeated periodically in order to obtain a full

picture of the educational system over time (Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish


9.5.2. Evaluation at community level: secondary education

The Inspectorate for secondary education in the 2000-2001 school year emphasised three main subjects.

First, a few policy accents were tested in the educational field. Second, the Inspectorate focused on the

application of teaching periods. Finally, the course ‘aircraft technology’ was investigated in depth.

The Inspectorate investigated, first, the extent to which aspects of the staff and educational policy of the

schools are applied and how they are made concrete at the classroom level. The main conclusion is that

especially those aspects that are experienced as real needs and directly influence the daily school life

receive attention at school level. It is here that most examples of best practice are found. Sometimes, the

schools do not give enough attention to having educational approaches reach the classroom. The pursuit

of educational guidelines could also be improved. The educational approach in the classroom is, for the

most part, chosen by the individual teacher. Furthermore, professionalization is not sufficiently

monitored. In-service training in many schools is not sufficiently related to real needs, and there is little

evaluation of implementation and distribution. Policy accents and regulations that are supported and

guided in the educational field are most of the time concretized more rapidly and more efficiently.

About the application of the package of teaching periods, it was found that 95.52% of the ascribed periods

are actual teaching periods. This is a slight increase over the previous school year. The other periods are

applied for assisting the headteacher, coordination assignments, student counselling, the organisation of


trips, remedial classes, class councils (klassenraden), and so on. The most important conclusions in this

respect are:

- In many schools, especially small ones a discrepancy is found between the educational offering in the

third year of general secondary education (algemeen secundair onderwijs) and the number of ascribed

periods. This shortage is filled with periods generated by other courses, especially by vocational

secondary education (beroepssecundair onderwijs). The objective of this transfer is the preservation

of the educational offering, also of courses that are very thinly populated. Sometimes this happens at

the expense of socially weak students from vocational secondary education (beroepssecundair

onderwijs).

- In secondary education, more professional skill is needed in coordination, counselling and support

compared to the past. This results in the need for more resources for the daily organisation and

leadership of the school. At present, periods for special educational tasks realise this function at the

expense of real teaching periods.

Finally, the course of “aircraft technology” was investigated. This happened in the framework of the

reorganization policy of the Flemish government, which wants to check the usefulness of specific courses

in technical secondary education (technisch secundair onderwijs). The course of “aircraft technology”

was analysed because of its very specific character and doubts about employment opportunities. In

Flanders, 5 schools in technical secondary education (technisch secundair onderwijs) offer this course. In

the school year 2000-2001, 88 students took it. In each school, all the actors and parameters that

influence the quality of the course were analysed. The conclusions can be found in the report of the

Inspectorate (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001a).

Regarding special secondary education, the Inspectorate focused on the following specific problems:

- The application of the paramedical teaching periods in special secondary education. Here was

found an urgent need of a decretal basis for the appointment of pedagogical, psychological and social

staff.

- The establishment of vocational training in educational forms 1 and 2 (opleidingsvorm 1 and

opleidingsvorm 2).

- The costs for parents of special secondary education (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001a).

In 2000, the PISA project (Program for International Student Assessment) carried out by the OECD

measured the learning results of 15-year-olds in reading, mathematics, and science literacy. This report

shows that Flemish youngsters are among the top of the world in reading and mathematics and to the

subtop in science. However, the differences between pupils from families with high and low socio-

economical statuses are substantial. Students from Flemish underprivileged families score as well as

comparable groups in foreign countries. Students from higher classes score better than comparable

groups in foreign countries. As in all countries, girls read better than boys in Flanders. The good


learning results of Flemish youngsters cannot compensate for the fact they do not like going to school and

they do not read for pleasure (OECD, 2001).

9.5.3. Evaluation at community level: higher education

In this section, attention is restricted to the efficiency of higher education and the orientation of higher

education to the labour market. Presentation of all the quality assurance reports would be too extensive

for the present purposes.

There is the matter of high enrolment rates in higher education but with particularly high dropout rates

after the first and the second year (see 6.5.5.). Various reasons for the high failure rate can be cited

(Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996):

- A secondary school graduate may gain access to virtually all courses of study without having to pass

an entrance examination (there are some exceptions).

- Most universities and colleges only give examinations on a few dates. Students have to pass virtually

all the course components in a given study year in order to embark on the next year, and so are unable

to establish their own rhythm of study.

- There is no comprehensive credit system in reality.

- No limits are placed on an institution's intake, which means that many students are taught in mass

lectures at the universities.

- The first year is traditionally viewed as an instrument not only for measuring students’ progress but

also for selection.

The free access to higher education is often blamed for the high failure rate at the end of the first year.

For the year 1995-1996, the pass rate of freshmen for the first candidature was 44.01%. For students

from General Secondary Education (Algemeen Secundair Onderwijs) the pass rate at the end of the first

year is considerably higher: 54.6% (Inspectie Secundair Onderwijs, 2000). The entrance test organised

for the applied science course and the medical sciences and dentistry has, however, only a limited effect

on first-year pass rates. However, the impact of this test disappears after the first year - the pass figures

for applied science and medical sciences and dentistry are not discernibly different from other courses

after the second year. In other words, the additional efficiency achieved by the entrance test is negligible


The legislator has sought to tackle the problem of low pass rates by obliging the institutions of higher

education to introduce special study guidance for students. This has now been done. However, the mass

lectures have remained, especially in the first year at the universities, which represents an immense

change for students used to small secondary-school classes who suddenly find themselves sitting in a

lecture hall with between 100 and 800 other students. Universities invest proportionately more resources

in the later years and in scientific research than in the first year (Verhoeven & Beuselinck, 1996).


It must be remarked that the relative share of higher-education graduates in the Flemish active population

is high (32%) in comparison with the other countries of the European Union (23% on average) (MVG,

Departement Onderwijs, 1998e). Furthermore, it can be argued that the overall efficiency of higher

education is significantly higher than the pass rates in university education indicate. It is often the case

that students who fail, redo their year, take another university course and than succeed, or go to colleges

of higher education (hogescholen) and succeed there. Almost 60% of the students who fail the first year

at the university return to the university the following year, and 8.3% of them opt for a different course of

study than the previous course (year 1992-1993). The pass rate of students retaking their first candidature

is relatively high (56.7%) and also the pass rate of students in the new subject area is higher (53.6%) than

the pass rates of the students who were enrolled for the first time (Van Damme & Lorent, 1995). 11% of

the students in one-cycle higher education outside university and about 9% of those in the two-cycle

system already studied at a university (year 1989-90). However, no figures are available for the

proportion of the students who passed or failed their previous course. Almost 6% of all students enrolled

for one-cycle basic courses had already taken a two-cycle basic course at a college of higher education

(hogeschool). More generally, 15.3% of the students enrolled for a basic course at a college of higher

education had already followed another basic course at the college level (Lammertyn et al., 1992). The

figures presented in 6.6. also indicate that the efficiency of colleges of higher education is somewhat

higher than that of the universities: the first-year pass rates are higher for both the total group of students

and for the freshmen.

College and university graduates have always had a better chance of finding employment than the other

categories of the active population. Although they represented only approximately 10% of all

unemployed persons in 2000, approximately 30% of all vacancies received bij the Flemish

Unemployment Agency (VDAB) were intended for the more highly educated. In general, there’s more

need for highly qualified people than for people with low educational qualifications in Western

economies and thus also in Flanders (Verhoeven & Elchardus, 2000: 9; VDAB, 2001).

9.5.4. Evaluation at the National or Community Level: Adult education

Recent figures about adult education gives a full picture of life-long learning in Flanders. In 2000, 6.6%

of the Flemish population of the 25-64 years olds participate in some form of adult education.

Participation in life-long learning has been recently increasing. However, this participation is not evenly

divided over the different population groups. An important gap was found with respect to the

opportunities to participate in a course. This “employability-gap” closes off certain population groups

from the educational market. Moreover, the weak groups on the educational market often already have a

weak position in the jobmarket. We are more specifically speaking about elderly people, manual

workers, less educated people, and employees of small or medium-sized companies:


- Age seems to be an important factor in educational participation opportunities: participation decreases

as age increases. 8.5% of the people from 25 to 49 years old participate in life-long learning but only

2.5% of the + 50-year-old people participate. Moreover, younger people follow more professionaly

oriented courses while older people follow more leisure or cultural courses.

- Workers, employees, and executives do not have equal participation opportunities. The participation

rate for executives is higher than the rate for employees, which is in turn higher than the rate

for manual workers.

- The relationship between the level of education and participation in life-long learning is high. The

chances for a more highly educated person to participate in adult education are more than twice the

chances of a less educated person. This means that less educated people do not compensate for their

educational deficit through participation in life-long learning. Instead their non-participation increases

this deficit. This way adult education increases social inequality instead of correcting it. Highly

educated people participate more in courses of informatics and cultural education while less educated

persons tend to take technical courses and leisure courses.

- The gap between men and women in life-long learning seems to be narrowing.

- For employees, the participation opportunities depend on the size of the company they work for. The

smaller the company, the fewer educational opportunities the employees get.

- Finally, income and the family situation also influence educational participation. Umemployed people

and workers participate less than do employees and civil servants. Single people and heads of one-

parent families participate less (Baert, Douterlungne & Van Damme, 2000).

9.6. Educational research

Each year the Minister of Education spends about 100 million BEF on scientific research oriented to

educational policy and practice (onderwijskundig beleids- en praktijkgericht wetenschappelijk onderzoek)

(OBPWO). The scientific research projects mostly last two years and concern subjects determined by the

Minister of Education on the proposal of the Education Department of the Ministry of the Flemish

Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) and with the recommendation of the Flemish Education Council

(Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) (VLOR). In 2001, the themes given priority to were making the educational

profession more attractive, simplification of the regulation, optimisation of quality assurance and quality

control, eindtermen (attainment targets), differences between students, ICT, well-being of students, art

education, life-long learning and internationalisation of education (Information received from the

Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department).

In 2001, 9 proposals for research were approved. The intention is for research and policy to mesh as well

as possible. The research projects are part of the educational policy, and the scientific quality of the

research projects and the translation of the results in policy advice are structurally guaranteed. Therefore,

a committee of policy makers, scientific experts, and people in education follows the evolution of the


research project and participates in the discussion on the final report (see:

http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/obpwo).

Besides the Educational department supports research in the Centre for Intercultural Education

(Steunpunt Intercultureel Onderwijs (ICO)), the Centre for Dutch as Second Language (Steunpunt

Nederlands Tweede Taal) and the Centre for Policy Research (Steunpunt Beleidsrelevant Onderzoek).

9.7. Statistics

Table 9.1. Number of certificates, in ordinary secondary education (1999-2000)

N %

A-certificate (1) 293,150 70.6

B-certificate (2) 29,477 7.1

C-certificate (3) 20,596 5.0

No certificate 72,030 17.3

Total 415,253 100.0

(1) A Certificate: a pupil is passed

(2) B certificate: a pupil is passed but on condition that he follows a less “difficult” course of study

(3) C certificate: a pupil has to repeat a year

(Information received from the Minstry of the Flemish Community, Education Department, 2000)

Table 9.2. Percentages of school leavers registered as job seekers (1991-1998) (1)

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Primary 3.8 4.0 3.7 3.3 3.7 3.8 4.0 4.1

Lower secondary 13.4 13.3 11.2 9.9 10.3 9.8 9.5 9.9

Higher secondary 43.7 47.1 43.4 42.3 43.7 44.1 46.0 46.0

Colleges of higher education 31.0 26.5 32.0 34.2 32.2 32.3 30.8 30.6

University 8.1 9.2 9.7 10.3 10.0 9.9 9.7 9.4

(MVG, departement Algemene Zaken, 2001)

(1) The percentage for people with a university diploma is very low because these school leavers find a

job relatively easily without the help of an institution like the VDAB.


Table 9.3. Proportions of deregistrations in the registered population by diploma after one year of

leaving school (1993-1999) (1)

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Primary 58.5 53.2 51.1 48.3 43.0 49.8 55.0

Lower secondary 64.1 60.1 59.7 55.6 53.6 61.7 66.7

Higher secondary 78.0 73.8 76.6 73.4 74.2 81.1 82.1

Colleges of higher education 87.5 83.4 85.1 84.0 84.9 90.1 91.3

University 83.2 76.6 79.7 78.8 80.4 86.3 85.8

(MVG, departement Algemene Zaken, 2001)

(1) Deregistration may be seen as an indicator of the chances of employment of the school-leavers; after

all, when job seekers find a job, they leave the statistics of the job seekers. One has to keep in mind

that these figures only say something about the school leavers who registered as job seekers at the

VDAB.

Table 9.4. Number of participants in adult education per age and educational level (1999)

Age Educational level % participants of total target group

25-49 year Low-educated 3.6

Medium-educated 8.1

High-educated 14.5

Total 8.5

50-64 year Low-educated 0.8

Medium-educated 3.3

High-educated 7.9

Total 2.5

(Baert, Douterlungne & Van Damme, 2000)

Table 9.5. Number of participants in adult education per age and statute (1999)

Age Statute % participants of total target group

25-49 year Unemployed 9.2

Employed 8.8

Non-professionaly active 6.2

Total 8.5

50-64 year Unemployed 3.9

Employed 4.6

Non-professionaly active 1.1

Total 2.5



Table 9.6. Number of participants in adult education per age and sex (1999)

Age Sex % participants of total target group

25-49 year Man 9.1

Woman 7.8

Total 8.5

50-64 year Man 2.9

Woman 2.1

Total 2.5


CHAPTER 10. SPECIAL EDUCATION

In Belgium and in the Flemish Community, special-needs education for handicapped children is not part

of mainstream education. Over the last decade, however, awareness of integration and even inclusive

education is growing (Broekaert et al., 1993). Moreover, it is clear that programmes like extending

provisions (zorgverbreding) and educational priority policy (onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid) promote a policy

of adapting ordinary education in order to reduce school drop out. The step to special education for

handicapped children is often small. The Law on Special Education of 6 July 1970 as well as the Decree

on Basic Education (basisonderwijs) of 25 February 1997 defines special education: “it is a type of

education that on the basis of an educational project delivers teaching, education, care, and therapy suited

to the capacity of the pupils of whom the development of the total personality is not or insufficiently

assured by the ordinary education, temporarily or permanently” (Decree of 25 February 1997).

This definition is based on a true concept of special needs. The decree refers primarily to the difficulties

and incapacity of the mainstream school to provide for the optimum personal and social development of

all pupils rather than just to the child’s disability.


Although some special schools have been in existence for over a hundred years (for example, schools for

the visually and the hearing impaired), the State became aware of its duty towards physically and

mentally handicapped children when education became regarded as a universal right (Broekaert et al.,

1993).

In 1901, Ovide Decroly founded an ‘Institute for Abnormal Children’. He estimated that 3 to 4% of the

school population had special educational needs. By the 1930s, several specialised institutions existed for

the more serious ‘cases’. In 1956, courses were created for children suffering from brain damage and

were attached to teacher-training colleges. At that time, approximately 6,000 children attended

specialised schools, which were only on the primary level. It should be noted that State education was

then practically non-existent for this group of children: 1% of 17,000 children in 1961 and 9% of 35,000

children in 1965 attended such schools.

In 1968, 46,000 pupils attended special schools. At that time special primary education (Buitengewoon

Lager Onderwijs) (BLO) reached its saturation point, and it became apparent that there was a detrimental

confusion between children with learning disabilities and handicapped children in need of special

education.

The need for legislation to benefit handicapped children became apparent. However, political difficulties

(in 1965, in 1966, and in 1968 even leading to the fall of the Government) prevented such a bill from

being introduced until 1970. This bill was finally passed on 6 July 1970. It defined the policy intended to


meet the educational needs of handicapped children and adolescents. It stipulated who would benefit

from this form of education and specified the admission procedures for the pupils as well as the

organisation of the various educational levels. It established staff categories and decided on the principle

of the different State interventions and also various councils and commissions.


- Schools Pact Law of 29 May 1959.

- Law of 6 July 1970 concerning special and Integrated Education (applies only to special secondary

education).

- Royal Decree of 28 June 1978 defining the types and organisation of special education including

admission requirements (applies only to special secondary education).

- Decree on the basic education (basisonderwijs) of 25 February 1997 as modified.

- Decree of 14 July 1998 determining varied measures concerning the secondary education and

modifying the Decree of 25 December 1997 on the basic education as amended.

- Decision of the Flemish Government of 1 December 1998 defining the development objectives

(ontwikkelingsdoelen) of special primary education type 2.

- Decree of 2 March 1999 to confirm the Decision of the Flemish Government of 1 December 1998 to

stipulate the developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) of special primary education type 2.

- Decree of 8 January 2001 to confirm the Decision of the Flemish Government of 27 April 2001 to

stipulate the developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) of special primary education type 8.

10.3. Types of institutions, special arrangements, branches of study

The law of 6 July 1970 specifies that special education caters for children and adolescents from the age of

3 to the age of 21 who are capable of receiving education but for whom the mainstream school is not able

to provide a suitable education offer. The structure of regular education does not suit all children:

whatever the nature of the disability, beyond a certain degree of severity the ordinary educational circuit

is incapable of integrating these children and adolescents and actually aggravates the effect of the

disability. In general, special education is organised in schools independent of mainstream schools but

often linked (e.g. by proximity) to other social and educational institutions for handicapped people.

The Royal Decree of 28 June 1978 (confirmed by the Decree on Basic Education (basisonderwijs) of 25

February 1997) specified the different types of special education in relation to the nature and degree of

the main disability affecting a particular group and also the criteria and the conditions of admission to

these various types. Although special education is defined as a type of education, it turned out to be very

difficult to find an operational definition of the concept of special education needs. Therefore, the types

of special education refer to the nature and degree of the primary disability of a particular group of pupils.

Special Education 235

Special education may be organised in full-time schools and as Integrated Education (Geïntegreerd

Onderwijs) (GON) (see 10.7.). It may also take the form of courses given at home. In the framework of

permanent home-based education a child who is, because of a handicap, not able to go to school, gets 4

teaching periods a week at home from a teacher of the school nearby. This alternative is not common.

10.4. Consultation with mainstream education

The interplay with mainstream education is currently one of the main policy discussions. The Flemish

Education Council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) (VLOR) has established a permanent working group to

discuss this matter. One of the ideas to discuss is related to ideas on ‘integrated’ or ‘inclusive education’

as described in the ‘Salamanca Statement’ (UNESCO, 1994).

At present, the interaction with the mainstream branches are mainly threefold. First, there are the contacts

within the framework of the admissions procedures to special education (see 10.5). Second, there is

Integrated Education (Geïntegreerd Onderwijs) (GON) (see 10.7.). Third, there have been recent

governmental initiatives supporting remedial programmes in basic education (basisonderwijs) to tackle

the problem of school failure and repeating the first class of primary education. These are the schemes on

extending provisions (zorgbreedte) that focus on ordinary basic education but include the transfer of

expertise from, and interaction with, special education schools. The educational priority policy

(onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid) is another programme to reduce school failure in ordinary education. In this

sense, it is also oriented to ‘children with special needs’.

Finally, the government has set up experimental projects concerning the co-operation between special and

mainstream schools for primary education. The aim is to explore the possibilities of exchange of

expertise in working with pupils with special educational needs in ordinary education. Besides these

governmental initiatives, some schools have set up their own coperation networks.

10.5. Admission requirements, diagnosis and guidance

Handicapped children may be enrolled in pre-school education at 3 years of age (in practice children of

2.5 years old are allowed) and may continue at that level until the age of 6 or exceptionally until the age

of 7 or 8 if they are deriving any benefit from their attendance. Entry to primary school is normally at the

age of 6. As from 1 September 2001 pupils who get 5 years old before 1 January of the school year can

be enrolled in special primary education. This will only happen in a few cases (Decree of 13 June 2001).

The pupil normally leaves at the age of 13 occasionally at the age of 14 or 15. Studies at secondary level

may be continued up to the age of 21 (Law of 28 June 1983). The Minister may grant exceptions to this

age limit.

The 1970 Law and the 1978 Royal Decree, integrated by the Decree of 25 February 1997 for basic

education, regulated in more detail the conditions of entrance to special education. While the admission

process is more or less the same as for ordinary education in terms of the age at which pupils start pre-

school, primary, and secondary school, enrolment in an establishment of the special education system


requires a report that specifies the type of education basic education or the the type and form of education

(secondary education) that corresponds to their disability and needs of the child.

The report for enrolment in a special school consists of two parts: a certificate with information

concerning the type and/or form of education and the level of education attended by the child and an

explanatory protocol with the results of the multidisciplinary examination that justifies the issuance of the

certificate. This multidisciplinary examination is medical, psychological, social, and educational. It is

conducted by the Centres for Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding). For types 5, 6,

and 7, the medical examination is carried out by a specialist doctor approved by the Ministry for Public

Health. A certificate is issued to the parents that allows them to enrol the child in a school of their choice

that offers the specific type and/or form of special education required. The certificate is returned to them

when the child leaves the school (Broekcaert et al., 1993).

A copy of the explanatory protocol is sent to the educational establishment after the child’s enrolment.

To enable the class council (klassenraad) to assign the pupil to the most suitable class group and, together

with the Centre for Educational Guidance (Centrum voor Leerlingenbegeleiding), to set the objectives to

be attained and to work out an educational programme in function of the child’s educational needs.

In specific cases, supplementary advice is necessary before a child is enrolled in special education

schools. To that end, a Consultative Commission for Special Education (Commissie van Advies voor het

Buitengewoon Onderwijs) (CABO) has been appointed in every province by a Decision of the Flemish

Government of 24 June 1997. These commissions are entitled to:

- to decide on the permanent and temporary exemption of compulsory education for youngsters or to

withdraw this exemption;

- to advise on the transfer of pupils in ordinary education schools to special education schools;

- to advise on the transfer of pupils from special schools to ordinary schools;

- to advise on the transfer of pupils from one special education school to another that offers a more

suitable type or form of special education;

- to advise on continuous education at home.

In addition to the parents, the handicapped person or his legal representative, the advice of the

commission may also be asked for by a member of the Inspectorate, a school head, or the physician in

charge of the Centre for Educational Guidance. If the parents or the adult handicapped person refuse to

co-operate or fully disagree with the commission’s decision, they may appeal it.

10.6. Levels and age grouping

Special education is organised at the pre-school and primary levels and the secondary school level.

However, special pre-school education is not available for children of types 1 and 8. Similarly, there is

no special secondary education (buitengewoon secundair onderwijs) (BuSO) for adolescents of type 8.


For some children with special needs, a special scheme called Integrated Education (Geïntegreerd

Onderwijs) (GON) is set up (Broekaert et al., 1993).

The special education schools are provided with a stock or fund of periods to fulfil their teaching and

therapeutic needs. This fund is calculated on the basis of the numbers of enrolled pupils. The organising

body (inrichtende macht) decides on the grouping of the pupils within the types or forms of education.

The structure of special education at the pre-school level is similar to the one at the primary level. There

is one exception, however: special pre-school education is not available for children with special needs

corresponding to types 1 and 8.

