FISH NUTRITION 101 Feeds & Feeding Strategies for Aquaculture

Dr. Jesse Trushenski Center for Fisheries Aquaculture & Aquatic Sciences

Southern Illinois University Carbondale Carbondale, Illinois USA

saluski@siu.edu

WHY DO WE FEED FISH?

“The growth of a fish results from its consumption of food...” (Vasnetsov 1953)

Yes, but feed provides… Energy Biosynthetic building blocks Essential nutrients

Amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals

This presentation will cover the basics of fish nutrition and how feeds are formulated to provide fish with what they need

UNEP 2009

Aquaculture production has continually outstripped projections, and there is little reason to believe that it will not continue to do so. –World Bank 2006

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1995 2000 2005 2020

Total Aquafeed Production (MMT)

Aquaculture Production Using Compound Feeds (%)

INCREASING GLOBAL RELIANCE ON COMPLETE FEEDS

Tacon and Metian 2008

Omnivores Carnivores

Nut

ritio

nal D

eman

ds

Regardless of nutritional guild,

fish have high protein and lipid

demands

Fish have high protein demands…

Species Dietary Protein (%)

Asian sea bass 45

Atlantic halibut 51

Atlantic salmon 55

Tilapias 30-40

Pacific salmonids 40-45

Carps 31-43

Eels 40-45

Sea basses 45-50

Sea breams 50-55

Species Dietary Protein (%)

Freshwater basses 35-47

Trouts 40-53

Flatfishes 50-51

Catfish 32-36

Beef cattle 7-18

Dairy cattle 12-18

Sheep 9-15

Swine 12-13

Poultry 14-28

…but require amino acids, not protein Halver and Hardy, 2002

ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID REQUIREMENTS

Halver and Hardy, 2002; Omega Protein, Inc., 2006

Essential Amino Acids

Estimated Requirement (Rainbow Trout)

Fish Meal Composition

Arginine 3.3-5.9 6.2

Histidine 1.6 2.8

Isoleucine 2.4 4.2

Leucine 4.4 7.2

Lysine 3.7-6.1 7.8

Methionine 1.8-3.0 3.4

Phenylalanine 4.3-5.2 3.9

Threonine 3.2-3.7 4.2

Tryptophan 0.5-1.4 0.8

Valine 3.1 5.0

All data expressed as % crude protein

BASIS OF AMINO ACID DEMAND

Amino acids are/can be used for… Synthesis of peptides, proteins, nucleic acids, amines, hormones, and other N-containing compounds As a carbon source for intermediary metabolism Energy production

Protein demand is higher for fish because of… Greater carcass protein content Lower energy requirements

Species Dietary Lipid (%)

Trout 18-20

Other salmonids 20-30

Tilapia <10

Sea breams 10-15

Carp <18

Sea basses 12-18

Yellow tail 11

Red drum 7-11

Grouper 13-14

Species Dietary Lipid (%)

Milk fish 7-10

Catfish 5-6

Turbot <15

Sole 5

Beef cattle 1-2

Dairy cattle 1-2.5

Sheep 2.5-3

Swine 2-6

Poultry ~3

Fish have high lipid demands too…

…but require fatty acids, not lipid Guillaume et al. 2001

Δ6

Δ15 Δ12 18:0 18:1n-9

18:2n-6 18:3n-3

18:3n-6

20:3n-6

20:4n-6

18:4n-3

20:4n-3

20:5n-3

22:5n-3 24:5n-3 22:6n-3

Δ9

24:6n-3

C20

Δ5

Δ6

C20

Δ5

C22 C24 Δ6

Short

Δ6

Δ15 Δ12 18:0 18:1n-9

18:2n-6 18:3n-3

18:3n-6

20:3n-6

20:4n-6

18:4n-3

20:4n-3

20:5n-3

22:5n-3 24:5n-3 22:6n-3

Δ9

24:6n-3

C20

Δ5

Δ6

C20

Δ5

C22 C24 Δ6

Short

Limited physiological functions

Distinct physiological functions

Δ6

Δ15 Δ12 18:0 18:1n-9

18:2n-6 18:3n-3

18:3n-6

20:3n-6

20:4n-6

18:4n-3

20:4n-3

20:5n-3

22:5n-3 24:5n-3 22:6n-3

Δ9

24:6n-3

C20

Δ5

Δ6

C20

Δ5

C22 C24 Δ6

Short

ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID REQUIREMENTS

Species Advanced Juvenile/ Adult Requirement Fish Oil Composition

Rainbow trout 18:3n-3 (0.7-1.0%) n-3 LC-PUFA (0.4-0.5%) 18:2n-6 (~1.7%)

Common carp 18:2n-6 (1.0%) 18:3n-3 (0.5-1.0%) 18:3n-3 (~2.0%)

Tilapia 18:2n-6 (0.5-1.0%) 20:5n-3 (~13%)

Various Pacific salmonids

18:2n-6 (1.0%) 18:3n-3 (1.0%) 22:6n-3 (~15%)