At the primary level, eight types of special education have been defined in order to meet as much as

possible the general and individual educational needs of children and adolescents in special education

(Law of 6 July 1970):

- Type 1 applies to children and adolescents with a slight mental disability;

- Type 2 applies to children and adolescents with a moderate and/or severe mental disability;

- Type 3 applies to children and adolescents with severe emotional and/or behavioral problems;

- Type 4 applies to children and adolescents with physical disabilities;

- Type 5 applies to sick (hospitalised) children and adolescents;

- Type 6 applies to visually impaired children and adolescents;

- Type 7 applies to children and adolescents with a hearing impairment;

- Type 8 applies to children and adolescents with severe learning difficulties.

At the secondary level, four forms of education (opleidingsvormen) are organised that can combine pupils

of different types according to the nature and severity of their disability. The school years in special

secondary education are seldom comparable with those in ordinary secondary education. In special

education, a pupil passes to the next year only when he seems to be ready for it. A transfer from ordinary

to special secondary education is always possible, even during the school year.

Form of education 1 (opleidingsvorm 1) (OV1) applies to pupils for whom social adaptation alone and

self-reliant living are not possible. This type of training normally results in attendance at a day centre or

an occupational therapy centre. It consists of one single phase of a minimum of four years of study and is

attended by children with a certificate of the types 2, 3, 4, 6, or 7 (Broekaert et al., 1993).

Form of education 2 (opleidingsvorm 2) (OV2) is intended for children who, apart from a certain social

adaptation, may receive training to prepare them for a working life in a protected environment. It consists

of two phases, each comprising a minimum of two study years. It is attended by children with a

certificate of the types 2, 3, 4, 6, or 7 (Broekaert et al., 1993).

Form of education 3 (opleidingsvorm 3) (OV3) is intended for pupils who are able to attend vocational

training to prepare for a job in a normal working environment. Their training consists of activities


focused on learning general knowledge and acquiring social and vocational skills. Generally, it is

considered ‘vocational secondary education’ organised in a special way. It consists of an observation

phase of one year and a training phase of four years. It is attended by children with a certificate of the

types 1, 3, 4, 6, or 7. The ultimate objective of this form is to educate adolescents with special needs for

self-reliant living and integration in a normal labour environment (Broekaert et al., 1993).

Form of education 4 (opleidingsvorm 4) (OV4) is intended for pupils whose intellectual capacities are

sufficient to enable them to attend ordinary educational programmes provided the teaching methods and

facilities are adapted to their particular disability. It is open to pupils with a certificate of types 3, 4, 5, 6,

or 7. The schedules for this educational form are exactly the same as those of the corresponding ordinary

schools because it must conform to the structures of ordinary education. Pupils, therefore, may also

attend the normal division of ordinary secondary education. Indeed, the same diplomas and certificates

are issued as in ordinary schools. Very few are attracted to this form of education. The objective of

optimum integration, as in the system of Integrated Education (Geïntegreerd Onderwijs) (GON), has

pupils without a mental handicap usually attending ordinary secondary education. Moreover, it is very

difficult to provide a wide range of courses of study for the small number of potential candidates

(Broekaert et al., 1993).

Some courses can be modified in the context of the recent reorganisation of the secondary education,

established by the Decree of 14 July 1998 concerning secondary education (see chapter 5). Article 8 of

the concerned decree stipulates that form of education 3 (OV3) and form of education 4 of the special

secondary education (Buitengewoon Secundair Onderwijs) can be organised as a system of modular

courses. The Decree of 14 July 1998 requires the Flemish Government to determine the structure of the

modular training courses and to supervise the education in the modular system. As from 1 September

2001 experiments of modular education take place in form of education 3 (OV3) and form of education 4

(OV4) (Circular Letter of 26 July 2001).

Since 1 September 1998 schools that organise form of education 3 (OV3) can organise an additional

alterning training of one school year. This training consists of two days of lessons at school and three

days of work in a regular company a week and aims to improve employment chances of pupils of special

secondary education. This training is evaluated as very successful (Circular letter of 1 May 2000).

10.7. Integrated Education (Geïntegreerd Onderwijs) (GON)

Integrated Education requires co-operation between ordinary and special education to enable certain

children or adolescents who normally have to go to special schools to participate in ordinary education..

A modification to the 1970 Law in 1986 set out the basic organisation of Integrated Education (GON)

(integrated in the Decree on Basic Education of 25 February 1997), to be further specified by

implementation decrees. In the meantime, a number of partial or complete integration methods with

support measures have been laid down by circular letter. Some years ago, the Minister of Education has

taken the initiative to anchor in a decree the right of every child with special needs to ‘Integrated


Education’ if certain conditions are met. This principle was included in the Decree on Education VII of 8

July 1996.

The Decree on Education VIII of 15 July 1997 provides Integrated Education (Geïntegreerd Onderwijs)

(GON) not only for basic and secondary education but also for the education of colleges of higher

education (hogeschoolonderwijs).

The Integrated Education (GON) institutes a new step toward the integration of special education into

ordinary education. Children with a handicap and/or learning difficulties may attend class in ordinary

schools on a permanent or intermittent and a partial or complete basis. Additional teaching periods and/or

additional hours and/or additional resources are provided to realise this integration. Besides the

admission requirements for special education, additional requirements have to be fulfilled. A certificate

Integrated Education issued by the head of the Centre for Educational Guidance (CLB) is required that

specifies the nature of the integration and the nature and seriousness of the handicap of the pupil.

Furthermore, an integration plan is needed for the preparation and evaluation of the integration of the

pupil with a handicap in ordinary education. This plan is formulated by consensus of the pupil and/or his

parents, the school heads of the concerned schools for ordinary and special education, a representative of

the teaching staff, and the director of the Centre for Educational Guidance (CLB) (Decree of 15 July

1997).

The Integrated Education aims at combining the educational opportunities of ordinary and special

education. A distinction is made between a complete and partial integration depending on whether the

pupil attends all or at least two half days of classes in ordinary education. When the integration is for an

entire school year, it is called permanent integration, otherwise it is called a temporary integration.

Within the framework of Integrated Education, there are three possibilities: guidance of a teacher or the

teaching team of the ordinary school, financial compensation for the service-providing special school,

and/or the provision of teaching periods to the service-providing special school in order to provide

educational or paramedical assistance to the pupil (Masschelein et al., 1996).

In the framework of special needs programme or scheme in mainstream pre-school and primary education

involving expertise from special needs education (zorgverbreding) (see 3.10. and 4.12.), teaching periods

may be transferred from ordinary to special education. This gives the ordinary schools access to the

expertise of the special education staff.

For the education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs) similar requirements and

regulations are in force, although there are no schools for special education on this level. Thus, the

student participates in ordinary education with the necessary adaptations and guidance that are

characteristic for the Integrated Education. In 2000-2001, there were 54 students of higher education

involved in Integrated Education (GON).

In the period 1990-2001, the number of pupils in Integrated Education increased in basic education (from

524 to 1,289) and secondary education (from 202 to 466). These figures have to be put in perspective: in


the same period, special basic education increased by 8,124 units (+ 45%), and in special education at

secondary level, there was an growth of 2,063 pupils (+15%) (MVG, departement Onderwijs, 2001b).

10.8. Teachers and other staff, specific training

In general, as far as working conditions are concerned, the legislation described under section 8.2.

applies.

Apart from the administrative staff, the teaching staff and the teaching assistants, who all have the same

training as the staff in ordinary education, there are also paramedical and medical staff (the supervising

doctor, physiotherapist, speech therapist, nurse, and pre-school nurses) and social welfare staff. On the

basis of the Decree on basic education (basisonderwijs) of 25 February 1997, a part of the package of

periods may be used to pay for remedial teachers, psychologists, ergotherapists, and social workers. The

qualifications of these categories of staff are currently identical to those in ordinary education, at least for

the functions present in both forms of education. However, additional training is gradually being

introduced thanks to special appropriations and should lead to a specific qualification in addition to the

basic qualifications required in ordinary education. For teachers who are already teaching in special

education although not exclusively, a special in-service training programme is organised. At the end of

the programme, the participants receive a certificate. This programme has been integrated within the

framework of the Decree on Teacher Training and In-service Training of 16 April 1996, in terms of a

complementary courses in tertiary education (voortgezette opleiding) for special education.


The organisation of the school year, week, and day is comparable to that of in the corresponding

‘ordinary’ education levels as described in chapter 2 (see 2.9.), although the daily activities are much

more oriented to the individual needs of the pupils. Depending on the education level considered (pre-

school, primary, or secondary), clear distinctions have been made between various aspects and the

relative importance of different educational activities: general and social education, physical education,

technical and vocational training, ‘compensation’ techniques for coping with specific handicaps, religion

or non-denominational ethics, mathematics, language, training aiming the integration of the pupil in a

workplace, activities stimulating sensomotor movements, and so on. Those aims have been confirmed by

the Flemish government) on 27 June 1990.

The Department for Educational Development (Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling) (DVO) develops for

special education as it is doing for ordinary education, developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen).

The result is a list of developmental objectives. The school, in consultation with the parents, will have to

select from among these objectives to determine a programme for each individual child. The selection of

these developmental objectives has to be written down and worked out in an individual educational plan

(handelingsplan ). Each individual programme will be the basis for an individualised curriculum.


Thus, within every pedagogical unit (a group of pupils within a type and/or form of education), there is

still room for further differentiation. For each pupil, an individual educational plan is drawn up together

with Centre for Educational Guidance (Centrum voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLB). This is a step-by-

step programme that matches the individual situation of the pupil. This plan indicates what and how the

pupil will learn and how this is to be organised. The objectives are clearly defined, and it is stipulated

when they have to be reached. The individual educational plan, which can be adapted any time to the real

and feasible evolution of the pupil, forms a daily guide for teachers and paramedical staff. An individual

educational plan can fit in an educational plan (groepswerkplan) for the pedagogical unit in which the

pupil participates (see 2.5.3.1.) (Broekaert, et al., 1993). At present, the developmental objectives

(ontwikkelingsdoelen) (OD) for type 2 (Decree of 2 March 1999) and type 8 (Decree of 8 January 2001)

are defined. The developmental objectives for the types 1 and 7 are being prepared.

10.10. Methods and pupil evaluation

Teaching is highly individualised in special education. For each child, an individual educational plan

(handelingsplan) is worked out (see 2.5.3.1.). The decision on concrete methods, however, comes under

the freedom of the organising bodies (inrichtende machten). Consequently, there are no official

guidelines in this respect.

In special education, assessment is mainly formative. The class council (klassenraad) assisted by the

Centre for Educational Guidance (Centrum voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) decides on the composition of

the classes, whether a particular pupil should be kept in a specific group, and the movement of pupils to

other classes or to a particular form and/or type of education.

10.11. Certification, openings, and training-employment relationship

Special education schools issue either the same certificates and diplomas as in ordinary primary or

secondary education, or else attendance certificates, especially in vocation-oriented programmes at the

secondary level. Schemes are under development to structure the secondary vocation-oriented

programmes in particular as modular components of a corresponding full programme in ordinary

education.

Supported by the EUROPEAN SOCIAL FUND, some projects have been set up in order to facilitate

labour market integration of pupils leaving form of education 3 (opleidingsvorm 3) (OV3). In general,

the labour-market position of pupils leaving OV3 is rather weak, especially when there is an economic

crisis or when there are unstable labour market conditions. To facilitate the labour-market entrance of

these pupils, schools that provide form of education 3 can organise since 1 September 1998 an additional

alterning training of one school year. This training consists of two days of lessons at school and three

days of work in a regular company weekly and aims to improve the chances of employment of pupils of

special secondary education.


Moreover, initiatives have been developed to realise a stronger affiliation between OV3 certificates and

certificates from the ordinary vocational education. The idea is to structure the OV3 certificates as

modular parts of a normal certificate in vocational education. This would facilitate not only a more

appropriate evaluation of learned skills by employers but also open new ways for in-service programmes.

Pupils leaving OV1 and OV2 do not enter the normal labour market. For pupils leaving OV4, there are

no special arrangements. They enter the labour market just like everyone else. Larger firms, however,

are required by law to employ at least a few handicapped people (depending on the number of

employees). So as an example, many people with visual disabilities find a job as telephone operators.

New information technologies are also opening new job opportunities for the handicapped.


There are no formal alternatives for special education as described above. Only for children with very

severe handicaps are different education systems available outside the formal education system. These

children are also exempted from the requirements of the compulsory education law. Most of them are

educated in special institutions for the handicapped (less than 0.1%).

10.13. Statistics22

The teacher–pupil ratio in pre-school and primary education23

is 5.6, and in secondary education24

3.5

(2000-2001).


22

In order to avoid double counts, pupils enrolled in special education due to a long-time disease (type 5

education) are not included in the figures of special education. On 1 February 2001 there were 130 of

these pupils in special pre-school education, 227 in special primary education and 197 pupils in

special secondary education. 23

Number of pupils in special pre-school education and special primary education in the school year

2000-2001 divided by the number of budgetary full-time equivalents in January 2001 in special pre-

school education and special primary education. 24

Number of pupils in special secondary education in the school year 2000-2001 divided by the number

of budgetary full-time equivalents in January 2001 in special secondary education.


Table 10.1. Number of pupils in special pre-school and primary education according to type (school

year 2000-2001)

Pre-school Type 2 Type 3 Type 4 Type 6 Type 7

Community Education 377 28 63 3 -

Grant-Aided Free Education 528 124 167 31 255

Grant-Aided Official Education 598 13 11 7 36

Total 963 165 241 41 291

Overall Total: 1,701


Primary school Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4 Type 6 Type 7 Type 8

Community Education 2,065 785 245 236 17 - 1,867

Grant-Aided Free

Education

6,378 2,007 994 529 90 386 6,194


Education

2,036 194 118 29 21 33 1,988

Total 10,479 2,986 1,357 794 128 419 10,049

Overall total: 26,212


Table 10.2. Number of pupils in special secondary education according to form of education (school

year 2000-2001)

Secondary OV1(1) OV2(1) OV3(1) OV4(1)

Community Education 472 631 2,163 -

Grant-Aided Free Education 1,483 1,528 6,841 193

Grant-Aided Official Education 154 219 2,002 70

Total 2,109 2,385 11,006 263

Overall total : 15,763

(1) See glossary.


Table 10.3. Number of pupils in special secondary education according to type in form of education 1

(school year 2000-2001)

Secondary Type 2 Type 3 Type 4 Type 6 Type 7

Community Education 300 - 167 4 -

Grant-Aided Free Education 1,041 3 322 70 37

Grant-Aided Official Education 123 - 31 - -

Total 1,429 3 520 84 37






Community Education 551 9 67 3 1


Grant-Aided Official Education 216 - 1 3 5

Total 1,984 38 196 121 46





Community Education 1,985 149 29 - -


Grant-Aided Official Education 1,842 118 10 8 24

Total 9,777 943 54 37 195




Secondary Type 3 Type 4 Type 6 Type 7

Community Education - - - -

Grant-Aided Free Education 15 137 13 6

Grant-Aided Official Education 67 - - -

Total 82 137 13 6



Table 10.7. Evolution in the number of pupils in special pre-school education (1980-2001)

Year Community

Education

Grant-Aided Free

Education


Education

Total

80-81 190 758 76 1,024

81-82 183 822 80 1,085

82-83 186 746 56 988

83-84 177 458 65 1,000

84-85 177 773 61 1,011

85-86 177 712 61 950

86-87 184 718 62 964

87-88 204 765 63 1,032

88-89 222 827 83 1,132

89-90 249 826 101 1,176

90-91 268 787 87 1,142

91-92 319 934 84 1,337

92-93 317 1,012 84 1,413

93-94 340 1,234 110 1,508

94-95 388 1,058 115 1,631

95-96 425 1,128 121 1,721

96-97 420 1,175 118 1,784

97-98 456 1,233 122 1,811

98-99 472 1,177 131 1,780

99-00 467 1,178 122 1,767

00-01 471 1,105 125 1,701



Table 10.8. Evolution in the number of pupils in special primary education (Buitengewoon Lager

Onderwijs, BLO) (1980-2001)

Year Community

Education

Grant-Aided Free

Education

Grant-Aided

Official Education

Total

80-81 2,910 12,861 2,892 18,663

81-82 2,724 12,346 2,874 17,944

82-83 2,647 11,693 2,994 17,334

83-84 2,608 11,256 2,874 16,738

84-85 2,441 10,704 2,542 15,687

85-86 2,456 10,608 2,538 15,602

86-87 2,513 10,539 2,531 15,583

87-88 2,592 10,858 2,564 16,014

88-89 2,684 11,362 2,694 16,740

89-90 2,780 11,525 2,825 17,130

90-91 3,013 12,017 3,058 18,088

91-92 3,362 12,888 3,533 19,783

92-93 3,576 13,228 3,658 20,462

93-94 3,640 13,590 3,824 21,054

94-95 3,932 13,927 3,893 21,752

95-96 4,123 14,429 3,976 22,528

96-97 4,308 14,866 3,947 23,121

97-98 4,658 15,352 4,062 24,072

98-99 4,909 15,865 4,161 24,935

99-00 5,081 16,345 4,301 25,727

00-01 5,215 16,578 4,419 26,212



Table 10.9. Evolution in the number of pupils in special secondary education (Buitengewoon Secundair

Onderwijs) (BuSO) (1980-2001)

Year Community

Education

Grant-Aided Free

Education


Education

Total

80-81 1,910 9,798 2,689 14,097

81-82 2,193 10,264 3,016 15,473

82-83 2,259 10,410 3,152 15,821

83-84 2,518 10,571 3,238 16,327

84-85 2,661 10,556 3,207 16,424

85-86 2,704 10,338 3,124 16,166

86-87 2,721 10,101 3,101 15,923

87-88 2,727 9,814 3,071 15,612

88-89 2,751 9,654 2,609 15,014

89-90 2,637 8,981 2,737 14,355

90-91 2,543 8,570 2,587 13,700

91-92 2,518 8,802 2,589 13,909

92-93 2,580 9,044 2,598 14,222

93-94 2,664 9,301 2,893 14,558

94-95 2,685 9,591 2,685 14,961

95-96 2,771 9,926 2,660 15,357

96-97 2,879 9,962 2,707 15,548

97-98 3,159 9,976 2,512 15,647

98-99 3,159 10,045 2,455 15,659

99-00 3,219 10,099 2,456 15,774

00-01 3,266 10,045 2,452 15,763


Table 10.10. Number of Schools for special education in 1999-2001

Community

Education

Grant-Aided Free

Education


Education

Total

Pre-school 23 58 8 89

Primary 34 123 1 188

Secondary 18 74 19 111


Note: (1) Some special pre-school institutions also have special primary education. Therefore, some

institutions are counted twice in this table. In the school year 1998-1999, no institution offers

only special pre-school education.

(2) Institutions, which provide type 5 education, are not included in the figures. There are 6 of

those schools in special pre-school education, 6 schools in special primary education and 4

schools in buitengewoon secundair onderwijs (special secondary education).

CHAPTER 11. THE EUROPEAN DIMENSION OF EDUCATION

Participation to international programmes has since long been important for education in Flanders. This

chapter gives a brief overview of the way this is realised. Two important components can be

distinguished: the participation in EU programmes (SOCRATES, LEONARDO, etc.) and other bilateral

and multilateral forms of co-operation.

11.1. European Influences in the Flemish Education System

New educational decrees have integrated international co-operation into Flemish law such as the

provisions to enable free mobility of persons throughout the European Union.

In the decrees on the universities (12 June 1991) and the colleges of higher education (hogescholen)

(13 July 1994), courses attended at foreign educational institutions in the framework of European action

programmes are recognised as equivalent to the Flemish courses (MVG, Departement Onderwijs, 1996a).

Attending courses in a foreign language is permitted for foreign language courses, for parts of courses in

the second cycle that a foreign visiting professor teaches, for further training at colleges of higher

education (posthogeschool vorming), and for supplementary and extra academic training

(postacademische vorming). At the universities, students of the second cycle may satisfy at most 20% of

their course requirements in another language. Students of the second cycle of two-cycle colleges of

higher education and students of the final year of one-cycle colleges of higher education or students who

follow an advanced course can satisfy at most 20% of their programme in another language as long as it is

taught by a foreign visiting professor. They are always entitled to do the examinations in Dutch.

The introduction of a Flemish system of study points based on the ECTS (European Credit Transfer

System) makes adaptation to the study programmes of institutes in other European countries easier and is

an important instrument in the recognition of study periods (Information received from the Ministry of the

Flemish Community, Education Department, 2001).

Flanders has also built an international dimension into its system of quality assurance. In co-operation

with the Netherlands, “visitatiecommissies” (visiting inspection commissions) with experts from both

countries evaluate both university education study fields and education provided by colleges for higher

education (hogescholen) (co-operation VLHORA - HBO-Council) in Flanders and the Netherlands.

There is also co-operation in inspection with the Netherlands at other educational levels (MVG,

Departement Onderwijs, 1996a). The co-operation between Flanders and the Netherlands concerning

inspection is realised via an intense exchange of the output measurements of the school audit. Since

1998, Flemish schools participated in EU pilot projects on quality assurance and self-evaluation at the

primary and secondary levels.


In 1999 Ministers of Education of 29 European countries signed the Bologna declaration. This

declaration intends to create a European educational area in order to bring more unity to European

higher education. The new European education system should be in place by 2010. The most

important objectives of this new project are:

1) To increase the comparability of the structure and the degrees of the different courses;

2) To bring more mobility of students and professors;

3) To defend education against international competition.

4) To harmonise the European higher education in a structure of two cycles: bachelor and master. The

first cycle has to be at least three years and already povides a professional qualification to some of the

students. The second cycle is to provide professional qualifications or a scientific education that

may lead to a doctorate.

5) To establish a credit system -the ECTS system- as a proper means of promoting the student mobility.

Credits could also be acquired in non-higher education contexts, including lifelong learning, provided

they are recognised by the universities concerned.

6) To execute an international transparant system of quality control or accreditation.

7) To increase greatly cooperation between European educational institutions.

(http://www.crue.upm.es/eurec/bolognaexplanation.htm,

http://147.83.2.29/salamanca2001/documents/main_texts/bologna.htm)

11.2. European and international cooperation

11.2.1. European programmes

The European Union has started a number of educational and training programs in order to promote the

European dimension and to improve the educational quality by means of cooperation between countries.

The most important programs are:

The SOCRATES program:

SOCRATES is the European Community action program that has been established on the initiative of the

European Communities and with the approval of the European Parliament and the Council of the

European Union in 1995. The second phase of this program started on 1 January 2001 and runs until 31

December 2006.

This program contains the following fields of action:

- COMENIUS: cooperation between schools, in-service training and initial teacher training courses and

COMENIUS networks.

The European dimension of education 251

- ERASMUS: cooperation between European institutions of higher education, promotion of the

mobility and exchange of students and teachers and thematic networks.

- GRUNDTVIG: lifelong learning through adult education and other educational routes, in-service

training of teachers and Grundtvig-networks.

- LINGUA: improves language education and stimulates the development of teaching materials.

- MINERVA: stimulates European cooperation in open and distance education and integration of ICT.

- Observation and innovation: information and experience exchange, identification of good practices

and comparative research. These action contains ARION (information and experience exchange of

policymakers and educational experts), EURYDICE (information network concerning education in

Europe) and NARIC (Network of Academic Recognition Information Centres), which is responsible

for providing institutions and the public with information on higher education systems and

qualifications in other countries for academic and, in many cases, professional purposes.)

The implementation of the SOCRATES Programme in the Flemish Community is coordinated and

carried out by the Flemish SOCRATES Agency (Vlaamse SOCRATES-Agentschap) within the

Education Department of the Ministry of the Flemish Community (see:

http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/socrates).

A decision of the Flemish Government established the ''SOCRATES Committee'', which is a policy-

advice committee assisted by two sub-committees, one for compulsary education and one for higher

education. These committees are established in order to promote optimum participation of Flanders in the

SOCRATES Programme. The sub-committees give advice on the execution and follow-up of the

activities (Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department,

2001).

The LEONARDO DA VINCI Program:

The Leonardo da Vinci program is an action program of the EU concerning vocational training. The

second phase of the program (1 January 2000 - 31 December 2006) has three main objectives:

- to increase the skills and abilities of the students;

- to improve the quality of and to broaden the entry into vocational training;

- to strengthen the contribution of the vocational training to innovation processes.

This program is realized by means of transnational projects (mobility projects), pilot projects, language

projects, network projects, and projects concerning reference materials. The mobility projects,

apprenticeships and exchanges abroad are set up. In the other projects, products that contribute to the

improvement of vocational training in all its aspects are developed. The Flemish Leonardo da Vinci

Agency is responsible for the program (see: http://www.vl-leonardo.be).


The TEMPUS Program:

This program is aimed at cooperation with Eastern European institutions (TEMPUS/Phare program) and

institutions in the former Soviet Union (TEMPUS/Tacis program). In contrast with SOCRATES, this

program is not aimed at individual mobility but at the establishment of projects that improve the

development and restructuring of higher education in East and Central Europe. In the past few years,

however, this program has eroded. In 1998 Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and the Czech Republic

transferred to SOCRATES. The three Baltic states, Slovenia and Bulgaria followed in 1999-2000. As

from 2000-2001, only Albania, Bosnia-Hercegovina, Croatia and Macedonia will get support from

TEMPUS-III until 2006.

Since the school year 1994-1995, the ALFA program finances the cooperation between universities and

colleges of higher education of the EU and Latin America. This program has two sub-programs:

cooperation between higher education institutions and cooperation in scientific and technological training.

Both universities and colleges of higher education participate. The participating institutions have to carry

20% of the total costs.

As part of the broader MEDA agreement, MED-CAMPUS organises educational cooperation with the

non-EU countries around the Mediterranean.

PEACE aims at cooperation with Palestinian universities (Information received from the Ministry of the


11.2.1. Cooperation with the Netherlands

Since 1990, co-operation between Flanders and the Netherlands in the field of education has been

organised under the “GENT Agreements”. GENT is the acronym for “Gehele Europese Nederlandse

Taalgebied” (Global European Dutch-speaking region). The first GENT Agreements (GENT-1 and

GENT-2) involve only higher education; the later GENT Agreements (GENT-3 and following) involve

all levels of education. The activities consist of seminars, the development of co-operation between

educational institutes, joint studies and publications, and the exchange of good practices and information.

Topics dealt with in the GENT-5 agreement are teachers; ICT; mobility; intensifying of the cooperation

between institutions and quality, supervision and administrative innovation and target group policy. The

GENT-5 agreement was signed on 7 February 2000. (Information received from the Ministry of the


For some of these topics, good information is necessary. Since the school year 1995-1996, yearly and

from 1998-1999 on every two years, a special cross-border traffic count (grensverkeertelling) is organised

in order to situate the mutual educational mobility.

The inspection services of both countries co-operate closely, for example, a comparative study has been

conducted about the screening methods.


In 1995, the project Cross-Border Co-operation (Grensoverschrijdende Samenwerking) (GROS) was

started with the Netherlands for basic and secondary education.

For higher education, an agreement was signed in 1995 between the Netherlands, Flanders, and the

German Länder Nordrhein-Westfalen, Niedersachsen and Bremen to stimulate mutual co-operation in

order to create an open education area (MVG, Departement Onderwijs, 1996a). These co-operation

activities are called “Grenslandenbeleid”.

To deal jointly with a number of matters concerning the Dutch language (including language training and

teaching), the Netherlands and Belgium established the “Nederlandse Taalunie” (Dutch Language Union)

in 1980 as a supranational organ to act on the international level as one language community (MVG,

Departement Onderwijs, 1996a).

11.2.3. The cultural agreements

In 2000 about 40 cultural agreements or agreements of co-operation are in effect. Such co-operation

relates to all educational levels but is the most intense in higher education. It concerns specialisation and

research grants for students in post-academic training in higher education, the exchange of professors and

lecturers, the organisation of foreign-language lectures at Flemish universities, and so on. On the other

levels, there are, for example, exchanges of experts and civil servants and projects of co-operation

between educational institutions and teaching practices (MVG, Departement Onderwijs, 1996a).

Specific agreements on education have been made with Italy, Denmark, Greece, Finland, Germany,

Ireland, Austris, Spain, Portugal, Sweden, Norway, Egypt, Bulgaria, Marocco, Poland, the Czech

Republic, China, Tunesia, Mexico, Switzerland, Luxemburg, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Japan and

France. It should be stressed that the cooperation is not equally intense with all these countries.

All Flemish colleges of higher education and universities are kept informed about the foreign offer of

grants by means of the brochure Studying Abroad (Studeren in het buitenland) and the website of the

Flemish Government (http://www.vlaanderen.be) (Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish

Community, Education Department, 2001).

11.2.4. Cooperation in the framework of the Council of Europe

For the Council of Europe, the Education Department participates in the activities of the CDCC (Comité

directeur pour la Coopération Culturelle) and subcommittees related to specific projects concerning:

- human rights, democracy and tolerance;

- EUDISED (a database for educational research);

- legal aid to the countries of Central and Eastern Europe.

Within the framework of the Council of Europe, brief in-service training sessions are organised by the

Flemish Community for teachers in basic and secondary around specific themes.


11.2.5. Cooperation in the framework of the OECD

Within the OECD, the Education Department (departement Onderwijs) is represented in the Education

Committee (presidency in 1998 and 1999), the IMHE (Institution for Management of Higher Education),

and the CERI (Centre for Educational Research and Innovation).

It participates in the following projects of the CERI:

- schooling for tomorrow;

- education indicators (INES);

- lifelong learning;

- inspection of aspects of our educational system.

In 2001, a delegation of the Education Department participated in the following OECD conferences:

- the five-yearly meeting of the Ministers of Education (Paris, 2-4 April 2001);

- Managing Education for Lifelong Learning (Buydapest, 6-7 December 2001).

11.2.6. Cooperation in the framework of UNESCO

On 5 October 2000, the Flemish Minister of Education organised in cooperation with International

Education and The World Confederation of Teachers, the ''Day of the Teacher'' at the Flemish Parliament.

In conjunction with the 46th session of the ''Conférence internationale de l’Education'' (International

Educational Conference) which was organised by the ''Bureau International de l’Education'' (International

Education Bureau) in 2001, the Education Department has made a report about the educational

developments in the nineties. This report was brought forward at the UNESCO conference in 2001.

Furthermore, a delegation of the Education Department has participated at the follow-up meeting about

the World Conference of Higher Education (Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish


11.2.7. Flanders and the Belgian EU-presidency

From 1 July 2001 tol 31 December 2001, Belgium occupied the EU presidency. This Belgian EU

presidency was a first for the European Union in at least one respect: for the first time in European

history, federated states participated actively in the EU presidency. Consequently, Flanders played a

prominent role in the EU presidency and assumed the presidency of the formal European councils of

ministers for education, youth and tourism, and represented Belgium on the formal European councils of

ministers for energy, the environment, employment and social affairs, and culture. In addition, Flanders

organised an informal council for culture, three ministerial conferences on education, sport and tourism

and numerous other events. The elements concerning education are presented below.


In the framework of the policy priority ‘increasing the legitimacy of the EU and its support by the

population, in particular, by young people’, Flanders wants to strengthen the interest of young people in

the concept of European integration through education and in other ways. Therefore, Flanders, developed

an information and awareness-raising campaign for young people (aged 15-25) ‘The Flemish Euronauts:

Flanders brings Europe’s head above water’.

Following on a second policy priority ‘providing an answer to the challenges of the future’, the Flemish

government and representatives of Flemish civil society signed the Vilvoorde Pact. This pact contains 21

concrete, long-term objectives for the twenty-first century (to be achieved by 2010). Three of these

objectives refer to education:

- ‘By 2010 at least 10% of the Flemish population should be taking part in permanent education’.

- ‘By 2010, the number of young people leaving school without adequate basic qualifications schould

be at least halved’.

- ‘Every young person in Flanders should have the opportunity for experience abroad, inter alia, in the

context of cooperation development, cultural development or education’.

Councils, meetings and other initiatives concerning education also took place. The formal Council of the

Ministers of Education of the 15 member states took place in Brussels on 29 November 2001. Subjects of

this Council were, for example: the promotion of language diversity and learning languages in the context

of the aims of the European Year of Languages 2001, the progress of the report on the concrete future

objectives of education and training systems, and the strengthening of the cooperation with third countries

with regard to higher education and life-long learning. In the framework of the European Year of the

Languages 2001, an opening conference (7 March 2001) as well as a closing conference (7 and 8

December 2001) were held. The objectives of the European Year of Languages were promotion of

language diversity and promotion of awareness of the cultural wealth of Europe. In 2001 the following

meetings concerning education took place:

- Meeting of the European Directors General for compulsory education;

- ENTEP meeting (European Network Policy for Teacher Training) followed by a seminar related to

innovation in teacher training;

- Meeting of the Directors General for vocational training;

- Meeting of the Directors General for higher education of the EU.

Two European conferences of experts were also held. The first such conference was about cross-cultural

themes and the way educational policy in different European countries handles them. The subject of the

second conference was ‘Participation, social cohesion and citizenship’. The central theme of this

conference was the promotion of an open and participative school climate with the active paticipation of

pupils, parents, and teachers. Finally, the ‘European fair for participation and citizenship’ focused on

pupil participation (MVG, Administratie Buitenlands Beleid, 2001).


11.3. International cooperation at different educational levels

In the following sections the international cooperation for each educational level is presented. The main

focus here are the EU-programs in which Flanders actively participates. All the figures presented in the

following sections have been provided by the Education Department (departement Onderwijs) of the

Ministry of the Flemish Community.

11.3.1. International cooperation at the Basic Level

Since 1995, the programme “Grensoverschrijdende Samenwerking” (Cross-Border Co-operation)

(GROS) between Flanders and the Netherlands enabled Flemish and Dutch primary schools to exchange

classes on the basis of co-operation agreements. The teaching staff receives grants from the Flemish

Community to prepare and conduct these exchanges.

Since 1999 Cross-Border Cooperation (Grensoverschrijdende Samenwerking) (GROS) became

Neighbouring Countries Policy (Buurlandenbeleid) for basic education (basisonderwijs). Cooperation

projects between the Flemish schools and the schools of the Netherlands, France, Great Britain, Germany

and Luxembourg are subsidised in the framework of this Neighbouring Countries Policy

(Buurlandenbeleid).

Each year, the Education Department (Departement Onderwijs) organises in-service training in France in

co-operation with the French Embassy for 40 teachers of French each school year in basic-school.

Flemish primary schools participate in the partnerships of the SOCRATES/COMENIUS Programme. In

addition to the European financial support, additional Flemish funding is available for each of the

activities.

The COMENIUS/SOCRATES Programme consists of the following activities:

- COMENIUS 1: School Partnerships

In school partnerships primary schools can apply for support for two types of projects: School Projects

and School Development Projects. When applying for a project, each school has to submit a ''Comenius

Plan'' to its National Agency. This plan needs to present the policy view on the school concerning

internationalization. A school wishing to set up a Comenius 1 project may apply for a preparatory visit

grant to cover the costs for preparatory meetings between the partners involved. A school may also host a

Comenius language assistant for a period between 3 and 8 months. This language assistant as a native

speaker can function as a remedial teacher or as an extra helper in language education. He or she can also

acquaint the pupils with his or her home country.

Comenius school projects promote transnational cooperation between schools. They give pupils and

teachers from at least three participating countries an opportunity to work together on one or more topics

of mutual interest. This cooperation enables participants to exchange experiences, explore different


aspects of European cultural, social and economic diversity, increase their general knowledge and learn to

understand and appreciate each other’s views.

Comenius school development projects give school managers and teachers an opportunity to exchange

experience and information, to develop together methods and approaches which meet their needs and to

test and put into practice the most effective organisational and pedagogical approaches in the participating

schools.

- COMENIUS 2: Training of school education staff

Comenius 2 is designed to promote the professional development of all types of staff involved in school

education. It does so by supporting transnational cooperation projects and mobility activities. All phases

and aspects of professional development - initial training, induction, in-service training – are covered.

- COMENIUS 3: Comenius Networks

Comenius networks are a new initiative under the second phase of the SOCRATES programme in the

field of education. The main goal is to create links between projects carried out by school partnerships

and those relating to the training of school education staff. Comenius networks are based on subjects of

common interest with the aim of promoting European cooperation and innovation in school education in

various thematic areas. Such networks will constitute a platform to assist persons and institutions

involved in Comenius to strengthen their cooperation and a forum for joint reflection and cooperation in

identifying and promoting innovation and best practice in the thematic area concerned (see:

http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/socrates/comenius). The Flemish institutions of Ryckevelde

(Damme) and Alden Biesen (Bilzen) promote the European dimension in Flemish basic education

(Europese Unie, 2001).

The KLAVERTJE DRIE program, an intra-Belgian exchange program in collaboration with the Prince

Philip Fund (Prins Filipfonds) was set up as a form of cooperation between the three Belgian

Communities. It supports exchanges of pupils in the fifth and the sixth year of primary schools in the

three different Belgian Communities.

11.3.2. International cooperation at the Secondary Level

Since 1995, the programme “Grensoverschrijdende Samenwerking” (Cross-Border Co-operation)

(GROS) between Flanders and the Netherlands has been enabling Flemish and Dutch secondary schools

to exchange classes on the basis of co-operation agreements (16 projects and a budget of € 24,789.35 for

1996-1997).

In co-operation with the French authorities, in-service training courses in French are provided in France

for Flemish secondary school teachers of the French language. In co-operation with the German

authorities, courses in German are organised in Germany for pupils of secondary education. Flemish

secondary school teachers of the German language can follow in-service training courses in German in

Germany. Moreover, they can stay as a “guest” in a German school for 3 weeks. Future secondary


school teachers of the German language can function as a language assistant at a German school for 8 or 9

months. French and German teachers and pupils can do the same things in Flanders.

The Flemish Community also supports co-operation between secondary schools in Flanders and the

Czech and the Slovak Republics (especially in the field of technical and vocational training). Seminars

on specific themes involve all the schools.

The EUROKLASSEN Project supports exchanges on the basis of a co-operation agreement between a

Flemish secondary school and at least 1 school of a another EU Member State (see table 11.11.). These

exchanges can take place in the 4th, 5th, or 6th year of secondary education.

Flemish secondary schools participate actively in the SOCRATES/COMENIUS Programme. In the

former paragraph (11.4.1.) is explained what this programme contains.

Comenius language projects seek to increase young people’s motivation, capacity and confidence to

communicate in other European languages. A Comenius language project is carried out by groups of at

least 10 young people aged 14 or older from partner schools in two participating countries. Its main

element is not formal language instruction as such, but the learning of languages through work with

young people from another country on a topic of mutual interest. In these projects at least one of the two

partners will normally be from a country where one of the less widely used and less taught languages is

used. In this way, many pupils will thus have an opportunity to get to know a language which they would

not normally learn. Secondary schools can also participate in centralised Socrates actions such as

Comenius 2, Lingua and Minerva. Regarding the scope of this projects they function mainly as partner

school. However in the fall of 2001 one Minerva-project started that was coordinated by a

Flemish school of special secondary education (buitengewoon secundair onderwijs) (see:

http://europa/eu.int/comm/education/socrates/comenius).

The Flemish secondary schools also participate in the LEONARDO DA VINCI Programme.

Transnational partnership projects, exchanges, studies, and analyses are subsidised within this

programme. During the period 1995-1999, 840 pupils and 205 teachers or instructors participated in such

exchange projects.

In the framework of LEONARDO, there is an information centre on education and training systems in the

other EU Member States. This centre is named “Centre for choice of study and profession” (Studie- en

Beroepskeuze Centrum) and is situated in the “Office of Vocational Training” (Dienst Beroepsopleiding)

at the Education Department.

In the framework of Objective 3 of the European Social Fund for the promotion of the integration into the

labour process of young people and employees threatened by exclusion from the labour market, some

activities are specific to secondary education. These activities as well as the participation by Flemish

secondary schools in the EU programmes EQUILIBRIUM, KEY, YOUTH RESTART and ENABLE are

coordinated by the “Office of Vocational Training” (“Dienst Beroepsopleiding”) at the Education

Department.


In 1998, a pilot project in the modularisation of technical and vocational secondary education was set up

with financial support of the European Union, within “Employment Youthstart”. In the framework of the

European project “Building Future Success”, the Office of Vocational Training (Dienst

Beroepsopleiding) together with foreign partners tries to optimize the connection between vocational

training and the labour market. Therefore, research is conducted in Flanders concerning the development

of training profiles, organizational models and efficient guidance. The Flemish part of this project,

namely modularisation, is meant to provide chances of success to pupils from vocational training. Every

model of the route is rewarded with a modular certificate, which is thought to increase the student’s

motivation. This way, the output of unqualified students should be reduced. The modules’ contents are

based on job profiles provided by the social partners. The first school group started an experiment of this

project at the beginning of the 1999-2000 school year. The aim of the experiment is to prepare the

implementation with pupils. On 1 September 2000, a second number of schools started the project with

pupils.

(Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department, 2001).

A special agreement has been made with two Flemish institutions to promote this form of European

cooperation: the centres of Ryckevelde (Damme) and Alden Biesen (Bilsen). Both centres promote the

European dimension at school .

The KLAVERTJE DRIE Programme, an intra-Belgian exchange programme in collaboration with the

Prince Philip Fund (Prins Filipfonds) was set up as a form of co-operation between the three Belgian

Communities. It supports exchanges of pupils in secondary schools in the three different cultural

environments.

11.3.3. International cooperation at the tertiary education level

Participation in European Programmes involves two main lines of action: SOCRATES/ERASMUS and

other programmes. The SOCRATES/ERASMUS Programme is open to all types of higher education

institutions and concerns all disciplines and educational levels including the doctorate. The programs

covers the following activities which are mutually correlated (see table 11.12.):

1) European cooperation between institutions;

2) Student and teacher mobility;

3) Thematical networks.

These actions are realised inside the framework of an Institutional Contract (IC) between the European

Commission and the institution. The application for an IC includes:

- ERASMUS grants for student and teacher mobility and for the organisation of this mobility;

- Activities concerning the introduction, the implementation, and expansion of ECTS (European Credit

Transfer System);


- Complete proposals for intensive programs and projects for the development of study programs

concerning ERASMUS;

- Thematic network projects: thematic cooperation agreements between faculties or subject groups of

different European universities for the development of a European dimension (and possibly other

questions of general interest) within or between certain subject fields;

- The list of other SOCRATES actions which the institution coordinates.

The Institutional Contract (IC) is an agreement that lasts as long as the program runs (2000-2006). Every

institution is responsible for the efficient realization of activities that are supported by the communities.

All Flemish colleges of higher education and universities have submitted an Institutional Contract (IC)

(Information received from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department, 2001).

The SOCRATES/ERASMUS activities are supported for about 50% by the European Union and for

something less than 50% by the Flemish Community. Over the last few years, the Flemish Budget for the

SOCRATES/ERASMUS-programme has grown from € 297,472.23 to € 793,259.28 in 2000-2001. Since

2000-2001 the grants for teacher mobility are also decentralised to the member states. The Flemish

Community finances also. During the 2000-2001 academic year, 2,575 Flemish students were exchanged

for a total of 14,005 months and 582 teachers for a total of 3,763 days.

In the framework of the LEONARDO DA VINCI Programme, students of higher education can receive a

grant for an in-service training in another Member State for a period from 3 months to a maximum of 12

months. In the period 1995-1999, 867 Flemish students participated in this activity. The Flemish

universities and colleges of higher education also participate very actively in the pilot projects in the

framework of LEONARDO. In 1997, the main themes in the Flemish projects were linguistic skills,

combatting of social exclusion, and increasing mobility.

TEMPUS II is a programme for cooperation in higher education to promote improvement of higher

education in the countries of Central and East Europe and the republics of the former Soviet Union by

means of interaction and cooperation between partner universities and companies in the European Union

and these countries. TEMPUS II concentrates on problems concerning the development and

reorganisation of study programmes, the reorganisation and the management of higher education

structures and institutions, and the development of competence training in function of the special needs of

economic reform.

As of 1994, the Flemish Government has been financing international interuniversity cooperation projects

that have an educational aim. The cooperation is mainly concentrated on countries that are developing

their democracy and want to improve their higher education system. The projects focus, for example, on

distance education, adult education, curriculum development, in-service training, and ICT. The countries

involved are China, Ukraine, Vietnam, the Russian Federation and South Africa. In 2000, the Flemish

government spent 59,1 million BEF (1,47 million EUR) on these projects (Information received from the

Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department, 2001).


Finally, between the European Union and countries of other continents, there are cooperation agreements,

in which the Flemish universities are participating. The Commission approved a programme for

cooperation between Europe and Latin America in higher education on 10 March 1994. The main

objectives of ALFA (Amérique Latine - Formation Académique) are to overcome the imbalances between

Europe and Latin America by improving the scientific, academic, and technological potential of the latter

and to contribute to the regional integration of Latin America. Its activities are gathered into two sub-

programmes: a) cooperation for institutional management and b) cooperation for scientific and

technological training (http://alfa-program.com/). On 23 October 1995, an agreement was approved

between the European Union and the United States that replaced the joint statement between the EU and

the USA of 22 November 1990. On 27 November 1995, a similar treaty with Canada was also agreed up

on. The main objectives of the treaty with the US are the improvement of educational quality and

promotion of mutual relations by the development of joint projects of EU/US partnerships between higher

education institutions of at least two member states of the EU and two states of the United States. In 1999

4 students went to Canada and 6 went to the US in the framework of this project . These projects involve

such things as the exchange of students and staff of higher education institutions and companies, the

development of study programmes, and short intensive courses. In the meantime these agreements are

prolonged and also a program with Japan was announced.

The European programme “Training and mobility of researchers” of DG XII promotes the transnational

training and mobility of researchers. The target group is postacademic researchers who are doing

doctoral and postdoctoral research and who have at least 4 years of research experience at a university or

a industrial research institution.