Gilthead seabream n-3 LC-PUFA (0.9-1.9%) LC-PUFA (~30%)

Red seabream 22:6n-3 (0.5%) 20:5n-3 (1.0%)

Striped jack 22:6n-3 (1.7%)

All values reported as % of dry diet

Halver and Hardy 2002

Fish Oil Composition

18:2n-6 (~1.7%)

18:3n-3 (~2.0%)

20:5n-3 (~13%)

22:6n-3 (~15%)

LC-PUFA (~30%)

All the building blocks must be available before new molecules or

tissues can be synthesized

GROWTH HAPPENS WHEN LIMITING RESOURCES BECOME AVAILABLE AND IS AS FAST AS THE SLOWEST PROCESS

Protein

Lipid Carbohydrates

Micro-nutrients

PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF ATLANTIC SALMON

ProteinLipidAsh

From Shearer et al. 1994

BASIC BIOENERGETIC MODEL FOR FISH

Gross Energy

Digestible Energy

Feces

Metabolizable Energy

Urine & Gill Excretions

Heat Increment (Maintenance)

Heat Increment (Production)

Net Energy

Maintenance Metabolism

Swimming & Other Activity

Somatic Growth

Reproductive Investment

12-35%

2-8%

10-30%

27-76% of Intake

WHAT AFFECTS BIOENERGETICS & GROWTH?

Energy Intake Feed composition, feeding rate, feeding frequency

Excretions Gastric evacuation rate, life stage, feed digestibility, feed protein vs. CHO vs. lipid content, limiting factor for growth

Heat Increment Water temperature, nutrient intake vs. demand, number and type of transformations to be made

Routine Metabolism

Life stage, body size, temperature, normal behavior and activity levels

Retained Energy Investment Life stage, overall reproductive strategy, season

THINKING SMALL AND THINKING BIG

Higher resting metabolic rate Higher energy expenditures Higher feeding rates (e.g. 5%) Higher maintenance demand

Lower resting metabolic rate

Lower energy expenditures

Lower feeding rates (e.g. 3%)

Lower maintenance demand

SMALL VS. LARGE FISH METABOLISM—AN ANALOGY

Size = 1209 ft2

Construction cost = $115K

Cost per ft2 = $95

Size = 1043 ft2 Construction cost = $102K

Cost per ft2 = $98

Macro- & Micronutrients

Metamorphosis

Reproduction

Behavior Stress

Response

Biosynthetic Rates

Cell Signaling

Appetite Regulation

Osmoregulation

Growth & Development

Energy Substrates

Immunity & Survival Antioxidative

Defense

Seafood Quality

Endocrine Status

Metabolic Regulation

Pigmentation

Membrane Competence

Tocher 2003, Li et al. 2008

HOW DO I KNOW WHAT TO FEED?

Feed as little protein and lipid as needed Minimize feed costs and effluents

Nutrient requirement or demand studies Published results Previous experience with different feeds

Requirements of different lifestages or species Carnivores vs. omnivores Effects of water temperature Larvae vs. juveniles vs. broodstock

Typical Feeds High Energy

(Carnivorous) Medium Energy

(Carnivorous) Low Energy

(Omnivorous)

Fish meal 25-50 20-40 0-20

Soy products 0-15 25-35 30-50

Gluten products 5-20 15-20 15-20

Cereal grains 10-18 20-25 30-45

Fats/oils 20-30 5-10 2-5

Other 3-5 3-5 3-5

Current price ($USD/MT) >1500 ------------------------------------------------ <500

“…while the inclusion level of fish meal in feed is 25 percent, it actually accounts for 43 percent of raw material costs and 32 percent of total production costs. Alternative proteins such soybean, wheat and corn gluten, which can make up 45 percent of volume, account for 19 percent of raw material costs.” (Seafood Source 2010)

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1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

WHAT WILL LIMIT THE GROWTH OF AQUACULTURE?

Fish Meal Price in $US/MT

“…much research has focused on finding replacements for fish meal…Partial replacements have been achieved. However, no dramatic breakthroughs have been reported, and the share of fish meal and fish oil used in aquaculture is increasing…” (FAO 2008)

Aquaculture consumes ~61% of

global supply

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2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

WHAT WILL LIMIT THE GROWTH OF AQUACULTURE?

“…given the difficulty in replacing fish oils…it is clear that competition for fish oil is likely to be a more serious obstacle for some sections of the aquaculture industry.” (FAO 2008)

Fish Oil Price in $US/MT

Aquaculture consumes ~74% of global supply

Lower feed costs

High levels of EAA, EFA, etc.

Maintain integrity of product

Readily available, sustainable Decreased cost of production

EAA, EFA, etc. may be low or absent

Safer products?

Palatable, nutrient dense, highly digestible

Alternative Feedstuffs

?