11.3.4. International cooperation in adult education and Open and Distance Education

There is a SOCRATES I action for “Adult education”. The objective is to set up European projects aimed

at increasing the knowledge and understanding of Europe among adult students and improving the quality

of adult education (Europese Commissie, 1996). Special about this action is that it is aimed at formal as

well as informal adult education. In the fall of 2000, this action was started as Grundtvig. Not only was

the name changed but the action was also extended (with a larger decentralised position) and

consequently became more important. In Socrates II, Grundtvig is Chapter III and the action consists of 4

components:

- Grundtvig- 1: Transnational Cooperation Projects (centralised component);

- Grundtvig- 2: Open Learning Partnerships (decentralised component);

- Grundtvig- 3: In-service training for teachers/coaches from adult aducation (decentralised

component);

- Grundtvig 4: Networks.

Project applications were submitted for the first time for all Grundtvig actions before 1 March 2001.


In the framework of the ‘Open Learning Partnerships’, which promoted a flexible and efficient

cooperation between (small) institutions of adult education, there were 5 projects in which a Flemish

institution participated. 8 Grundtvig-3 in-service grants were distributed. 4 Flemish institutions were

involved in the Grundtvig-4.

In the LEONARDO Programme, students of Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale

Promotie) who have obtained the final certificate of secondary education can obtain in-service training in

another Member State with a duration of 3 weeks or 3 months. Teachers in Social Advancement

Education can be exchanged for a period of 2 weeks.

In the framework of the European Social Fund, Objective 2, some actions are deserted to educational

institutions offering adult education. Within the Education Department (Departement Onderwijs) the

Office of Vocational Training (Dienst Beroepsopleiding) is responsible for the implementation of these

actions. This project was ended on 31 August 2000.

The SOCRATES I-program “Open and Distance Education” focuses on partnership projects between

institutions and also on the integration of ICT in the curriculum. In the second phase of the Socrates-

program, this action was called MINERVA. The specific objectives of this program are:

- to increase the understanding of teachers, pupils, policy-makers, etc. of the consequences of “Open

and distance education” and ICT for education;

- to focus on pedagogical aspects in developing ICT and multimedia educational products;

- to increase access to better methods and didactic materials and also to results and best examples.

During the transition period from Socrates I to Socrates II (2000), the cooperation program was called

“Open and distance education” / Minerva. After 2000, the program was called Minerva. In 2001, 9

Minerva projects were approved.

Furthermore, for adult education, there are European projects aimed at increasing the knowledge and

understanding of Europe among adult students or improving the quality of adult education.

11.3.5. International cooperation outside the formal education system

Participation in European programmes is integrated in vocational training schemes outside the formal

education system.

The YOUTH FOR EUROPE Programme supports a wide range of activities with educational aspects for

young people outside the formal structure of the educational system. This programme concentrates on

projects in youth work and stimulates international interaction and co-operation between European young

people and organisations in youth work.


11.4. Statistics

Table 11.1. Socrates Comenius for basic education (basisonderwijs) Action 1.1. School projects

Year Number of projects Budget (euro)

1996-1997 14 78.104,80

1997-1998 27 87.128,43

1998-1999 70 107.223,87

1999-2000 92 108.406,20

2000-2001 103 *

2001-2002 101 *

(Information recieved from the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department, 2002)

Table 11.2. Socrates Comenius for basic education (basisonderwijs) Action 1.3. School development

projects (Socrates II)

Year Number of projects Budget

2001-2002 3 *

* budget is not fully closed (4/2002)


Table 11.3. Socrates Comenius for secondary education Action 3.2.c (until 1999) Action 2.2.c (as from

2000)

Year Study grants

1996 2

1997 3

1998 15

1999 3

2000 3

2001 14


Table 11.4. Socrates Comenius for secondary education Action 1

Year Number of visits Number of

preparatory visits

Number of teacher

exchanges

Number of

teacher

placements

1995-1996 5 85 - -

1996-1997 5 167 1 10

1997-1998 42 151 9 9

1998-1999 51 80 7 8

1999-2000 23 40 5 3

2000-2001 31 26 8 0



Table 11.5. Socrates Comenius for secondary education Action 3.2. (until 1999), Action 2.2.v (as from

2001), transition year (2000-2001)

Jaar Aantal studiebeurzen

1996 41

1997 30

1998 51

1999 9

2000 32


Table 11.6. Evolution of the participants in the Erasmus- program (1988-2000)

Year Study grants Number of months abroad

1988-1989 254 1,126

1989-1990 469 2,163

1990-1991 777 4,022

1991-1992 1,049 5,712

1992-1993 1,336 7,542

1993-1994 1,712 9,885

1994-1995 2,024 11,614

1995-1996 2,370 13,174

1996-1997 2,438 13,119

1997-1998 2,708 13,484

1998-1999 2,694 14,666

1999-2000 2,700 14,528

2000-2001 2,574 14,005

2001-2002 2,799 14,803


Table 11.7. Participation in Socrates- Adult education/ Grundtvig 1

Year Number of projects

1997-1998 13

1998-1999 13

1999-2000 9

2001 9




2001 5




Year Number of grants

2001 8


Table 11.10. Participation in Socrates- Minerva, open and distance education.


1997-1998 9

1998-1999 12

1999-2000 9

2001 9


Table 11.11. Participation in Socrates-Lingua Action B - basic, secondary and tertiary education (teacher

training departments) (transition year with ‘ex-Lingua B’ in 2000-2001; Comenius 2.2.c

“In-secrvice training” as from 2001-2002)


1997-1998 9

1998-1999 12

1999-2000 9

2001 9


Table 11.12. Participation in Lingua Action C- higher education (transition year with ‘ex-Lingua C’ in

2000-2001, Comenius 2.2.b “Language assistants” as from 2001-2002)

Year Number of apprenticeships

1995-1996 8

1996-1997 12

1997-1998 15

1998-1999 15



Table 11.13. Participation in Lingua Action E - secondary and higher education, (transition year with

“ex-Lingua E” in 2000-2001, Comenius 1.2. “Language projects” as from 2001-2002)

Jaar Number of

projects Pupils Teachers

Teachers participating

in preparatory visits

1994-1995 24 545 69 54

1995-1996 21 412 49 45

1996-1997 18 418 48 60

19997-1998 21 382 50 51

1998-1999 (schatting) 18 427 43 74

1999-2000 27 565 72 37

2000-2001 22 475 58 20


Table 11.14. Participation in Euroklassen

Year Schools Flemish pupils Teachers Foreign pupils Budget (euro)

1995-1996 25 - - - 72.062,65

1996-1997 22 465 56 461 67.625,35

1997-1998 26 532 66 532 73.624,38

1998-1999 20 435 54 402 64.412,50

1999-2000 27 504 69 499 70.153,87

2000-2001 20 423 53 436 60.027,42

2001-2002 232 455 61 398 66.794,91


Table 11.15. Participation in Gros - secondary education


1996-1997 16 24.789,35

1997-1998 10 12.022,84

1998-1999 18 20.637,14

1999-2000 15 17.228,60


Table 11.16. Participation in Gros - Buurlandenbeleid (as from 1999)- basic education (basisonderwijs)


1996 6 5,887.47

1997 10 8,552.33

1998 10 6,445.23

1999 ( tot 4/1999) 14 12,146.78

1999 - Buurlandenbeleid 6 3,619.25

2000 - Buurlandenbeleid 31 38,026.87


BIBLIOGRAPHY

Auditcommissie Kwaliteitszorg in het Academisch Onderwijs in Vlaanderen (1998), Aandacht voor

kwaliteit in de Vlaamse universiteiten. Tielt: Lannoo.

Baert, H., M. Douterlungne & D. Van Damme (2000), Bevordering van deelnamekansen inzake

arbeidsmarktgerichte permanente vorming (DIAP), K.U.Leuven, Hiva, Universiteit Gent.

Belgische Federale Overheid (2002), België, een federale staat. [WWW], Brussel: Belgische Federale

Overheid: http://belgium.fgov.be/pa/nla_frame.htm.

Beuselinck, I. & J.C. Verhoeven (1998), ‘Postgraduate research training in Belgium.’, European Journal

of Education, 33 (2): 229-249.

Bollens, J., H. De Vos & I. Vleugels (2000a), Studiekosten in het basisonderwijs: wat het aan ouders kost

om schoolgaande kinderen te hebben. Leuven: Hoger Instituut voor de Arbeid.

Bollens, J., S. Groenez & I. Vleugels (2000b), Studiekosten in het hoger onderwijs: wat het kost om deel

te nemen aan het hogeschool- en universitair onderwijs. Leuven: Hoger Instituut voor de Arbeid.

Bollens, J. & I. Fripont (2001), Studiekosten in het secundair onderwijs. Wat het aan ouders kost om

schoolgaande kinderen te hebben. Leuven: Hoger Instituut voor de Arbeid.

Broekaert, E., F. De Fever & W. Hellinckx (1993), Orthopedagogische werkvelden in kaart: Vlaanderen.

Leuven-Apeldoorn: Garant.

Bronders, M. (2001), ‘Externe kwaliteitszorg onderwijs. Het visitatiestelsel herbekeken.’, Universiteit &

Beleid, 15 (3): 8-12.

Brouwer, J. (1996), De Europese Gemeenschap en onderwijs. Geschiedenis van de samenwerking en het

communautair beleid op onderwijsgebied (1951-1996). Baarn: BKE.

Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI) (1997), Education at a glance: OECD

Indicators. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

Coens, D. (1989), Met een nieuwe lei. Over de toekomst van het onderwijs in Vlaanderen. Brugge:

String.

De Groof, J. (1989), De grondwetsherziening van 1988 en het onderwijs. De schoolvrede en zijn

toepassing. Brussel: E. Story Scientia.

De Groof, J. (1990), De Schoolpactwet. Coördinatie en annotatie. Brussel: E. Story Scientia.

De Groof, J. (1995), The Legal Status of Teachers in Europe. Mobility and Education. Leuven/Amers-

foort: Acco.

http://belgium/


De Groof, J. & P. Mahieu (1993), De school komt tot haar recht. De uitoefening van rechten in het

onderwijs. Kessel-Lo: Garant.

De Groof, J. & T. Van Haver (1995), Het Vlaams onderwijs in de kijker: een internationaal perspectief.

Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs.

De Groof, J., T. Van Haver e.a. (1993), De school op rapport. Het Vlaams onderwijs in internationale

context. Kapellen: Pelckmans.

De Keyser, C.C. (1970), ‘Voorschools Onderwijs’, pp. 177-179 in A. De Block (ed) Standaard

Encyclopedie voor Opvoeding en Onderwijs. Deel I. Antwerpen: Standaard Uitgeverij.

De Keyser, C.C. (1970), ‘Lager onderwijs en Vernieuwd lager onderwijs’, pp. 179-182 in A. De Block

(ed) Standaard Encyclopedie voor Opvoeding en Onderwijs. Deel I. Antwerpen: Standaard

Uitgeverij.

De Keyser, R. & M. D’hoker (1985), ‘De geschiedenis van het secundair onderwijs in België’, Nova et

vetera, 1984-1985 (okt.): 15-40.

Deloitte & Touche (2001), Inkomsten en uitgaven van scholen in Vlaanderen: kwantificering van de

objectiveerbare verschillen. [WWW] Ministerie Van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement

Onderwijs: http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/berichten/objectiveerbareverschillen.htm.

De Meester, K. & P. Mahieu (2000), ‘Klachten, machten en gedachten. Het non-discriminatiebeleid in het

Vlaams onderwijs’, Schoolleiding- en begeleiding, 2000 (31): 19-41.

Denys, J. (1993), Minder winnaars, meer verliezers op de arbeidsmarkt: Dossier nr. 7. Leuven:

Steunpunt Werkgelegenheid, Arbeid, Vorming (WAV).

De Samblanx V. & L. Verstraete (1998) ‘Decreet betreffende het onderwijs IX’, Universiteit en Beleid, 1:

15-20.

Devos, G. (1995), De flexibilisering van het secundair onderwijs in Vlaanderen. Een organisatie-

sociologische studie van macht en institutionalisering. Leuven/Amersfoort: Acco.

Devos, G., P. Vandenberghe, P. Vandingenen & J.C. Verhoeven (1987), Het reglementair kader van

lokaal onderwijsbeleid. Leuven: Acco.

Devos, G., J.C. Verhoeven, I. Beuselinck, H. Van den Broeck & R. Vandenberghe (1999), De rol van de

schoolbesturen in het schoolmanagement. Leuven: Garant.

Devos, G., J. Verhoeven, W. Opbrouck, B. Verbeeck (2000) Handboek zelfevaluatie in het secundair

onderwijs. Diegem: Kluwer.

Dewaele, A., M. Douterlungne & H. Cossey (1985), Tussen school en werkbank. Deeltijds leren bij 15-

18-jarigen. Brussel: Ced. Samsom.

Deweghe, L (2000), ‘Rectorale openingsredes. Academiejaar 2000-2001’. Universiteit en Beleid, 15 (1):

6-8.

http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/berichten/objectiveerbareverschillen.htm

Bibliography 269

D’hoker, M, (1997), Geschiedenis van het onderwijs en het onderwijsbeleid in België, Faculteit

Psychologie en Pedagogische Wetenschappen - K.U.Leuven.

DIGO (1992), Bouwen met DIGO. Brussel: DIGO.

European Commission (1995a), Pre-School Education in the European Union. Current thinking and

provision. Brussels/Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.

European Commission (1995b), Structures of the Education and Initial Training Systems in the European

Union. Luxembourg: Office for the Official Publications of the European Communities.

European Commission (1996), Key data on education in the European Union. Luxembourg; Office for

Official Publications of the European Communities.

Europese Commissie (1996), SOCRATES. Leidraad voor Aanvragers 1997. Brussel: Bureau voor

Technische Ondersteuning SOCRATES & JEUGD.

Europese Unie (2001), Website Europese Unie. [WWW] Europese Unie: http//:europa.eu.int.

Eurydice European Unit (1990), Administration and evaluation structures for primary and secondary

schools in the twelve Member States of the European Community. Brussels: Eurydice European Unit.

Eurydice European Unit (1991a), Regulations concerning compulsory schooling in the Member States of

the European Community. Brussels: Eurydice European Unit.

Eurydice European Unit (1991b), Initial teacher training in the Member States of the European

Community. Brussels: Eurydice European Unit.

Eurydice European Unit (1992a), Private/non-state education: forms and status in the Member States of

the European Community. Brussels: Eurydice European Unit.

Eurydice European Unit (1992b), The Teaching of Modern Foreign Languages in Primary and Secondary

Education in the European Community. Brussels: Eurydice European Unit.

Eurydice European Unit (1993a), Organisation of school time in the Member States of the European


Eurydice European Unit (1993b), Administrative and Financial Responsibilities for Education and

Training in the European Community. Brussels: Eurydice European Unit.

Eurydice European Unit (1993c), Requirements for Entry to Higher Education in the European


Eurydice European Unit (1993d), Basisonderwijs in de Europese Gemeenschap. Brussel: Eurydice

European Unit. Working paper.

Eurydice European Unit (1996a), Consultative Councils and other forms of social participation in

education in the European Union. Brussel: Euridyce.

Eurydice European Unit (1996b), School heads in the European Union. Brussel: Eurydice.


Geers, F. & R. Van Weydeveldt (1994), Beroepsopleiding in België. Luxemburg: Bureau voor de

Officiële Publicaties der Europese Gemeenschappen. CEDEFOP Dossier.

Gemeenschapsonderwijs (2001), Website van het Gemeenschapsonderwijs [WWW].

Gemeenschapsonderwijs: http://www.gemeenschapsonderwijs.be.

Heyvaert, J. & G. Janssens (red.) (2001), Onderwijszakboekje. 2001-2002. Diegem: Kluwer Editorial.

Inspectie Hoger Onderwijs (1995), Opleidingsdoorlichtingen. Beschrijvingen van het systeem. Brussel:

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs.

Inspectie Hoger Onderwijs (1996), Verslag over de toestand van het onderwijs. Inspectie Hoger

Onderwijs, 1996. Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs -

Inspectie Secundair Onderwijs.

Jennes, A. (1997), Leonardo Da Vinci - artikel 10, rapport. Leuven: Hoger Instituut voor de Arbeid

(HIVA).

Kinderrechtencommissariaat (20.11.2001), Persbericht. Kinderrechtencommissaris stelt nieuw

jaarverslag voor. Kinderen in Vlaanderen klagen over rechten in gezin en steeds meer over rechten

op school. Kinderrechtencommissariaat: http://www.kinderrechtencommissariaat.be/documenten/

index.cfm.

Laevers, F. (1987), Ervaringsgericht werken in de basisschool. Deel 1: Basisboek. Leuven: Departement

Pedagogie, Projectgroep Ervaringsgericht Onderwijs – K.U.Leuven.

Laevers, F. (s.d.), Ontwikkeling van een draaiboek voor de interne evaluatie in het licht van integrale

kwaliteitszorg in het basisonderwijs. OBPWO-project 96.10 (not published).

Lammertyn, F., R. Brijs, J. Billiet & J.C. Verhoeven (1992),. De democratisering van het hoger

onderwijs buiten de universiteit: Deel 1 en 2: Onderzoeksresultaten. Leuven: Departement Sociologie

– K.U.Leuven.

Laridon, A. & J. Mertens (1988), Schoolstrijd en schoolpact. Oostende.

Laumen, R. (1992), ‘Reorganisatie van de inspectie van het onderwijs’, Tijdschrift voor Onderwijsrecht

en Onderwijsbeleid, 2: 75-82.

Maes, B. (1998), Bevorderen en bewaken van de kwaliteit van het onderwijs, de opleiding en de vorming.

Brussel: DVO (pm).

Magits, M. & L. Veny (1993), ‘Het ARGO-Decreet, de lege referenda. Omtrent de bevoegdheids-,

aansprakelijkheids- en toezichtsregeling’, Tijdschrift voor Onderwijsrecht en Onderwijsbeleid, 4: 124-

130.

Mahieu, P. (1995), ‘De decretale weg naar de lerende organisatie’, Tijdschrift voor Onderwijsrecht en

Onderwijsbeleid, 2: 76-90.

http://www.gemeenschapsonderwijs.be/

Bibliography 271

Masschelein, R., B. Maes & D. Serneels, e.a. (1996), Onderzoek naar de determinanten van de instroom

en van de loopbaan van leerlingen in het geïntegreerd onderwijs: Eindrapport. Leuven: LIGO.

Michielsens, P. (1992), ‘De werking van de gemeenschapsinspectie. Een stand van zaken, een perspectief

en een antwoord op sommige mythen’, Tijdschrift voor Onderwijsrecht en Onderwijsbeleid, 4: 233-

239.

Michielsens, P. (1993), ‘De groei van een kwaliteitscultuur. Vragen over school en overheid, ervaringen

met schooldoorlichtingen, uitdagingen voor kwaliteitszorg op school’, Tijdschrift voor Onderwijsrecht

en Onderwijsbeleid, 3: 180-190.

Michielsens, P. (1998), Schoolleiderschap. Op zoek naar identiteit. Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse

Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap (1991a), Flanders. Fact Sheet. 5: From unitary state to federal

co-operation. Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Coördinatie,

Administratie Externe Betrekkingen.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap (1991b), Flanders. The golden passport to Europe. Brussel:

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Coördinatie, Administratie Externe

Betrekkingen.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap (1991c), Flanders. Fact Sheet. 8: Education in Flanders.

Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Coördinatie, Administratie Externe

Betrekkingen.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap (1992), Flanders. Fact Sheet. 1: State Reform. Brussel:

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Coördinatie, Administratie Externe

Betrekkingen.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap (2001), Jaarlijkse verslaggeving van de Vlaamse regering aan

het Vlaams Parlement en de Kinderrechtencommissaris omtrent de implementatie van het VN-verdrag

van 20 november 1989 inzake de rechten van het kind. [WWW] Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse

Gemeenschap: http://www.wvc.vlaanderen.be/kinderrechten/index.htm.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Administratie Buitenlands Beleid (2002), Vlaanderen en het

Belgisch EU-voorzitterschap, Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Algemene Zaken (2000), Vlaamse Regionale

Indicatoren (VRIND) 1999, Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement

Algemene Zaken, Algemene Planningsdienst.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Algemene Zaken (2001), Vlaamse Regionale

Indicatoren (VRIND) 2000, [WWW]. Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap,

Departement Algemene Zaken: http://fred.vlaanderen.be/statistieken/publicaties/vrind/vrind.htm.

http://www.wvc.vlaanderen.be/kinderrechten/index.htm

http://fred.vlaanderen.be/statistieken/publicaties/vrind/vrind.htm


Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs (1995a), Verder leren.

Afstandsonderwijs, thuis in bijleren. Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement

Onderwijs.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs (1995b), Inspectie en Begeleiding.


Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs (1996a), Onderwijs-ontwikkelingen in

Vlaanderen 1994-1996: Rapport voor de UNESCO van Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap,

Departement Onderwijs. Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs,

Afdeling Informatie en Documentatie.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs (1996b), Volwassenen-onderwijs.

1996-1997. Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs (1998c), ‘Vliegende leraars: En wie

vervangt de afwezigen?’, Klasse. Maandblad voor onderwijs in Vlaanderen, 82: 32-33.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs (1998d), ‘De rekening van de ARGO’,

Klasse. Maandblad voor onderwijs in Vlaanderen, 82: 14.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs (1998e), Vlaamse

Onderwijsindicatoren in internationaal perspectief. Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse


Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs (1998f), Het bijzonder decreet van 14

juli 1998 betreffende het gemeenschapsonderwijs. Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap,

Departement Onderwijs.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs (1999b) Adult Education 99-00. It is

never too late to learn. Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs,

Administratie Permanente Vorming.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs (1999). Onderwijs [WWW].

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs: http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs (2000a), ‘Leerlingenraad’, Klasse.

Maandblad voor onderwijs in Vlaanderen, 101: 38.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs (2000b) Levenslang en levensbreed

leren in Vlaanderen, http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/berichten/levenslang_leren/default.htm.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs (2000c), Naar een geïntegreerd

kansenbeleid binnen het onderwijs. Visietekst ten behoeve van een discussie in het Vlaams Parlement.


http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/

Bibliography 273

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs (2000d), Vlaamse

Onderwijsindicatoren in Internationaal Perspectief. Editie 2000. Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse


Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs (2001a), Onderwijsspiegel 2000-2001.

Verslag over de toestand van het onderwijs. [WWW] Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap,

Departement Onderwijs: http://www.onderwijsinspectie.be/alg/onderwijsspiegel.htm.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs (2001b), Statistisch Jaarboek van het

Vlaams Onderwijs. Schooljaar 2000-2001. Brussel.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs (2001c), Rapport hoger onderwijs

1999-2000. [WWW] Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs:

http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs (2001d), Zittenblijven, schoolse

vertraging en slaagcijfers in het Vlaams secundair onderwijs. [WWW] Ministerie van de Vlaamse

Gemeenschap: Departement Onderwijs: http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/schooldirect/bijlagen0201/

thema_SO.pdf.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs (2001e), Vlaams Onderwijs in Cijfers.

2000-2001. Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs.

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs, Coördinatie van de Omzendbrieven.


Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs, Officieuze Codificatie van de

onderwijswetgeving. Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs.

Nationaal Instituut voor de Statistiek (2000), Bevolkingsstatistieken: Loop van de bevolking en migraties

in 1999. Brussel: Ministerie van Economische Zaken.

Nationaal Instituut voor de Statistiek (2001a), Statistieken, [WWW]. NIS, Ministerie van Economische

Zaken: http://www.statbel.fgov.be/figures.

Nationaal Instituut voor de Statistiek (2001b), Enquête naar de arbeidskrachten. 2000, Brussel:

Ministerie van Economische Zaken.

Nicaise, I. (1991), ‘Financiering van het onderwijs’, pp. 381-400 in Het educatief bestel in België: van

convergentie naar divergentie (OESO: doorlichting van het educatief overheidsbeleid). Brussel-

Bruxelles-Eupen: Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs – Ministère de l’

Education, de la Recherche et de la Formation – Verwaltung der Deutschsprachigen Gemeinschaft,

Abteilung Unterricht.

Nicaise, I. (1996), Financiële drempels in het onderwijs afbouwen. Leuven: Hoger Instituut voor de

Arbeid (HIVA).

http://www.onderwijsinspectie.be/alg/onderwijsspiegel.htm

http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/

http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/schooldirect/bijlagen0201/%0bthema_SO.pdf

http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/schooldirect/bijlagen0201/%0bthema_SO.pdf

http://www.statbel.fgov.be/figures


OECD (2000), OECD Country Note. Early Childhood Education and Care Policy in the Flemish

Community of Belgium [WWW]. OECD: http://www.oecd.org [2000].

OECD-OCDE (1993), Reviews of national policies for education. Belgium. Paris: OECD-OCDE.

Offeciers, C. (1996), ‘De positie van het officiële secundaire en basisonderwijs binnen het Vlaams

onderwijsaanbod en de (her)definiëring van het grondwettelijk gegarandeerd principe van de vrije

keuze’, Tijdschrift voor onderwijsrecht en onderwijsbeleid, 4: 199-218.

Pauwels, S. (1999), ‘Noot: Recht op onderwijs, vrije keuze en leerlingenvervoer’, Tijdschrift voor

onderwijsrecht en onderwijsbeleid, 1998-1999 (4): 272-277.

Peeters, K. (1992), Na scholing, nascholing! Naar een professionalisering van de nascholing voor

leraren. Leuven-Apeldoorn: Garant.

Peeters, K., A. Van Cauwenberghe, R. Schollaert & H. Coucke (1996), Spiegel-effecten. De Vlaamse

decretale navorming doorgelicht. Leuven-Apeldoorn: Garant.

Peeters, S., A. Blondeel & M Scheck (1994), ‘Het deeltijds kunstonderwjs - Ontmoeting tussen cultuur-

en onderwijsbeleid’, Tijdschrift voor Onderwijsrecht en Onderwijsbeleid, 4 (1993-1994): 54-63.

Persdienst Minister Vanderpoorten (15.06.2001), Persmededeling van het kabinet van Minister Marleen

Vanderpoorten, Hervorming vervangingspool in onderwijs. Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse

Gemeenschap, departement Onderwijs.

Persdienst Minister Vanderpoorten (30.11.2001), Persmededeling van het kabinet van Minister Marleen

Vanderpoorten, Decreet gelijkekansenbeleid in het onderwijs. Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse

Gemeenschap, departement Onderwijs.

Platel, M. (1993), Het nieuwe België. Andere Belgen. 1830 - het Sint-Michielsakkoord. Knokke-Heist:

Creart.

Pletinck, B. (2000), ‘Naar een decretale verankering van het inschrijvingsgeld en de aanvaardingsplicht.

Aandachtspunten m.b.t. de visietekst van de minister van Onderwijs over een geïntegreerd

gelijkekansenbeleid’, Tijdschrift voor Onderwijsrecht en Onderwijsbeleid, 4 (2000-2001): 342-346.

Rottiers, J. (2001), ‘Kwaliteitszorg aan hogescholen, een zorgenkind?’, Brandpunt, 7 (28): 252-255.

Sacré, P. (1993), Historiek van de PMS-Centra. Brussel: VUB Press.

Schepers, R. (2000) ‘Functiebeschrijving en evaluatie. Convenant komt er niet tegen 1 september’.

Brandpunt, 27 (8): 294-296.

Schoofs, J. (1997-1998) ‘Projectgroep Ontwikkeling zelfanalyse (“PROZA”), instrument voor

kwaliteitszorg aan de Provinciale Hogeschool Limburg’, Tijdschrift voor Onderwijsrecht &

Onderwijsbeleid, 3-4: 300-306.

Sociale Raad - Leuvense Overkoepelende Kringorganisatie (LOKO)(1996), Jaarverslag sociale raad

1995-1996. Leuven: Sociale Raad - Leuvense Overkoepelende Kringorganisatie (LOKO).

http://www.oecd.org/

Bibliography 275

Stienlet, G., (1998), Het verdelingsvraagstuk betreffende de financiering van het onderwijs of is artikel 39

van de Bijzondere Financieringswet uitvoerbaar?, Tijdschrift voor Onderwijsrecht en

Onderwijsbeleid, 5-6 (1997-1998): 325-328.

Steunpunt WAV (2001), De Arbeidsmarkt in Vlaanderen. Jaarboek 2000. Leuven: Steunpunt WAV.

Tegenbos, G. (2001), ‘In Kortessem ook ‘gemengd’ schooltje’, De Standaard, (05.01.2001).

Tielemans, J. (1996), Onderwijs in Vlaanderen. Leuven-Apeldoorn: Garant.

TORB (1995), ‘10 Jaar Leerplicht-verlenging: terugblik en toekomstperspectieven (themanummer)’,

Tijdschrift voor Onderwijsrecht en Onderwijsbeleid, 5-6.

Tistaert, G. e.a. (1996), Praktijkopleiding van aanstaande leraren. Leuven-Apeldoorn: Garant.

UNESCO (1994) Final report, World Conference on special needs education: accerss and quality. Paris:

UNESCO.

Van Craeymeersch, S. (1997), ‘Het decreet basisonderwijs, geen revolutie, wel een grondige

vernieuwing’, Tijdschrift voor Onderwijsrecht en Onderwijsbeleid. 1996-1997 (4): 211-222.

Van Damme, J. (1988), ‘Comprehensive secondary education and middle schools in Belgium’,

International Journal of Educational Research, 12 ( 5): 507-521.

Van Den Bossche, L. (1996), Het onderwijsaanbod in het Secundair Onderwijs. Discussienota. Brussel :

Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap, Departement Onderwijs.

Vanderhoeven, J.L. (1990), ‘De nieuwe structuur voor het Secundair Onderwijs in Vlaanderen. Een

algemeen kader voor een bos zonder bomen?’, Bulletin LAPP, 29, 3-4: 139-156.

Vanderhoeven J.L. (red.) (1991), Education in Belgium: The Diverging Paths. OECD: Review of

National Policies for Education. Brussel-Bruxelles-Eupen: Ministerie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap,

Departement Onderwijs-Ministère de l’Education, de la Recherche et de la Formation-Verwaltung der

Deutschsprachigen Gemeinschaft, Abteilung Unterricht.

Vanderhoeven, J.L. (1992), ‘Medezeggenschap: een duik in de lokale autonomie’, Tijdschrift voor

Onderwijsrecht en Onderwijsbeleid, 3: 157-172.

Vanderhoeven, J.L. & J. Van Damme (1991), ‘Situating the issue of ‘Core curriculum for basic

education’ in Belgian/Flemish education policy’, in: G. Van den Brink & H. Hooghoff (eds.). Core

curriculum for basis education. Perspectives and implications. Enschede: Stichting

Leerplanontwikkeling.

Van Ham, P. (red.) (1996), ‘De Cel Leerlingbegeleiding’, Jongeren en school, nr. 1. Leuven-Apeldoorn:

Garant.

Van Heddegem, I. & J.C. Verhoeven (1998-1999) ‘Gesubsidieerde oudervorming in Vlaanderen’,

Tijdschrift voor Onderwijsrecht & Onderwijsbeleid, 5-6: 317-327.


Vanhove, L. (1985), Inleiding tot de wetgeving op het universitair onderwijs. Leuven-Amersfoort: Acco.

Van Petegem, P. (1996), ‘Gewikt en gewogen, en hoe bevonden? Zelfevaluatie als strategisch instrument

voor schoolontwikkeling’, Impuls, 26 (2): 49-57.

Van Petegem, P. (1998), Vormgeven aan schoolbeleid. Effectieve-scholenonderzoek als inspiratiebron

voor de zelfevaluatie van scholen. Leuven: Acco.

Veny, L. (1989), ‘Bedenkingen omtrent de wederzijdse doorstroming tussen het hoger onderwijs buiten

de universiteit en de universiteit’, Persoon en Gemeenschap, 41 (6): 219-299.

Veny, L. (1994), Wegwijs in de lokale raden van het Gemeenschapsonderwijs. Antwerpen:

Oudervereniging voor de Moraal.

Verhoeven, J.C. & I. Beuselinck (1996), Higher Education in Flanders (Belgium): A report for the

OECD. Brussels: Ministry of the Flemish Community, Education Department. Policy-directed Co-

ordination Division.

Verhoeven, J.C. & I. Beuselinck (1999), ‘Belgium: diverging professions in twin Communities’, pp. 35-

57 in Farnham, D. (ed.) Managing Academic Staff in Changing University Systems: International

Trends and Comparisons. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Verhoeven, J.C. & M. Elchardus (2000) Onderwijs. Een decennium Vlaamse autonomie. Kapellen:

Pelckmans.

Verhoeven, J.C., M. Jegers & I. Van Heddegem (1997), Participatieraden en lokale schoolraden in

Vlaanderen: De eerste jaren. Leuven-Apeldoorn: Garant.

Vermeesch, F. (1998) Differentiatie op het vlak van de organisatie van het leeraanbod (p.m.). Brussel:

DVO.

VIZO (1996), Activiteitenverslag 1996.

VIZO (1997), Activiteitenverslag 1997.

Vlaams Leonardo Da Vinci-agentschap (1998), Leonardo Da Vinci in Vlaanderen op kruissnelheid.

Statistieken, tendenzen en projecten: een analyse van 3 jaar Leonardo Da Vinci Vlaanderen. Brussel:

Vlaams Leonardo Da Vinci-agentschap.

Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding (2000), VDAB. Samen sterk in werk.

[WWW], VDAB: http://www.vdab.be.

Vlaams Economisch Verbond (2001), Website Vlaams Economisch Verbond [WWW], Vlaams

Economisch Verbond: www.vev.be.

Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad (VLIR) (1999-2000). Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad [WWW].

Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad: http://www.vlir.be.

http://www.vdab.be/

http://www.vlir.be/

Bibliography 277

Vlaamse Onderwijsraad (1993), ‘Naar een duidelijker profiel voor de PMS-Centra. Advies van de

Vlaamse Onderwijsraad. 19 januari 1993’, Cahier, nr. 2. Brussel: VLOR.

Vlaamse Onderwijsraad (1995), ‘Onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid voor migranten’, Cahier, nr. 8. Brussel:

VLOR.

Vlaams Parlement (2002), Welkom bij het Vlaams Parlement. De mijlpalen. [WWW] Vlaams Parlement:

http://www.vlaamsparlement.be.

Vlaams Secretariaat van het Katholiek Onderwijs (VSKO) (1997), Repertorium van het katholiek

onderwijs. Brussel: VSKO.

Vlaams Secretariaat van het Katholiek Onderwijs (VSKO) (1998), ‘Schoolwerkplanning, de visie van het

VSKO. Schoolwerkplanning door middel van een schoolwerkplan: een instrument bij de realisatie van

het opvoedingsproject van de school’, Forum, nr. 3/4.

Wielemans, W. (1994), Het Onderwijs in België. Leuven-Apeldoorn: Garant.

Wielemans, W. & J.L.Vanderhoeven (1991), ‘Market impact and policy drift: Belgian higher education’,

in: G. Neave & F. Van Vught (Eds.). Prometheus Bound. The changing relationship between

government and higher education in Western Europe. Oxford : Pergamon Press.

GLOSSARY

- Afstandsonderwijs (schriftelijk onderwijs, zelfgestuurd leren, Begeleid Individueel Studeren,

BIS)

The Distance Education (Afstandsonderwijs) uses printed material and/or ICT and is adapted to the level

of the student; it is mainly intended for adults who need to make up deficiencies in their education or feel

to be obliged to retrain and for those preparing for examinations before the Examination Board of the

Flemish Community (Examencommissie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap) to obtain a diploma of lower

secondary or higher secondary education. A student who passes either of these examinations may

proceed to normal education at the secondary or higher education level.

- Algemeen Secundair Onderwijs (ASO)

In the 2nd and 3rd stage of secondary education, the General Secondary Education (Algemeen Secundair

onderwijs) gives a more theoretical approach to subjects than do the other forms of secondary education

and is clearly intended to facilitate the passage to higher education.

- Ankerschool

An anchor school (ankerschool) is a school or institution where members of the replacement pool

(vervangingspool) are appointed during the periods they are not on short-term replacement.

- Arbitragehof

The Arbitration Court (Arbitragehof) was established as part of the state reform to settle conflicts between

the three Communities (Gemeenschappen) of Belgium or between one of them and the federal

government. In addition, the amended Constitution of 1988 gives the right to refer to the Arbitration

Court to all citizens who contend that there has been a violation of the principles and guarantees laid

down in Art. 24 on education of the Constitution and who have been harmed thereby.

- Assisterend Academisch Personeel (AAP)

At the universities, the Auxiliary Academic Personnel (Assisterend Academisch Personeel) supports the

Independent Academic Personnel (Zelfstandig Academisch Personeel) (ZAP) in two-cycle courses, doing

research, teaching, and guidance assignments under their supervision. Full-time research assistants are

allowed to spend at least half of their working time preparing their thesis under the supervision of a

university based supervisor.


- Basiseducatie

Adult basic education (basiseducatie) organises training programmes for low-qualified adults: basic

language and arithmetic skills, social skills, citizenship, and preparation for another study or work. It

may not be confused with ‘basic education’, which refers to mainstream or special pre-school and

primary education.

- Basisonderwijs

This term (Basic Education) refers in Flanders both to pre-school and primary education.

- Begeleid Individueel Studeren (BIS, afstandsonderwijs, schriftelijk onderwijs, zelfgestuurd

leren)

The Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) uses printed material and/or ICT and is

adapted to the level of the student; it is mainly intended for adults who need to make up deficiencies in

their education or feel obliged to retrain and for those preparing for examinations before the Examination

Board of the Flemish Community (Examencommissie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap) to obtain a diploma

of lower secondary or higher secondary education. A student who passes either of these examinations

may proceed to normal education at the secondary or higher education level.

- Beroepsprofiel

A vocational profile (beroepsprofiel) is an ordered enumeration of the tasks of an experienced vocational

practitioner as well as the quality norms and vocational requirements that apply thereto.

- Beroepssecundair Onderwijs (BSO)

In this form of secondary education in the 2nd and 3rd stage (vocational secondary education), pupils

acquire specific skills and simultaneously receive general education. Access to higher education is

possible, but it is not common.

- Buitengewoon kleuteronderwijs

Special pre-school education (Buitengewoon kleuteronderwijs) is a type of education that provides, on the

basis of an educational project, education, care, and therapy suited to the capacity of the pupils of whom

the development of the total personality is not or is insufficiently assured by the ordinary pre-school

education, temporarily or permanently.

- Buitengewoon Lager Onderwijs (BLO)

Special primary education (Buitengewoon Lager Onderwijs) is a type of education that provides, on the

basis of an educational project, education, care, and therapy suited to the capacity of the pupils of whom

the development of the total personality is not or is insufficiently assured by the ordinary primary

education, temporarly or permanently.

Glossary 281

- Buitengewoon Onderwijs

Special education (Buitengewoon Onderwijs) is a type of education that delivers on the basis of an

educational project, education, care, and therapy suited to the capacity of the pupils of whom the

development of the total personality is not or is insufficiently assured by the ordinary education.

temporarly or permanently.

- Buitengewoon Secundair Onderwijs (BuSO)

Special secondary education (Buitengewoon Secundair Onderwijs) is a type of education that delivers on

the basis of an educational project, education, care, and therapy suited to the capacity of the pupils of

whom the development of the total personality is not or is insufficiently assured by the ordinary

secondary education. temporarly or permanently.

- Centrum voor Leerlingenbegeleiding

The main objective of the Centre for Educational Guidance (Centrum voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) is to

increase the well-being of pupils. Therefore, the centres develop activities in the area of learning and

studying, educational career counselling, preventive health care, and psychological and social functioning

of pupils from compulsary education. The Centre for Educational Guidance (Centrum voor

Leerlingenbegeleiding) works with the school and the parents. They were established on 1 September

2000 as the result of the integration of the Guidance Centres (PMS-centra) and the Centres for Health

Supervision in Schools (Medisch Schooltoezicht).

- Centrum voor Volwassenenonderwijs (Centra voor Volwassenenonderwijs)

An Adult Education Centre (Centrum voor Volwassenonderwijs) is a school that provides adult education

within the framework of Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie).

- Certificaat

A certificate (certificaat) in the Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) is an

evidence recognized by the Flemish Government that determines someone has succeeded vocational

courses. In full-time ordinary and part-time secondary vocational education no (subject-)certificates are

handed as the modular system is not yet introduced.

- College van Accountants

The Board of Accountants (College van Accountants) in the official education system has 5 members. It

supervises the financial policy of the school groups (scholengroepen). The Board of Accountants is also

responsible to the Flemish Government for the financial supervision of the Council of the Community

Education (Raad van het Gemeenschapsonderwijs ).


- Commissie Zorgvuldig Bestuur

The Committee for Careful Governance (Commissie Zorgvuldig Bestuur) is an independent committee

existing of a chamber for pre- and primary education and one for secondary education, part-time art

education, adult education and the centres for educational guidance. These chambers contain four

members each and are chaired by a magistrate and supported by a civil servant of the Ministry of the

Flemish Community. This committee decides about the legitimacy of complaints concerning

advertisement and sponsoring, the prohibition of political propaganda, unfair competition and commercial

activities in education.

- Contactonderwijs

Face-to-face instruction (contactonderwijs) is a method of education whereby there is direct contact

between the teacher and the course participant. Consequently, face-to-face instruction is bound to a

certain place for the courses.

- Contractonderwijs

Contract teaching (contractonderwijs) is a method of education that is not financed or subsidized by the

Flemish Community. It is organized and financed on the basis of a contract between the board and an

outside party. The board is committed to pay the party who is responsible for the teaching duties.

“Contractonderwijs” can either be recognized or not. If it is recognized, the certificates of completion

may be ratified.

- Deelcertificaat

A subject certificate (deelcertificaat) in Social Advancement Education is a certificate recognized by the

Flemish Government that attests that someone has successfully attended a module of a school year or a

school year in a linear education.

In full-time ordinary and part-time secondary vocational education, no subject certificates are issued as

the modular system has not yet been introduced.

- Deeltijds Beroepssecundair Onderwijs (DBSO)

Part-time Vocational Secondary Education (Deeltijds Beroepssecundair Onderwijs) can also be attended

on a part-time basis from the age of 15 or 16 years. This form of education was given legal status in the

Decree of 31 July 1990, which confirmed the existing experimental structure as Part-time Vocational

Secondary Education.

Glossary 283

- Deeltijds Kunstonderwijs (DKO)

This is a type of adult education that is offered on a part-time basis (evenings, Wednesday’s afternoons,

weekends) by nearly 170 institutes (most of them are organised by the municipalities). These institutes

are called ‘academies’ and are only entitled to organise programmes of Part-time Art Education. Every

academy has to organise at least two successive degrees. The provided courses do not belong to the

compulsory education system, so an enrolment fee has to be paid.

- Departement Onderwijs

The Education department (Departement Onderwijs) of the Ministry of the Flemish Community (Vlaamse

Gemeenschap) works under the authority of a Secretary General. The Education department itself is

organised into five directorates: the “Administratie Ondersteuning” (Logistics and Support

Administration), Elementary Education Administration (Administratie Basisonderwijs), “Administratie

Secundair Onderwijs” (Secondary Education Administration), “Administratie Hoger onderwijs en

Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek” (Higher Education and Scientific Research Administration), and the

“Administratie Permanente Vorming” (Continuing Education Administration). At present, nearly all of

these services are located in Brussels.

- Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling (DVO)

The Department of Educational Development (Dienst voor Onderwijsontwikkeling) (DVO) is a scientific

research unit that is responsible for the establishment of the final objectives (eindtermen) and

developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) for pre-school, primary, and secondary education upon

which a quality evaluation will be based. The DVO also has two other important tasks:

- developing analysis and evaluation instruments in order to audit schools as regards such things as the

realization of final objectives (eindtermen);

- developing methods for the drawing up of curricula and timetables in function of the teacher profiles

and other factors;

- the working out of proposals concerning the introduction and in-service training of the members of the

inspectorate.

- Diploma

A diploma in Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) is a certificate

recognized by the Flemish Government that states that someone has successfully completed either a full

program of higher education or a full program of full-time secondary education.


- Directeur

A school head (directeur) in the Flemish Community of Belgium has a tenure position and, in general, no

teaching duties. From 1 September 1999, the school head (directeur) will be appointed for a specific

term. Only at the pre-school and primary education level do school heads with less than 180 pupils still

have some teaching duties.

- Eduforum

The Platforms of Adult Education Providers (Edufora) are regional cooperation centres for adult

education in which public training providers are represented. The task of the Edufora is to coordinate the

educational offering in general and, more specifically, to achieve better harmonisation between supply

and demand, to improve financial efficiency, and to guarantee the quality of the offer.

- Eindtermen

Attainment targets (eindtermen) form an important element within an extremely balanced policy on

education quality control by the government. They are minimum objectives adopted by the Flemish

Parliament that have to be aimed for and achieved in ordinary primary and secondary education. Schools

have to integrate them into their self-developed curricula and syllabuses.

- Examencommissie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap

The Examination Board of the Flemish Community (Examencommissie van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap)

enables people to obtain, without attending normal secondary schools and courses, the certificates of the

first and second stage of secondary education, as well as the Diploma Secondary Education) (Diploma

Secundair Onderwijs (certificate after the third stage of secondary education).

- Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (FWO)

The Fund for Scientific Research- Flanders (Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek) fosters and

finances fundamental scientific research in Flemish universities and in institutions for scientific research.

The FWO’s “activities are intended to push back the frontiers of knowledge in all disciplines by

stimulating and funding fundamental academic research at the universities in the Flemish Community and

at scientific research institutes”. This objective is realized for by the FWO by the training of researchers,

by supporting individual researchers and research teams, by stimulating scientific contacts and

cooperation (national and international) and by presenting awards.

- Fundamenteel Curriculum

The fundamental curriculum (fundamenteel curriculum) consists of the subjects that form the specific

option, such as the subjects Latin and Greek in the ‘Latin-Greek’ course of study in secondary education.

Glossary 285

- Gecombineerd onderwijs

Combined education (Gecombineerd onderwijs) is a method of education that combines face-to-face

instruction (contactonderwijs) and Distance Education (Afstandsonderwijs). Typical for this method is

that 50% of the instruction time spent on a module or on one subject during a school year is in face-to-

face instruction.

- Geïntegreerde Proef (GIP)

The Integrated Examination (Geïntegreerde Proef) is an examination in the second, third and fourth stage

of vocational education and in the third stage of technical and art education. This examination integrates

all the subjects of the fundamental part of the study. Its main objective is to transcend the different

subjects and to test skills that are important in the pupil’s further educational career.

- Geïntegreerd Onderwijs (GON)

The Integrated Education (Geïntegreerd Onderwijs) (GON) is a new step towards the integration of

special education into ordinary education. Children with a handicap and/or learning difficulties may

attend class in ordinary schools on a permanent or intermittent basis, either part time or full time.

- Gemeenschap

In 1970, the unitary Belgian State was changed into a federal state. The result of this process are three

cultural Communities (Gemeenschappen) - the Flemish, the French-language, and the German-language.

From 1989 onwards almost all responsibilities related to education have been transferred from the federal

government to the governments of the Communities. At the federal level only a few responsibilities

remain to safeguard the general coherence of the education structures in Belgium (avoiding, for example,

internal problems with the recognition of diplomas).

- Gemeenschapsonderwijs

The educational facilities organised by the Community Education (Gemeenschapsonderwijs) (the former

Independent Council for Community Education (Autonome Raad voor het Gemeenschapsonderwijs)) are

known as the community education.

- Gemeenschapsscholen

Community schools are schools belonging to the community education (gemeenschapsonderwijs).

- Gesubsidieerd officieel onderwijs (officieel gesubsidieerd onderwijs, OGO)

The educational facilities organised by municipalities and provinces are known as the grant-aided official

education (gesubsidieerd officieel onderwijs).


- Gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs (vrij gesubsidieerd onderwijs, VGO)

The educational facilities organised by free associations or non-profit organisations are known as the

grant-aided free education (gesubsidieerd vrij onderwijs).

- Gesubsidieerde officiële scholen (officiële gesubsidieerde scholen)

These are schools belonging to the grant-aided official education (gesubsidieerd officieel onderwijs).

- Gesubsidieerde vrije scholen (vrij gesubsidieerde scholen)

These are schools belonging to the grant-aided free education (vrij gesubsidieerd onderwijs)

- Getuigschrift

A certificate (getuigschrift) in Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) is a

document handed by the board of governors of a recognized Adult Education Centre to regular students

that determines the person involved has successfully attended a program that corresponds to a full course

of the second grade of full-time secondary education.

In full-time ordinary secondary education a certificate is handed after the first and second degree, while

no study-atestations (studieattesten) are distributed.

- Gewest

The Regions (Gewesten) - Flemish, Walloon, and Brussels - are responsible for economic, energy, and

scientific policy, public works and transport, town and country planning, and the environment.

- Groepswerkplan

In special education, all individual educational plans (handelingsplannen) fit in an educational plan

(groepswerkplan) for the pedagogical unit in which the pupil participates. The educational plans are in

turn ordered and geared to each other in a school development plan (schoolwerkplan) in which the school

stresses its own vision on education.

- Handelingsplan

For each pupil in special education, an individual educational plan (handelingsplan) is drawn up together

with the concerned “PMS-centrum” (guidance centre). This is a step-by-step programme that matches the

individual situation of the pupil. This plan indicates what and how the pupil will learn and how this must

be organised. The objectives are clearly defined, and it is stipulated when they have to be reached. The

individual educational plan, which can be adapted any time to the real and feasible evolution of the pupil,

forms a daily guide for teachers and paramedical staff.

Glossary 287

- Hogeschool

Colleges of higher education (Hogescholen) are educational institutions that provide education of colleges

of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs).

- Hogeschoolonderwijs

In Flemish tertiary education, a clear distinction is made between the “hogeschoolonderwijs” provided by

colleges of higher education (hogescholen) and education provided by the universities. The former has

two different course structures: one-cycle programmes (more practical oriented) and two-cycle

programmes (academic level education). Transition schemes for students moving between the different

parts of tertiary education have been developed.

- Industrieel leercontract

The industrial apprenticeship contract (industrieel leercontract) system enables the pupil to attend part-

time vocational education, and also obtain practical training in a workplace.

This scheme grants a temporary reduction in the employer’s contribution to the State Social Security

System when they recruit young job seekers in an industrial apprenticeship contract. This agreement is

signed by the young person and the employer and lasts for a minimum of one year or a maximum of three

years. It has two parts: a contract for part-time work of specific duration (at least half-time) and training.

The training programme lasts for a total of 500 hours, except for management training for independent

professions, where the minimum is 256 hours.

- Inrichtende macht

The organising body (inrichtende macht) of an educational establishment is the authority, that is to say the

individual or collective person or persons who accept(s) full responsibility with respect to that

establishment.

- Inspecteur-adviseur

The Flemish education system distinguishes between inspectors (under the authority of the Minister of

Education) and advisors (network-related external support and change agents assisting schools). The

inspector-advisor combines both tasks but works only in relation to religious or philosophical courses.

- Kandidaat

The degree of candidate (kandidaat) is obtained after the first cycle (2 or 3 years of study) at the

university or in the education of colleges of higher education (hogeschoolonderwijs) of two cycles. It

may be considered comparable to a bachelor’s degree in the Anglo-Saxon world.


- Kerncurriculum

The core curriculum (kerncurriculum) consists of the subjects common to all options of a specific grade

in secondary education.

- Klassenraad

In secondary education, the essential instrument in assessment is the class council (klassenraad), i.e. the

committee consisting of the entire managing and teaching staff responsible for the instruction of a specific

group of pupils, the assessment of their school progress, the decision regarding each pupil’s promotion to

a higher class, and the issuing of certificates when appropriate.

- Kunstsecundair Onderwijs (KSO)

This form of secondary education in the 2nd and 3rd stage provides a more ‘artistic’ kind of education. It

gives more attention to art, provides an artistic and technical basis, and prepares the pupil for higher

education, artistic or another.

- Leerlingenkoepelvereniging

A student umbrella association (leerlingenkoepelvereniging) is an umbrella association of local student

councils in Flemish secondary educational institutions.

To be eligible for such an association, a certain representativity is required. This means that the student

umbrella association co-ordinates at least four Flemish provinces including the bilingual territory of

Brussels Capital. All types of education should be represented.

- Leerlingenraad

The student council (leerlingenraad) is a counseling body in secondary schools, chosen by thestudents.

The objective of this council is to promote dialogue between the pupils and the school’s head, the

students and the teachers and the students among themselves in order to create optimum development

opportunities for all students. The mission of the student council is to advise the school’s head teacher

about all matters that directly concern them. The school’s head teacher needs to provide all the

information that is useful for the council and to administrative and infrastructural support.

- Licentiaat

The second degree in university education, that of licentiate (licentiaat), is obtained after two or three

years of study and involves specialised instruction and the submission of a thesis at the end of the course.

Glossary 289

- Lokale schoolraad (LORGO)

Local school councils (lokale schoolraden) are part of the Independent Council for Community Education

(Autonome Raad voor het Gemeenschapsonderwijs). The local school councils consist of 12 or 15

members depending on the size of the school. Representatives of the parents - who need not necessarily

be pupils’ parents - are elected every five years by all the parents of the pupils in the school or schools.

The elected parent representatives co-opt members from local social, economic, and cultural circles.

These two groups then co-opt a number of teachers of the schools for which the local school council

(lokale schoolraad) is responsible. Each of these three groups forms a third of the total number of

members. One of the school heads (directeurs) concerned (who is entitled to vote) is also member of this

council. He/she represents the school heads when several schools are involved.

- Medisch Schooltoezicht (MST)

The school-related medical supervision commission in the framework of the health supervision (Medisch

Schooltoezicht) focuses in general on:

- a compulsory medical examination of all pupils (approximately every two years from pre-school level

till the end of secondary education and once at the higher education level);

- medical examinations for certain infectious diseases (teachers and pupils);

- monitoring health conditions in schools in general;

- involvement in programs on health education.

Since 2000 the MST’s have disappeared. Their tasks were incorporated in the ‘Centra voor

Leerlingenbegeleiding’ (CLB).

- Officieel onderwijs

The educational facilities organised by the Belgian State and since 1988 by the Flemish Community.

Both grant-aided official education and community education belong to the official education.

- Officiële scholen

These are schools belonging to the official education (officieel onderwijs).


- Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie (OSP)

Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) (OSP) is one of the channels of

continuous education. It is organised at different levels in function of the educational needs of the public.

It offers:

- lower secondary vocational courses, higher secondary vocational courses, and complementary

secondary vocational courses;

- lower secondary technical courses and higher secondary technical courses;

- higher education Social Advancement Education and short-term social advancement courses in the

paramedical, social, pedagogical, technical, and economic sectors.

Long training courses consist of several years of study and can be supplemented by further training or

specialisation.

- Onderwijsnet

Schools, which may be owned by different organising bodies (inrichtende machten) are grouped in

educational networks (onderwijsnetten) on the basis of their legal status. By virtue of the constitutional

liberty guaranteed in education, an educational network may be organised by public authorities as the

Communities, the Provinces and the Municipalities, and private persons (private individuals, free

associations, or non-profit organisations).

- Onderwijstype

At the primary level, eight types of special education have been defined in order to meet as much as

possible the general and individual educational needs of children and adolescents in special education:

- Type 1 applies to children and adolescents with a slight mental disability;

- Type 2 applies to children and adolescents with a moderate and/or severe mental disability;

- Type 3 applies to children and adolescents with severe emotional and/or behavioral problems;

- Type 4 applies to children and adolescents with physical disabilities;

- Type 5 applies to sick (hospitalised) children and adolescents;

- Type 6 applies to visually impaired children and adolescents;

- Type 7 applies to children and adolescents with a hearing impairment;

- Type 8 applies to children and adolescents with severe learning difficulties.

- Onderwijsvoorrangsbeleid (OVB)

This is an equal-opportunity programme or scheme focusing on immigrant children at the pre-school,

primary, and secondary level and provides intensive Dutch language training.

Glossary 291

- Ontwikkelingsdoelen

Developmental objectives (Ontwikkelingsdoelen) form an important element within the carefully

balanced policy on education quality control by the government. They are minimum objectives adopted

by the Flemish Parliament to be aimed for in ordinary pre-school education, in the first year B and the

2nd year preparatory vocational secondary education, and in special primary and secondary education

(according to type and/or form). Schools have to integrate them into their own self-developed curricula

and syllabuses.

- Opleidingsvorm 1 (OV1)

Form of education 1 (opleidingsvorm 1) (OV1) of special secondary education applies to pupils for whom

social adaptation alone and self-reliant living are not possible. This type of training normally results in

attendance at a day centre or an occupational therapy centre. It consists of one single phase of a

minimum of four years of study and is attended by children with a certificate of the Types 2, 3, 4, 6, or 7.


Form of education 2 (opleidingsvorm 2) (OV2) of special secondary education is intended for children

who, apart from a certain social adaptation, may receive training to prepare them for a working life in a

protected environment. It consists of two phases, each comprising a minimum of two study years. It is

attended by children with a certificate of the Types 2, 3, 4, 6, or 7.


Form of education 3 (opleidingsvorm 3) (OV3) of special secondary education is intended for pupils who

are able to attend vocational training to prepare for a job in a normal working environment. Their training

consists of activities focused on learning general knowledge and acquiring social and vocational skills.

Generally, it is considered ‘vocational secondary education‘ organised in a special way. It consists of an

observation phase of one year and a training phase of four years. It is attended by children with a

certificate of the types 1, 3, 4, 6, or 7. The ultimate objective of this form is to educate adolescents with

special needs for self-reliant living and integration into a normal labour environment. Some courses will

be modified in the context of the future reorganisation of the secondary education, which is explained in

the chapter on secondary education.


Form of education 4 (opleidingsvorm 4) (OV4) of special secondary education is intended for pupils

whose intellectual capacities are sufficient to enable them to attend ordinary educational programmes

provided the teaching methods and facilities are adapted to their particular disability. It is open to pupils

with a certificate of types 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7. The schedules for this educational form are exactly the same as

those of the corresponding ordinary schools because it must conform to the structures of ordinary

education.


- Opleidingsvormen

There are four forms of education (opleidingsvormen) organised in special secondary education focusing

on different levels of disability of the pupils.

- Participatieraad

The decree establishes four areas of responsibility for the Participation Councils (Participatieraden) of

primary and secondary education as a minimum number of responsibilities. These areas of responsibility

can be extended by the Participation Councils themselves. They have

- ‘the right to information’ about all matters involving school life;

- ‘advisory authority’ as a minimum for the general organisation and operation of the school, planning,

and the general criteria involved in guidance and evaluating pupils;

- ‘consultative authority’ (striving for consensus) as a minimum on the criteria for applying the course

periods, the determination and modification of the school regulations, pupil transportation, and pupil

safety and health;

- ‘authority of assent’ (only in the grant-aided free education network) on, for example, the planning of

the school calendar.

The last responsibility, however, is only in grant-aided free schools. Legal regulations on the authority of

Provincial and Municipal Councils do not allow their executive power to be subject to the assent of

external bodies.

- Pedagogisch project

The educational project (pedagogisch project) is the general mission of a school or an educational

network (onderwijsnet).

- Pedagogische begeleidingsdienst

Educational guidance services (Pedagogische begeleidingsdiensten) are external pedagogical support

services to schools organised within the three main education networks in the Flemish Community.

- Pedagogische vrijheid

The educational freedom (pedagogische vrijheid) was defined and governed by Article 6 of the Law of 18

May 1959 on the School Pact (Schoolpact): ‘On condition that a minimum, legally fixed syllabus and

schedule and that, with the exception of courses in religion and philosophy, the final objectives

(eindtermen) and developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) are respected, each organising body

(inrichtende macht) has the freedom in its educational network, and even in each educational institution,

to organise its own schedules, and, subject to ministerial approval in order to guarantee educational

standards, to work out its own syllabuses. Each organising body enjoys total freedom as regards teaching

methods.’

Glossary 293

- Psycho-Medisch-Sociaal Centrum (PMS-centrum, PMS)

From pre-school school up to the threshold of higher education, “PMS-centra” (PMS Centres) gather,

analyse, and progressively assess psycho-medico-social data, which are regularly brought up-to-date and

discussed with the pupil, the observations of the class board, the family, and all the other environments

with which the pupil comes into contact. On the basis of this, these centres give advice to parents,

teachers, pupils, and school heads (directeurs). Since 2000 these centres disappeared and their tasks are

now incorporated in the ‘Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding’ (CLB’s ).

- Rijksregister

All Belgian citizens have a national number used for identification in tax procedures, social security

matters etc.. Criminal records can also be linked to this number. Consultation of this State Register

(Rijksregister) is regulated by law. Each index number contains at least information on name, date of

birth, and address.

- Scholengemeenschap (nieuwe scholengemeenschap)

This is a voluntary co-operation arrangement between secondary educational institutions to offer multi-

sectoral education with at least general academic, technical, and vocational education.

- Scholengroep

A school group (scholengroep) is a voluntary co-operation arrangement between primary and secondary

educational institutions of the Community Education (Gemeenschapsonderwijs) to offer multi-sectoral

education with at least general, technical, and vocational education.

- Schoolbestuur

This is the governing body of a school and it has the full legal authority over one or more schools or

educational institutions. School board (Schoolbestuur) is a synonym for “inrichtende macht” and was

introduced in the new legislation on the basic education (basisonderwijs).

- Schoolpact (Schoolpactwet)

The agreements of the School Pact essentially meant that education that was not organised by the State, -

thus, mainly free education - would accept a form of state control in exchange for partial subsidisation,

but that each organising body (inrichtende macht) would have the right to exercise in complete autonomy

what has come to be known as the pedagogical freedom (pedagogische vrijheid).


- Schoolraad

A school council (schoolraad) in the oficial education is organised in each individual school. It is

composed of eight members: 3 members directly elected by and from the parents, 3 members directly

elected by and from the staff, and 2 members co-opted from social, economic and cultural circles. The

school head (directeur) is not a member of the school council, but he attends the meetings and has an

advisory voice. The school council has advisory and consultative duties and has also the right to

information. However, it has no decision-making authority.

- Schoolwerkplan

In the school development plan (schoolwerkplan) the educational project (pedagogisch project) is

described. In fact, it deals with all aspects that are important to realise the vision on education of the

school such as the organisation of the school, the division of the pupils, the mode of assessing and

reporting, in-service training, and school rules. Facilities for pupils with a handicap or learning

difficulties are defined as well as the forms of co-operation with other schools for ordinary or special

education. In addition, it also has a variable part that consists of a schedule for a certain period whereby

certain priorities are specified ‘that have to be worked on’.

- Sociaal-Economische Raad van Vlaanderen (SERV)

The Flemish Social-Economical Council (Sociaal-Economische Raad van Vlaanderen) is the organ of

advice and consultation of the Flemish social partners. The Flemish Social-Economical Council consists

of representatives of both employees and employers. The Council advises the Flemish Parliament and the

Flemish Government about all important social and economical matters.

- Steunpunt Intercultureel Onderwijs

The Centre for Intercultural Education (Steunpunt Intercultureel Onderwijs) is an interdisciplinary

cooperative centre between the Departments of Comparative Cultural Sciences and Pedagogy of the

University of Ghent. The aim of this centre is to support educational and other organisations in a

coherent and scientific way in the Flemish Community and abroad. The central theme is social and

cultural diversity in society and its consequences for education. The Centre for Intercultural Education

not only reflects about but also shapes intercultural education through proposals, experimentation and

evaluation of concrete strategies, methods and actions.

- Steunpunt Nederlands Tweede Taal

The Centre for the Study of Dutch as a Second Language (Steunpunt Nederlands als Tweede Taal) as

established by the Minister of Education at the University of Louvain on 1 May 1990. The aim of the

Centre is to support policy makers and educators in the offering of language education in Dutch in

Flanders. Special attention is payed to teaching foreign newcomers (Dutch as a second language) and

poor people (Dutch as the first language).

Glossary 295

- Studentenkoepelvereniging

A student umbrella association (studentenkoepelvereniging) is an umbrella association of local student

councils of Flemish universities and/or colleges of higher education. To be eligible for such association a

certain representativity is required. This means that the student umbrella association co-ordinates at least

ten different student councils of a university or college of higher education of at least ten different

disciplines of at least three Flemish provinces, including the bilingual territory of Brussels Capital.

- Studieattest

A study attestation (studieattest) in Social Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) is

a document issued by a recognized Adult Education Centre to regular students at the end of either the

second degree of vocational secondary education or the second school year of the third degree of

vocational secondary education. This document certifies that the person has sufficiently achieved the aim

of the curriculum.

In full-time ordinary secondary education a certificate (getuigschrift) is issued after the first and second

degree, but no study-atestations (studieattesten) are issued.

- Studiegebied

A study area (studiegebied) is a group of structural units based on a relevant relationship and, in the

technical and vocational secondary education, also on the basis of the need for the same educational

infrastructure and a way out to the same vocational sector.

- Studiegetuigschrift

A study certificate (studiegetuigschrift) in Social Advancement Education is a document that determines

someone has successfully attended a full program of the third degree of vocational secondary education.

- Technisch Secundair Onderwijs (TSO)

In Technical secondary education (Technisch Secundair Onderwijs) in the 2nd and 3rd stage, attention is

given mainly to general and technical-theoretical subjects. TSO prepares the youngsters for professional

life or higher technical education. Practical courses are also included in the training.

- Tijdelijke projecten

The government can finance or subsidize temporary projects (tijdelijke projecten). This means education

that is financed or subsidized for a certain period to comply with new necessities.


- Tweedekansonderwijs

Second Chance Education (Tweedekansonderwijs) organises training programmes for adults who already

have reached a knowledge base equivalent to the primary education level. The centres offer courses

preparing them for the Examination Boards of the Flemish Community granting the diploma of secondary

education.

- VDAB (Vlaamse Dienst voor Arbeidsbemiddeling en Beroepsopleiding)

This institution has two main educational objectives:

- to train the necessary qualified workers;

- to provide job-seekers or people in employment with training that will enable them to find a job or

remain in employment.

Different formulas are provided: a career guidance service, short vocational training courses in training

centres, individual training in companies, financial assistance for collective training in companies being

reorganised or converted.

- Vervangingspool

The replacement pool (vervangingspool) is a group of teachers whose job is to replace absent colleagues

in a certain educational zone (onderwijszone). The teachers are connected to an anchor school

(ankerschool) where they are appointed during the periods they assigned to a short-term replacement.

The aims of the creation of this pool are to make it easier for schools to find substitutes for their absent

teachers and to provide young graduates with work and salary certainty for at least one year.

- Vierde Graad Beroepssecundair Onderwijs

In addition to vocational secondary education, a training of three years, called the fourth stage of

vocational secondary education (Vierde Graad Beroepssecundair onderwijs) may be attended. It

comprises three sections: arts, sewing, and nursing (general nursing and psychiatric nursing). The courses

are practice-oriented.

- Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen (VIZO)

The continuing training for the self-employed classes has been federalised since the 1980 institutional

reforms and is now under the responsibility of the Communities. In Flanders, the training programmes

have been managed since 1991 by an autonomous institution with the status of a non-profit-making

association: the Flemish Institute for Enterpreneurship (Vlaams Instituut voor Zelfstandig Ondernemen)

(VIZO). The VIZO training centres (erkende VIZO-centra) are recognised and subsidised by the Flemish

Institute for Enterpreneurship.

Glossary 297

- Vlaams Parlement

The legislature of Flanders is the Flemish Parliament (Vlaams Parlement), which is the parliament of the

Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) and the Flemish Region (Vlaams Gewest).

- Vlaamse Gemeenschap

The Flemish Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) is the Dutch-speaking Community (Gemeenschap) in

Belgium, situated in the north of the country.

- Vlaamse Onderwijsraad (VLOR)

The remit for the Flemish Education Council (Vlaamse Onderwijsraad) is set out by law as follows. The

Council has a general competence for study, concerted action, and consultation, on its own initiative or at

the request of the Minister of Education, as regards all educational matters for which the Flemish

Community (Vlaamse Gemeenschap) is responsible. More in particular, the Minister of Education has to

seek, prior to the discussion in the Flemish Parliament, the opinion of the Council on all preliminary draft

decrees on educational matters (with the exception of the education budget) and on policy reports and

papers addressed to the Flemish Parliament.

- Volwassenenonderwijs

Adult education takes place troughout the course of life both in a formal and informal learning

evironment. Adult education refers to forms of learning in which people participate most after

completing their regular education. Adult education includes:

- the forms of permanent education which are supported and subsidised by the Education Department:

part time artistic education (DKO), social advancement education (OSP), distance education (BIS) and

adult basic education,

- the different courses organised by the Flemish Institute for the Self-Employed (VIZO);

- the vocational training organised by the Flemish Employment and Vocational Training Service

(VDAB);

- agricultural training.

- Zelfstandig Academisch Personeel (ZAP)

The Independent Academic Personnel (Zelfstandig Academisch Personeel) at the universities contains the

following categories: “docent” (junior lecturer), “hoofddocent” (senior lecturer), “hoogleraar” (professor),

“gewoon hoogleraar” (full professor) and “buitengewoon hoogleraar” (extraordinary professor) and has

one of the following tasks or a combination of them (universities as a whole have to guarantee all three of

them): doing scientific research, providing academic education, providing scientific services to society.


- Zorgverbreding (zorgbreedte)

This is a special needs programme or scheme in mainstream pre-school and primary education involving

expertise from special needs education.

LAWS

The first date is the date of promulgation of the regulation. The second date is the date of publication in

the Belgisch Staatsblad.

- 18.03.38,

* Belgian Law organising the Royal Military College.

- 20.09.48,

* Belgian Law organising Works Councils in all firms (in 1975 extended to the non-profit, non-public

sector).

- 30.04.57 (a),

* Belgian Royal Decree co-ordinating legislation on technical and vocational education.

B.S. 07/07/1957.

- 30.04.57 (b),

* Belgian Royal Decree co-ordinating and integrating all laws and circular letters on (traditional)

general academic secondary education. B.S. 12/08/1957.

- 20.08.57,

* Belgian Royal Decree co-ordinating legislation on primary education. B.S. 06/11/1957.

- 29.05.59,

* Belgian Law known as the Schoolpact Law (Schoolpactwet) modifying some provisions of education

legislation. B.S. 19/06/1959.

- 01.04.60,

* Belgian Law organising centres for psycho-medico-social guidance of pupils. B.S. 18/05/1960.

- 13.08.62,

* Belgian Royal Decree organising the functioning of the PMS-guidance centres (offering

psychological, medical and social counselling and advice to pupils and students, including study

career advice). B.S. 25/08/1962.

- 30.07.63,

* Belgian Law confirming the use of the regional language (Dutch, French, German) in the three

languages zones in Belgium. Brussels and a limited number of smaller communities around the

capital and along the linguistic border got a special status. B.S. 22/08/1963.


- 21.03.64,

* Belgian Law organising health and medical monitoring of the school population. The PMS Centres

are also involved in some aspects of health care. This comprises prevention with regard to sensory

and motor problems (from pre-school school onwards), dealing with pupils who have fallen behind,

dealing with educational and social adaptation problems, preventive health checks and proposed

remedies to be followed by supervision. All this has to be done in collaboration with the school

medical supervision. B.S. 15/04/1964.

- 08.06.64,

* Belgian Law known as “Omnivalentiewet” (Omnivalence Law) and regulating a more free and equal

access to higher education (replaced in 1984). B.S. 02/07/1964.

- 05.03.65,

* Belgian Law on Distance Education. B.S. 23/10/1965.

- 27.10.66,

* Belgian Royal Decree modified in 1984 enabling more local autonomy for basic education

introducing a fund of course periods for schools replacing the old rules on fixed class size norms.

B.S. 20/12/1966, as modified B.S. 05/06/1984.

- 15.07.69,

* Royal Decree concerning the establishment of the tasks of the administrators, educators-caretakers

and executive secretaries in the educational institutions of the basic, special, secondary and technical

education, and in the teacher training schools. B.S. 25/07/1969.

- 06.07.70,

* Belgian Law on special and Integrated Education. This Law specifies the different types of special

education in relation to the nature and degree of the main disability affecting a particular group and

specifies the criteria and the conditions of admission to the various types. B.S. 25/08/1970.

- 07.07.70,

* B.S. 30/07/1970. Belgian Law on higher education.

- 23.11.70,

* Belgian Royal decree concerning the establishment of the tasks of the deputy school head in the

educational institutions of the official education. B.S. 31/01/1971.

Laws 301

- 19.07.71,

* Belgian Law introducing the so called (till 1990) type I (comprehensive) secondary education

structure. The first attempts at reform within secondary education go back to the school year of 1969-

1970. In spite of controversies which, moreover, did not cease with the passing of the law, a new type

of secondary education, which was called type I, was brought into being and passed by the law dated

July 19, 1971. B.S. 28/08/1971.

- 23.08.74,

* Belgian Royal Decree organising agricultural training. B.S. 04/09/1974.

- 19.12.74,

* Belgian Law regulating the relations between the authorities and the unions representing their civil

servants. B.S. 24/12/1974.

- 20.06.75,

* Belgian Royal Decree relating to the recruitment and training of officer cadets trained to be doctors,

pharmacists, dentists and veterinary surgeons. B.S. 26/06/1975.

- 04.10.76,

* Belgian Royal Decree organising vocational training programmes for the self-employed classes. B.S.

11/11/1976.

- 28.06.78,

* Belgian Royal Decree defining types and organisation of special education including admission

requirements. B.S. 29/08/1978.

- 28.06.83,

* Belgian Law on compulsory education. This law prescribes that minors, Belgians and foreigners

alike, shall be subject to compulsory education attendance for a period of 12 years, starting in the

school year during which the child reaches the age of six and ending at the end of the school year

during which he reaches the age of 18. B.S. 07/07/1983.

- 29.06.83,

* Belgian Royal Decree, based on a European Directive, promoting mixed (secondary) education and

decreeing exemptions. It reinforces the principle of equal participation of man and women in

vocational training. B.S. 25/08/1983.

- 22.01.85,

* Belgian Law adopting social initiatives, et al. paid educational leave, within the framework of an

economic recovery plan. B.S. 24/01/1985.


- 15.07.85,

* Belgian Law integrating naval education into the higher education structures. B.S. 27/07/1985.

- 23.07.85,

* Belgian Royal Decree giving guidelines for the application of educational leave to employees. B.S.

10/08/1985.

- 30.07.85,

* Decision of the Flemish Government affirming the tasks of medical monitoring in schools and

principles for funding the monitoring bodies or centres. The 1964 Law and the specifications in a

Flemish Government Decision dated July 30th, 1985 clarify in great detail the different tasks of the

school-related medical supervision. B.S. 15/11/1985.

- 01.10.86,

* Belgian Mandatory Royal Decree applying principles of a Government overall austerity plan to the

sector of the PMS guidance centres (including rules for staff enrolment and conditions for access to

school building funding. B.S. 18/10/1986.

- 06.11.87,

* Belgian Royal Decree introducing the possibility of a modular system in Social Advancement

Education. B.S. 28/01/1988.

- 19.12.88,

* Flemish Decree organising a new autonomous body as organising body (inrichtende macht) for

official schools (former state schools). This decree stipulates that from the 1st January 1989

(federalisation of education), the language Community, represented by the Minister, will no longer act

as the organising body of Community education (formerly State education). B.S. 29/12/1988.

- 21.12.88,

* European Directive on the equivalence of higher education diplomas.

- 16.01.89,

* Belgian Special Law on the financing of the Communities and Regions. B.S. 17/01/1989.

- 05.07.89,

* Flemish Decree including various parts of education legislation, including a new framework for the

organisation of secondary education. B.S. 25/08/1989.

Laws 303

- 29.07.89,

* Royal Decree concerning the school communities for secondary education and concerning the

rationalisation plan and the plan for the establishment of schools for the secondary education with

full-time curriculum. B.S. 28/09/1989.

- 03.10.89,

* Belgian Royal Decree relating to the recruitment and training of certain officer cadets of the Land, Air

and Naval Force and the Medical Service. B.S. 19/10/1989.

- 20.11.89,

* International Convention on the Rights of the Child. B.S. 13/07/1991.

- 27.06.90,

* Decision of the Flemish Government on the learning and educational activities in special pre-school,

primary and basic education and in the educational forms (opleidingsvormen) 1, 2 and 3 of special

secondary education. B.S. 04/01/1991.

- 12.07.90,

* Flemish Decree adopting a structure for training programs focused on adults with little education.

This Flemish Decree established twenty-eight local centres and one support centre for adult education.

B.S. 04/10/1990.

- 31.07.90,

* Flemish Decree including various parts of legislation et al. concerning the organisation of secondary

education. B.S. 18/08/1990.

- 31.07.90,

* Circular Letter. Part-time vocational secondary education is established permanently after a

experimental period of 6 years .

- 23.01.91,

* Decree related to the training and guidance of private and small and medium-sized enterprises.

- 13.03.91,

* Decision of the Flemish Government decreeing the principles of certification in secondary education.

B.S. 17/05/1991.

- 27.03.91,

* Flemish Decree on the conditions of employment of certain staff members in the official schools.

B.S. 25/05/1991.


- 27.03.91,

* Flemish Decree on working conditions of certain staff members in grant-aided (official and free)

schools and grant-aided “Psycho-Medisch-Sociale centra” (guidance centres) (PMS). B.S.

25/05/1991.

- 12.06.91,

* Flemish Decree on the universities in Flanders. This Decree regulates and simplifies the design of

university-level education and outlines the task of the universities in terms of three aspects: to conduct

scientific research, to reinforce university-level education and to render services to society on the

basis of the expertise at their disposal. B.S. 04/07/1991.

- 26.06.91,

* Flemish Special Decree concerning the university of Gent and the university centre of Antwerp. This

Special Decree provides the organisational framework for public institutions providing university


- 17.07.91,

* Flemish Decree organising a community based inspectorate and school-related external support

services, including some principles of school system monitoring and quality control. This decree,

modified in 1996, organises the structure and functioning of the inspectorate for all education levels,

excluding the universities and 2-cycle higher education. B.S. 31/08/1991.

- 23.10.91(a),

* Flemish Decree organising participation of parents, teachers, organising bodies (Inrichtende Machten)

and the local community at the school level in subsidised schools. B.S. 14/11/1991.

- 23.10.91(b),

* Flemish Decree concerning colleges of higher education in the Flemish Community.

- 01.07.93,

* Circular Letter. This Circular letter treats the ‘Integrated Education’, a co-operation between ordinary

and special basic education.

- 22.07.93,

* Decision of the Flemish Government establishing consultative commissions for special education

including their composition and functioning. B.S. 12/10/1993.

Laws 305

- 01.12.93,

* Flemish Decree organising the Community inspectorate and the school related support services for

courses based on a philosophy of life (including religion). This Flemish Decree organises

nevertheless a framework for inspection and educational support in these subjects at the basic and

secondary education level and teacher training (outside the university). B.S. 08/02/1994.

- 17.01.94,

* Flemish Circular Letter on the criteria for approval of the curricula.

- 17.02.94,

* Constitution. Official Dutch version of the Belgian Constitution including all changes from 1831 on.

The Belgian Constitution is also voted by the Parliament in a French and German version.

- 25.03.94,

* Circular Letter. The Circular Letter is about the possibility of temporal projects (tijdelijke projecten)

in the first degree of secondary education.

- 13.07.94,

* Flemish Decree on the reorganisation of higher education organised outside the universities. B.S.

31/08/1994.

- 20.07.94,

* The Circular Letter is about the provision of facilities for children who are not familiar with the Dutch

language.

- 22.02.95,

* Flemish Decree concerning attainment targets and development objectives in ordinary pre-school and

primary education

- 05.04.95,

* Flemish decree organising consultation procedures at the school level between staff (incl. teachers)

and the organising bodies (Inrichtende Machten) within subsidised free schools. B.S. 08/06/1995.

- 15.12.95,

Flemish Decree concerning modifications of several decrees concerning the University of Antwerp.

B.S. 01/01/1996.

- 21.12.95,

* Flemish Decree establishing a confederal structure for the Antwerp universities. The unification of

the three university centres in Antwerp has recently been reinforced by Decree. B.S. 01/02/1996.


- 10.01.96,

* Flemish Circular Letter on the (financial) support of international co-operation. Apart from the

European financial support, additional Flemish funding is available for each of the activities according

to a Flemish ministerial circular letter.

- 16.04.96,

* Decree on Teacher Training and In-service Training. B.S. 12/06/1996.

- 30.04.96,

* Circular letter. The circular letter is about “zorgbreedte”, a special needs programme or scheme in

mainstream basic education involving expertise from special needs education

- 05.06.96,

* Flemish Decree on supporting parents associations at the school level including other recognised

social organisations organising training for parents of pupils. B.S. 09/08/1996.

- 08.07.96,

* Flemish Decree including various small parts of legislation et al. concerning monitoring compulsory


- 24.07.96 (a),

* Flemish Decree adopting the final and developmental objectives for the first stage of ordinary


- 24.07.96 (b),

* Flemish Decree modifying the definitions of final and developmental objectives to be adopted by the

Flemish Parliament as minimum standards for curriculum development. B.S. 26/09/1996.

- 24.07.96 (c),

* Flemish Decree introducing entrance exams for university level studies in the medical disciplines

(medicine and dentistry). B.S. 19/09/1996.

- 04.08.96,

* Belgian Law on the Well-being of Employees on the Workplace. This law establishes the

Committees for Prevention and Protection on the Workplace. B.S. 18/09/1996.

- 22.10.96,

* Decision of the Flemish government on the regulation of the procedure for the allocation of in-service

training projects on the initiative of the Flemish government.

Laws 307

- 24.10.96,

* Decision of the Flemish Government to determine the way of executing the SOCRATES- decision for

the Flemish Community. B.S. 13/12/1996.

- 26.11.96,

* Decison of the Flemish government concerning the criteria for approval of the curricula in secondary


- 25.02.97,

* Decree on basic education, that renews and reorganises the existent legislation on basic education.

B.S. 17/04/1997.

- 06.05.97,

* Circular letter. Circular letter concerning measures related to the non-discrimination policy in the field

of education.

- 27.05.97,

* Decision of the Flemish Government adopting the final and developmental objectives for ordinary

basic education. B.S. 28/08/1997.

- 17.06.97,

* Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the norms on programming and rationalisation in

pre-school and primary education (Basisonderwijs). B.S. 19/07/1997.

- 17.06.97,

* B.S. 11/09/97 Decision of the Flemish government concerning the task of the staff in pre-school and

primary education (Basisonderwijs).

- 17.06.97,

* Decision of the Flemish government concerning the establishment in the ordinary basic education

(basisonderwijs). B.S. 12/9/1997.

- 24.06.97(a),

* Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the tasks, composition and the functioning of the

consultative commissions for special education. B.S. 17/09/1997.

- 15.07.97 (b),

* Flemish Decree including various parts of legislation et al. concerning Integrated Education at

secondary and higher level. B.S. 21/08/1997.


- 15.07.97,

* Decree confirming the developmental objectives and the final objectives for ordinary basic education

(basisonderwijs). B.S. 28/08/1997.

- 15.07.97,

* Decree concerning the establishment of a Child’s Rights Commissionership and a Child’s Rights

Commissioner. B.S. 07/10/1997.

- 08.08.97,

* This Decision of the Flemish Government regulates the minimum scope of the “voortgezette

opleidingen” (complementary courses in tertiary education), given in the colleges of higher education

of the Flemish Community. B.S. 02/09/1997.

- 16.09.97,

* Decision of the Flemish government concerning the control on the enrolment of pupils in the


- 10.03.98,

* Decision of the Flemish government to change the Decision of the Flemish government of 31 July

1990. B.S. 10.06.1998.

- 08.06.98,

* Circular letter. The circular letter is about the education for foreign pupils who do not fully

understand Dutch.

- 23.06.98,

* Decision of the Flemish government concerning the educational checks. B.S. 18/08/1998.

- 14.07.98,

* Flemish Special Decree concerning the reformation of community education. B.S. 30/09/1998.

- 14.07.98 (a),

* Decision of the Flemish Government. B.S. 03/10/1998.

- 14.07.98 (b),

* Decision of the Flemish Government. B.S. 20/10/1998.

- 14.07.98 (c),

Decision of the Flemish Government amending the decision of the Flemish government of 22 October

1996 to arrange the procedures for the appointment of in-service projects on the Flemish

Government’s initiative. B.S. 11/09/1998.

Laws 309

- 14.08.98 (a),

* Flemish Decree determining varied measures concerning the secondary education and modifying the

Decree of 25 December 1997 on the basic education (basisonderwijs). B.S. 29/08/1998.

- 14.08.98 (b),

* Flemish Decree including various parts of legislation et al. concerning the organisation of several

levels of education. B.S. 29/08/1998.

- 19.08.98,

Belgian Royal Decision to settle the learning fee’s maximum that applies to pupils whose

apprenticeship contract is covered by the Belgian Law of 19 July 1983. B.S. 05/09/1998.

- 01.12.98 (a),

Decree regulating the integration of the ‘Psycho-Medisch-Sociale Centra’ (PMS Centres) and the

Centres for Health Supervision in Schools (Medisch Schooltoezicht) into integrated Centres for

Educational Guidance (Centra voor Leerlingenbegeleiding) (CLB’s). B.S. 10/04/1999.

- 01.12.98 (b),

Decision of the Flemish Government to stipulate the developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen)

for special primary education “type 2”. B.S. 18/05/1999.

- 15.12.98,

Belgian law amending the Belgian Law of 19 December 1974 concerning the arrangement of the

relations between the government and the personnel unions and the Belgian Law of 1 September 1980

concerning the attribution and the payment of a union premium to some staff members of the

government sector and to the unemployed persons of that sector. B.S. 19/01/1999.

- 02.02.99 (a),

Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the way in which some of the authorities of the

Inspectorate of the Flemish community are executed. B.S. 01/04/1999.

- 02.02.99 (b),

Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the working and the organisation of the paritar

college of Inspectors which is authorised to give advice about the recognition of a school, an

educational institution or a part of it. B.S. 27/03/1999.

- 05.02.99,

The circular letter is about the study offering in full-time secondary education.


- 23.02.99,

Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the entrepreneur training as stipulated in the Flemish

Decree of 23 January 1991 concerning the training and guidance of the self-employed persons and the

small and medium-sized firms. B.S. 06/05/1999.

- 02.03.99 (a),

* Flemish Decree organising a number of matters concerning adult education. B.S. 21/08/1999.

- 02.03.99 (b),

* Flemish Decree of ratification of the Decision of the Flemish Government of 1 December 1998

defining the developmental objectives (ontwikkelingsdoelen) for special primary education type 2.

B.S. 26/05/1999.

- 20.03.99,

* Flemish Decree. Flemish Decree concerning the “student/pupil councils” in secondary education.

B.S. 11/05/1999.

- 29.03.99,

* Flemish Circular Letter concerning catering for a wider range of educational needs. Actions for the

school years 1998-1999 and 1999-2000.

- 30.03.99,

* Decree concerning the subsidising of students- and pupil-umbrella organisations. B.S. 15/09/1999.

- 13.04.99,

* Decree to modificate the Decrees concerning the inspectorate and educational guidance services. B.S.

05/05/1999.

- 18.05.99,

* Flemish Decree including various parts of legislation et al. concerning the staff, evaluation

procedures, appraisal, etc. of the colleges of higher education and the universities. B.S. 20/09/1999.

- 18.05.99,

* Flemish Decree including various small parts of legislation et al. concerning the staff of community

education, secondary education, participation councils, ed.. B.S. 31/08/1999.

- 25.05.99,

* Belgian Royal Decree concerning the determination of the date for the elections for the indication of

the representatives of the personnel from the “ondernemingsraden” (Works Councils) and from the

committees for prevention and protection at work. B.S. 30/06/1999.

Laws 311

- 08.06.99,

* Decision of the Flemish government that changes the Decision of the Flemish government of 31 July

990 and the Decision of the Flemish government of 7 July 1993. B.S. 28/09/1999.

- 09.07.99,

* Flemish Circular Letter concerning the Organisation of education for Social Promotion.

- 19.07.99,

* Flemish Circular Letter concerning the alteration of the decision concerning certificates, salary scales

and the salary regulations in secondary education.

- 07.09.99,

Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the stipulation of the models of certificates in Social

Advancement Education (Onderwijs voor Sociale Promotie) and the modalities for the presentation of

these certificates by the Adult Education Centres (Centra voor Volwassenenonderwijs). B.S.

03/02/2000.

- 10.12.99,

Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the arrangement of the procedures and conditions for

an in-service offer about the new media policy. B.S. 15/12/2000.

- 24.12.99,

Belgian Law for the promotion of employment. B.S. 27/01/2000.

- 01.03.00,

* Circular letter about compulsary education in secondary education.

- 17.03.00,

Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the stipulation of the arrangement of the transfer of

study areas between the Adult Education Centres (Centra voor Volwassenenonderwijs). B.S.

11/05/2000.

- 01.05.00,

The circular letter is about special secondary education form of education 3 (opleidingsvorm 3)

(OV3): guidelines concerning an alterning vocational training, school year 2000-2001.

- 19.05.00,

Ministerial Decision concerning the establishment of the in-service projects at the initiative of the

Flemish Government for the school year 2000-2001. B.S. 30/05/2000.


- 23.05.00,

Belgian Law stipulating the criteria of article 39, §2 of the Belgian Special Law of 16 January 1989

concerning the financing of the communities and regions. B.S. 30/05/2000.

- 08.06.00,

Flemish Decree concerning urgent measures concerning the teaching profession. B.S. 25/08/2000.

- 23.06.00,

Decision of the Flemish Government on the settlement of the attainment targets (eindtermen) of the

second and third stage of ordinary secondary education. B.S. 29/11/2000.

- 30.06.00,

Decision of the Flemish Government on the arrangement of a number of affairs concerning the

Guided Individual Studying (Begeleid Individueel Studeren) (BIS). B.S. 05/08/2000.

- 25.07.00,

* This circular letter is about the special secondary education, form of education 3, the guidelines

concerning alterning vocational training, school year 2000-2001.

- 20.10.00,

Flemish Decree concerning education XII Ensor. B.S. 16/12/2000.

- 12.01.01,

* Decision of the Flemish Government concerning the temporary project of computerization of the

Centres for Educational Guidance. B.S. 22/03/2001.

- 20.04.01,

* Decree that changes the regulation of tertiary education. B.S. 13/07/2001.

- 01.03.01,

* Circular letter concerning the indexation of the enrollment fees for the academic year 2001-2002.

- 12.04.01,

* Ministerial Decision concerning the arrangement of the in-service projects of the Flemish government

for the school year 2001-2002. B.S. 05/05/2001.

- 18.05.01,

* Special Decree that changes the Special Decree of 26 June 1991 concerning the University of Ghent

and Antwerp. B.S. 05/07/2001.

- 12.06.01,

* Circular letter concerning the organisation of the school year in secondary education.

Laws 313

- 13.06.01,

* Decree concerning Education XIII- Mosaic. B.S. 27/11/2001.

- 15.06.01,

* Circular letter concerning child care workers in ordinary basic education.

- 02.07.01,

* Circular letter about the action programme PC/KD: computerization of schoools in basic and


- 13.07.01,

* Decision of the Flemish Government introducing the obligation to make a child effect report for all

Flemish authorities. B.S. 20/10/2001.

- 13.07.01,

* Decree ratifying the agreement between the Netherlands and the Flemish Community of Belgium

concerning the trans-national university. B.S. 08/08/2001.

- 13.07.01,

* Decree that changes the Decree of 8 June 2000 concerning urgent measures concerning the teaching

profession. B.S. 22/08/2001.

- 26.07.01,

* Circular Letter about experimental secondary education in a modular system.

- 10.08.01,

* Circular letter concerning the admission requirements for pupils in ordinary basic education.

- 14.08.01,

* Decision of the Flemish government concerning the temporary project “guidance” in part-time

vocational secondary education. B.S. 26/10/2001.

- 31.08.01,

* Decision of the Flemish government concerning the organisation of the school year in secondary


- 14.09.01,

* Decision of the Flemish government about the temporary project ‘guidance’ in part-time vocational



- 07.12.01,

* Decree concerning the revision of the financing of universities in the Flemish community and

accompanying measures. B.S. 12/02/2002.

- 15.01.02,

* Royal Decision ratifying the collective labour agreement 77bis of 19 December 2001 to introduce a

system of ‘time credit’, ‘career break’, and reduction of the labour prestation to a part-time job. B.S.

16/02/2002.

- 18.01.02,

* Decree concerning the attainment targets, the developmental objectives and the specific attainment

targets in full-time ordinary and special secondary education. B.S. 08/02/2002.

- 18.01.02,

* Decree ratifying the Decision of the Flemish government of 27 April 2001 stipulating the

developmental objectives for special basic education type 8. B.S. 16/02/2002.

- 06.03.02,

* Circular letter. Announcement of the Minister about the Flemish tests to measure the extent to which

the attainment targets mathematics and reading comprehension are obtained.

INDEX

A

ACOD, 53

active population, 11-12; 228

administrator, 32; 34; 40-42; 300

admission requirements, 80; 88; 100; 126; 131;

147; 150; 155; 162; 171; 175-176; 201; 234-

235; 239; 301

admissions council, 61; 100-101

adult education, 18; 45; 52; 145-150; 152-153;

162; 164-166; 176-178; 211; 214; 229; 231-

232; 251; 260-262; 264-265; 281; 283; 303;

310

Adult Education Centre, 149-150; 286; 295;

311

advanced academic courses, 71-72; 132; 207

age group, 81; 89; 101

ALFA, 252; 261

anchor school, 182; 279; 296

appointment, 28-29; 32; 34-35; 38-41; 44; 47;

67; 122; 165; 178; 180-187; 191-197; 308

apprenticeship, 27; 108; 113; 157-161; 167;

287

apprenticeship contract, 27; 113; 309

Arbitration Court, 2; 279

area of study, 132; 149

ARGO, 19; 28; 46-47; 68; 199; 211; 220

ARION, 251

art secondary education, (KSO), 45; 100; 102-

103; 105; 118; 164; 288

attainment target, 16; 20; 36; 80; 87-90; 99;

106; 109-110; 149; 161; 200; 211-215; 221;

225; 284; 305; 312

attestation, 295

audit, 214; 249; 283

auxiliary academic personnel, 41-43; 138; 195-

196; 202; 209; 279

B

basic education, 6; 16-18; 21; 37; 44; 53; 59;

64-65; 68; 74; 77; 79-80; 82; 87-92; 98-101;

103; 152-153; 163; 178-180; 183-184; 188;

203; 214; 216; 221-222; 225; 234-236; 238-

240; 257; 263; 266; 280; 293; 300; 303-304;

306-309

basic training, 148; 158; 161; 175

birth rate, 9; 11; 62-63

BOCs, 51

Brussels, 2-3; 5; 27; 66; 79; 121; 123-124; 137;

157; 283; 286; 288; 295; 299

Buurlandenbeleid, 256; 266

C

CABO, 236

careful administration, 17-18

catering for a wider range of educational needs,

178; 310

Catholic education, 19-20; 30; 64


CDCC, 253

Central Council, 28-29; 47-48; 73

Centre for Dutch as Second Language, 6; 230

Centre for Educational Guidance, 5; 18; 29; 56-

58; 80; 88; 100-101; 110; 178; 199; 218;

224; 236; 239; 241

Centre for Intercultural Education, 6; 230

certificate, 17; 22; 35; 76; 91; 99-101; 106;

110-111; 128; 134-135; 147-148; 150; 152-

153; 157; 159; 161; 164-165; 173; 175-177;

180-181; 187; 230; 236-242; 259; 262; 281-

282; 284; 286; 288; 291; 295; 311

Chamber of Appeal, 186

child rights, 7-9

class council, 34; 61; 88; 101; 110-111; 211;

213; 236; 241; 288

COC, 53

college of higher education, 38-39; 54; 69-70;

76; 124; 129-130; 154; 174; 177-178; 182;

193; 206-208; 228; 295

combined education, 149-150; 285

COMENIUS, 250; 256-258; 263-266

Commissioner of the Flemish Government, 61;

69-70; 72

Committee for Prevention and Protection on the

Workplace, 42; 51

community education, 17; 19-20; 27-29; 31-32;

35; 38; 46-48; 52-53; 55-56; 58; 63-65; 67-

69; 73; 85-86; 93-94; 102; 104; 115-116;

165; 167; 178-181; 183; 185-186; 199; 211;

220; 243-245; 247; 281; 285; 289; 293; 302;

308; 310

community schools, 19; 22

complementary course in tertiary education,

153; 165

compulsory education, 5; 22-24; 63; 76; 88;

107; 114; 159-162; 220; 236; 242; 283; 301;

306

Conditions of service, 178-179; 190; 195

connection, 188; 193; 205; 259

Constitution, 1-4; 15; 20-21; 60; 68; 76; 155;

205; 220; 279; 305

continuing education, 27; 158; 161; 184; 283

contract teaching, 149; 282

cooperation agreement, 112; 256-258; 260-261

Council of Appeal, 186; 219

COV, 53

credit hours, 145

CSBO, 59

cultural agreements, 253

curriculum, 16; 20; 24; 32; 35-36; 44; 66; 79;

81-82; 87; 89; 97-100; 102-107; 109; 112;

128; 133-134; 149; 151; 157; 160; 163; 171-

172; 175-176; 178; 210-212; 220; 240; 260;

284; 288; 295; 303; 306

CVPO, 29

D

decentralisation, 17; 28; 46; 73; 79; 88

demographic, 9; 63; 66

Department of Educational Development,

(DVO), 109; 169; 212-214; 217-219; 240;

283

deputy head, 32

Index 317

developmental objectives, 16; 20; 80; 82; 87-

89; 99-100; 109; 211-215; 221; 234; 240-

241; 283; 291-292; 306-310

DHOS, 35

DIGO, 68

diploma, 3; 15; 22-23; 35; 71; 83-84; 100-101;

111; 123; 126; 128-129; 131; 133-134; 136;

144; 148; 150-151; 153-154; 159; 161-162;

164; 171; 173-176; 191; 195-197; 203; 205;

230-231; 238; 241; 279-280; 283-285; 296;

302

director (see also school head), 29; 31; 38-43;

47-48; 58; 72; 91; 126; 135; 179; 192-194;

196-198; 201; 208-209; 214; 218-219; 239

disadvantaged, 83; 114

discrimination, 6-7; 21; 36; 307

dismissal, 178; 183; 186; 193-194; 198

distance education, 145; 149-151; 251; 260-

262; 265; 279; 285; 300

DOC, 40

doctoral training, 71; 125; 132-133; 135

doctorate, 132; 135; 144; 191; 195; 259

Dutch Language Union, 253

E

economy, 9-10; 27; 64; 158

ECTS, 249; 259

education budget, 45; 61-62; 74-75; 199; 202-

203; 297

Education Department (departement

Onderwijs), 6; 15; 27; 29; 38; 45; 54-55; 61;

77; 92-93; 107; 113; 116; 130; 136; 146;

150-151; 155; 157; 187; 193; 198; 214-217;

220-221; 224-225; 228-230; 249; 251-254;

256; 258-260; 262-266; 283

education of colleges of higher education, 45;

75; 121-122; 125-127; 150; 214; 239; 287

education sector, 63; 67; 157; 161-162; 189

educational guidance service, 224; 292; 310

educational network, 15-16; 19-22; 27; 30-31;

37; 56; 58; 61; 65-66; 68-69; 73-74; 79; 88;

105; 130; 146; 152; 179-180; 182; 184; 188;

199-200; 205; 212; 220; 290; 292

educational plan, 35-36; 82; 200; 214; 240-241;

286

educational priority policy (OVB), 5; 7; 36; 58;

84; 92; 114-115; 223-224; 233; 235; 290

educational project, 19; 21-22; 32; 34-35; 50;

180; 199; 210; 222; 233; 280-281; 292; 294

educator-caretaker, 32; 34; 201

Eduforum, 52

enrolment, 24; 47; 70; 72; 76; 139; 150-151;

162-163; 201; 227; 235-236; 283; 302; 308

entrance exam, 108; 126; 131; 148; 227; 306

equal-opportunity programme, 290

ERASMUS, 251; 259-260; 264

EUDISED, 253

EUROKLASSEN Project, 258; 266

European Social Fund, 241; 258; 262

EURYDICE, 30; 44; 251

evaluation of participants, 149; 151; 157; 161;

164

evaluation of staff members, 37

evaluation of the education system, 205


evaluation of the pupils, 34

evaluation of the teaching staff, 39

EVO, 53

examination, 23; 35; 38-41; 43-44; 110-112;

123; 128-129; 131; 133-134; 137; 150-154;

161; 166; 187; 227; 236; 249; 279-280; 284-

285; 289; 296

executive secretary, 32; 34; 201

extending care, 7; 83-84; 91-92; 114; 223

F

face-to-face education, 149-150; 282; 285

failure, 91; 98; 101; 105-106; 109; 111; 114;

130-131; 136; 227; 235

field of study, 70; 128; 130; 134; 139-140; 169;

209

financing, 56; 61; 65; 71-72; 74; 146; 260; 302;

312

Flemish Parliament, 3-4; 8; 19; 27; 45; 56; 72;

82; 109; 169; 212; 217; 221; 284; 291; 294;

297; 306

FOPEM, 31

foreign language, 249

form of education, 30; 61; 66; 88; 101-105;

107; 112; 121; 150; 157; 234; 236-238; 240-

241; 243-244; 282; 291-292; 311-312

freedom of education, 15; 87; 123; 212

Freinet schools, 5; 31; 50

Fund for Scientific Research, 136

G

general secondary education (ASO), 37; 45; 97;

99; 101-104; 107; 109; 118; 131; 144; 149;

226-227; 279

GENT Agreements, 252

GNP, 9; 62

GON, 114; 235; 237-239; 285

grant-aided free education, 17; 19; 20; 22; 30;

38; 49-50; 53; 61; 65-66; 68-69; 85-86; 93-

94; 115-116; 165; 167; 183; 186; 243-244;

246-247; 286; 292

grant-aided official education, 19-20; 22; 27;

29; 50-51; 53; 61; 64-65; 68-69; 85-86; 93-

94; 115-116; 165; 183; 186; 221; 243-247;

285-286; 289

GROS, 253; 256-257; 266

guidance service, 54; 150; 155; 292; 296; 310

guided individual studying, 150-151; 166; 280;

312

H

Health Supervision in Schools, 54-56; 309

HOC, 39

holiday, 19; 51; 59; 82; 90; 187; 189; 194; 198

I

immigrant, 7; 36; 92; 224; 290

Independent Academic Personnel (ZAP), 41;

43; 195-198; 202; 209; 279; 297

Individually Adjusted Year Programme, 129;

135

industrial apprenticeship contract, 27; 113

Index 319

in-service training, 33; 35; 113; 153; 169-171;

175; 179; 182; 199; 200; 214; 216; 220; 224-

225; 240; 250-251; 253; 256-257; 260-262;

265; 283; 294; 306

inspection, 18; 36; 61; 83-84; 205; 214-217;

219-221; 249; 252; 254; 305

inspector, 61; 70; 72; 79; 185; 199; 205; 214;

216; 219-221; 287

inspectorate, 7; 33; 61; 65; 99; 114; 203; 205;

210-219; 221-226; 236; 283; 304-305; 309-

310

Institutional Contract, 259- 260

J

job description, 183-184; 191; 194; 196-198;

219

job seeker, 108; 155-156; 230-231; 287; 296

K

KOOGO, 53

L

language of instruction, 92; 123

leave, 23; 112; 145; 148; 153; 179; 186; 189;

194; 198; 231; 235-236; 301-302

LEONARDO DA VINCI, 251; 258; 260

life-long learning, 228-229; 250; 255

LINGUA, 266

LOC, 51

local school council, 28; 47; 73; 181; 185; 289

LORGO, 28; 32; 73; 181; 289

M

main assignment, 188

method schools, 5; 31

migrant, 5

minister, 3-4; 18; 27-28; 31; 45-46; 56; 59; 98;

126; 146; 155; 158; 161; 164; 200; 205; 208;

210; 212; 214-215; 217; 229; 235; 238; 287;

297; 302

modular, 59; 98; 106; 108; 112; 148-150; 165;

176; 238; 241-242; 259; 281-282; 302

municipality, 65-66; 82; 90

N

NARIC, 251

NVO, 53

O

OBPWO, 229-230

official education, 17; 20; 27; 29; 38; 50-51;

53; 61; 64-65; 68-69; 85-86; 93-94; 115-116;

126; 165; 167; 186; 221; 243-247; 281; 285-

286; 289; 300

OKO, 31

Omnivalence Law, 97; 300

Open University, 137; 150

organising bodies, 6; 15-18; 20-21; 27; 29-32;

35; 45-46; 49-52; 61; 67; 73; 109-110; 112;

128; 146; 149; 164; 171; 176; 181; 184-186;

199; 201; 205; 210; 212; 215; 241; 290; 304-

305

orientation, 60; 98; 102; 109-111; 130; 136;

227

OVSG, 29


P

parents association, 52-53; 306

Participation Council, 32-33; 49-51; 222; 292;

310

partnership, 256-258; 261-262

Part-time Art Education (DKO), 18; 27; 44; 67;

162-163; 167; 178; 214; 217; 283

part-time compulsory education, 159; 161

Part-time Vocational Secondary Education

(DBSO), 27; 37; 59; 107; 114; 281-282; 303

pass rate, 131-132; 210; 227-228

pedagogical projects, 220

pension, 3; 189-190; 194; 199

permanent appointment, 35; 39-40; 178; 180-

181; 185; 192; 196

Permanent Recruitment Office, 151

philosophy, 17; 79; 132; 140; 178; 183; 292;

305

political parties, 2; 4; 15

pre-school education, 56; 60; 79-86; 88-89;

177; 180; 212; 235-237; 245; 247; 280; 291

pre-school teacher, 35; 84; 169-173; 177

primary education, 5; 23; 31; 44; 53; 60; 74;

79-80; 83; 85; 87-89; 91-95; 110; 153; 171;

177-178; 211-213; 217; 233-235; 239; 242-

243; 246-247; 280; 284; 296; 298-299; 305;

307; 309-310

primary school teacher, 35; 84; 91; 146; 169-

170; 177; 179

Professional status, 79; 183; 192; 196

programming, 47; 65-67; 146; 307

promotion, 32; 34-35; 53; 70; 72; 81; 110-111;

113; 148-149; 158; 176; 179; 181; 185; 192-

193; 196-198; 201; 251; 258; 261; 288; 311

promotion post, 32; 35; 179; 181; 201

Protestant Theological faculty, 137

province, 1-2; 4; 17; 20; 29; 51; 61; 64; 66;

126; 146; 236; 285; 288; 290; 295

pupil, 4-6; 17-19; 21-24; 31-37; 47; 49-50; 54-

58; 60-68; 74-76; 82-86; 89; 91-95; 97-108;

110-116; 118-119; 130; 145; 158; 160-161;

170; 174; 182; 188; 211; 213-214; 220; 230;

233-247; 256-259; 280-281; 284-289; 291-

294; 299-300; 306; 308-310

Q

qualified secondary school teacher - group 1,

169; 173-174; 176; 181

qualified secondary school teacher - group 2,

135; 169; 174-175; 181

quality assurance, 48; 128; 134; 196; 200; 205-

210; 227; 249

quality control, 61; 99; 122; 128; 205; 210;

221; 225; 284; 291; 304

R

rationalisation, 65-67; 72; 98; 303; 307

recognition, 65; 217; 249; 251; 285

recruitment, 28; 32-35; 37; 39-41; 44; 70; 72;

124; 130; 151; 178-181; 183; 192; 197; 201;

301; 303

recruitment post, 32; 35; 179-181; 201

region, 1-3; 5; 10; 30; 37; 62-63; 152; 182; 252;

286; 297; 302; 312

Regional Technological Centres, 113

Index 321

registration, 23-24; 33; 38; 42; 71; 75-76; 165

religion, 4; 6; 17; 21; 64; 102-103; 172-173;

177-178; 183; 216; 221; 240; 292; 305

remediation, 84; 91; 160

repeating, 91; 111; 235

replacement pool, 174; 179; 182-183; 188; 279;

296

reprehensible practices, 17

retraining, 148; 159

ROGO, 53

Royal Military College, 137; 299

RVA, 155

S

salary, 35; 51; 175; 179; 183; 187-189; 194;

196; 198; 296; 311

school board, 16-17; 19; 33; 36; 65; 73; 81-83;

89-91; 178; 180-181; 183-186; 213; 293

school building, 64-65; 68; 302

school calendar, 50; 59; 292

school community, 28; 37; 46; 49; 52; 66; 303

school council, 28; 32; 46-47; 51; 73; 80; 181;

185; 222; 289; 294

school development plan, 32; 34-36; 47; 90;

216; 222; 286; 294

school group, 28-29; 31-33; 46-48; 55-56; 69;

178; 185; 259

school head (see also director), 23; 28-29; 31-

35; 38; 46-49; 53; 60-61; 67; 100-101; 178-

179; 183; 186; 201; 236; 239; 284; 289; 293-

294; 300

School Pact, 2; 15-18; 20-21; 31; 64; 68; 79;

88; 99; 122; 131; 292-293

school regulations, 33; 47; 50; 292

second chance education (TKO), 149; 153; 296

secondary education, 4-6; 16-18; 21-24; 27-28;

30-32; 35-37; 45-46; 49-50; 54; 56; 59-61;

63-64; 66-68; 74-77; 88; 91; 97-116; 118;

121; 126; 129; 131-132; 135; 147-151; 153-

154; 159; 161; 164; 170-182; 184-185; 189;

194; 201; 203; 205; 211-214; 216-217; 220;

225; 227; 230; 234; 236-239; 241-244; 247;

253; 257-259; 262-264; 279-284; 286; 288-

289; 291-292; 295-296; 299; 301-303; 305-

312

secondary school teacher for vocational

courses, 171; 176

selection post, 32; 35; 179; 181; 201

self-evaluation, 61; 128; 130; 205-208; 219

SERV, 45; 294

seventh year, 100; 104; 119

Social Advancement Education, 27; 45; 59-61;

75-76; 137; 145-150; 152-153; 165; 171;

176; 215; 217; 262; 281-283; 286; 290; 295;

302; 311

SOCRATES, 249-252; 256-265; 307

special education, 22; 35-36; 60; 65-67; 75-76;

84-85; 92-93; 98; 101; 114; 178; 188; 201;

211-212; 233-242; 247; 281; 285-286; 290;

294; 300-301; 304; 307

specialisation, 101-102; 104; 126; 132-133;

144; 162-164; 171-172; 175-176; 253; 290

specialisation year, 164

State Register, 24; 293

STC, 52; 146


Steiner, 4-5; 30-31; 50; 85; 114

student, 18; 35; 38-43; 45; 49; 51-52; 54; 60;

62; 66-67; 70-71; 75; 77; 91; 97; 121; 124-

131; 133-140; 148; 150-153; 163; 165; 175;

201; 206-209; 213; 227-228; 239; 249-251;

253; 259-262; 279-280; 286-288; 295; 299;

310

student umbrella association, 54; 288

study area, 102; 126; 149; 295; 311

study grants, 78

study guidance, 39; 43; 130; 136; 191; 227

study load, 169

study point, 59; 128; 134; 153; 169; 177-178;

249

subsidies, 15; 36; 50; 54; 67-68; 70-71; 73-75

supervisor, 130; 136; 179; 191; 195; 201; 279

T

teacher, 32-35; 38; 42; 46; 49; 51-53; 56; 60;

67; 71; 75; 79; 83-85; 87; 91; 93; 100-101;

110; 115; 121; 126; 128-129; 132-135; 138-

139; 144; 146; 150; 152-154; 157; 160; 162;

164-165; 169-184; 187-189; 194; 197; 199-

201; 215-216; 220-221; 233; 239-240; 242;

250; 252-253; 256-262; 265; 282-283; 286;

289; 293; 296; 300; 304-306

teachers’ unions, 53

teaching language, 5; 180

teaching methods, 16; 19; 33; 44; 85; 134; 210;

216; 238; 291-292

teaching staff, 34; 39-40; 53; 110; 152; 178-

179; 181-184; 186; 188; 190; 192-195; 198;

201-203; 214; 239-240; 256; 288

technical secondary education (TSO), 45; 100;

102; 104; 112; 118; 121; 148-149; 153; 170;

173; 182; 226; 295

temporary appointment, 28; 178; 180-182; 185-

186; 192; 194; 196

temporary project, 36; 57; 108; 114; 223-224;

295

TEMPUS II, 260

test, 91; 110; 126; 130-132; 153; 161; 163; 221;

227

timetable, 32; 36; 60; 90-91; 102; 107; 283

training of teachers, teacher training, 139; 169-

171; 174; 176-178; 265

transport, 2; 33; 47; 50; 60; 78; 80; 127; 155;

286; 292

Type I, 98; 301

Type II, 98

type of education, 60-61; 97; 105; 112; 150;

152; 162; 208-209; 233-234; 236; 241; 280-

281

types of special education, 234; 237; 290; 300

U

unemployment, 10; 22; 107; 113; 146; 154-157;

165; 182; 198

UNESCO, 235

university, 38; 40-43; 45; 54; 67; 72; 75-77; 97;

121-125; 127; 129-137; 139-140; 144; 147;

150; 154; 170; 174-175; 178; 182; 191-193;

195-198; 207-209; 228; 230-231; 249; 261;

279; 287-288; 295; 304-306

Index 323

V

VCOV, 53

VDAB, 113; 145-146; 154-155; 157; 165; 167;

182; 230-231; 296

VIZO, 23; 108; 145-146; 157-158; 165; 296

Vlaamse Gemeenschap, 3; 5; 9-10; 19-20; 27-

28; 31; 45-46; 48; 51; 62; 67-68; 76; 87; 92;

113; 115; 131; 151-155; 161-162; 170; 229;

279-280; 283-284; 297

VLHORA, 45; 207-208; 249

VLIR, 45; 72; 207; 210

VLOR, 44; 50; 52-53; 109; 146; 149; 169; 212;

214; 229; 235; 297

vocational profile, 106; 149; 280

vocational secondary education (BSO), 24; 37;

45; 52; 100-108; 113; 118-119; 148-149;

153; 170-171; 173-174; 176-178; 212-213;

226; 238; 259; 280; 282; 291; 295-296; 303

VOCB, 153

VOOP, 31

VSKO, 30; 36; 111

VSOA, 53

VVS, 54

W

wage, 67; 71; 182; 187-188; 198

working time, 188; 191; 194-195; 198; 279

Works Council, 42; 51; 299; 310

Y

year-class system, 101

Yeshiva schools, 31

YOUTH FOR EUROPE, 262

youth unemployment, 10; 156

flemish eurydice report 2001 education policy and education

Documents