MarineFeedstuffs

REPLACING FISH MEAL…PRODUCTION EFFECTS Case study with soy protein concentrate in HSB feeds

Blaufuss and Trushenski 2011

0100200300400500

10% FM 6.7% FM 3.3% FM 0% FM

Weight Gain (%)

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10% FM 6.7% FM 3.3% FM 0% FM

Feed Intake (%/day)

* * *

Fish meal sparing can reduce the palatability of feeds, especially for carnivorous fish

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30%FM

20%FM

15%FM

10%FM

5% FM 0% FM

FCR (dry matter)

*

0100200300400500

30%FM

20%FM

15%FM

10%FM

5% FM 0% FM

Weight Gain (%)

*

Laporte and Trushenski 2011

REPLACING FISH MEAL…PRODUCTION EFFECTS Case study with soybean meal in HSB feeds

Even when intake is good, EAA deficiencies and utilization problems can still develop with reduced fish meal feeds

REPLACING FISH MEAL…STRESS EFFECTS Case study with soybean meal in HSB feeds

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30% FM 20% FM 15% FM 10% FM 5% FM 0% FM

Plasma Cortisol (ng/mL)Diet P = 0.40Stress P = 0.10Interaction P = 0.31

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30% FM 20% FM 15% FM 10% FM 5% FM 0% FM

Plasma Glucose (mg/dL)UNSTRESSED

STRESSEDDiet P < 0.001Stress P < 0.001Interaction P < 0.001

Fish meal sparing may lead to unintended consequences in terms

of livestock resilience Laporte and Trushenski 2011

FISH MEAL REPLACEMENT…SOLUTIONS Case study with PepSoyGen in HSB feeds

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30% FM 10% FMSBM

10% FMPSG

5% FMSBM

5% FMPSG

0% FMSBM

0% FMPSG

Weight Gain (%)

a

bc

a

abc ab

d

c

0.00

0.25

0.50

0.75

1.00

1.25

1.50

30% FM 10% FMSBM

10% FMPSG

5% FMSBM

5% FMPSG

0% FMSBM

0% FMPSG

FCR

ab

ab ab ab

b b

a

Rombenso et al. 2013

Fermented soybean meal outperformed traditional soybean meal at all levels of inclusion in HSB feeds

FISH MEAL REPLACEMENT…SOLUTIONS Case study with Asian carp meal in aquafeeds

Bowzer et al. 2013, in press, in preparation

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CM FM 20 40 60Type

Weight Gain (%)

Inclusion

Results show excellent utilization, high value of Asian carp meal in aquafeeds

HSB

RBT

Cobia

LMB

REPLACING FISH OIL…PRODUCTION EFFECTS Case study with canola oil in HSB feeds

Lewis and Kohler 2008

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100%FO

80%FO

60%FO

40%FO

20%FO

0% FO 0%FO*

Weight Gain (%)

* *

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1

1.5

100%FO

80%FO

60%FO

40%FO

20%FO

0% FO 0%FO*

FCR

* *

EFA deficiencies associated with fish oil replacement can lead to impaired production

REPLACING FISH OIL…FILLET EFFECTS Case study with soy oil in cobia feeds

Trushenski et al. 2011

Fish oil sparing affects fillet

composition and associated

nutritional value

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2.514:0

16:0

18:0

SFA

16:1n-7

18:1n-7

18:1n-9

MUFA18:2n-6

18:3n-3

MC-PUFA

20:4n-6

20:5n-3

22:5n-3

22:6n-3

LC-PUFA

Line of Equality

67% FO

33% FO

0% FO

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200

300

400

0

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3

FISHONLY

SOYONLY

SOY +50%EPA

SOY +100%EPA

SOY +50%DHA

SOY +100%DHA

SOY +50%

BOTH

SOY +100%BOTH

Weight Gain (%)

ab

c c c

ab

a

bc b

FCR (dry matter)

c

a a ab

c c

bc c

DHA is crucial, EPA is dispensable for growth performance of cobia

0.8-1.2% DHA required to maintain growth

Trushenski et al. 2012

REPLACING FISH OIL…SOLUTIONS Case study defining EFA requirements of cobia

y = 1.313x + 11.516 r² = 0.940

y = 0.228x + 24.751 r² = 0.553

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Fille

t 22:

6n-3

(% F

AME)

Diet 22:6n-3 (% FAME)

Fish fed C18-rich soybean oil accumulate 22:6n-3 in a predictable fashion

Fish fed SFA-rich soybean oil maintain high

levels of 22:6n-3

REPLACING FISH OIL…SOLUTIONS Using SFA-rich oils to spare fish oil in white seabass feeds

Trushenski et al. 2013

POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS FROM RECENT STUDIES

No growth effects Substantial LC-PUFA loss

Trushenski and Boesenberg 2009

No growth effects Limited LC-PUFA loss

Trushenski et al. 2008

No growth effects Limited LC-PUFA loss

Trushenski 2009

n-3 MC-PUFA

SFA

MUFA/SFA

THE CHALLENGES…

Fish meal and oil are finite resources which aquaculture increasingly monopolizes

Sources of amino acids abound, but may be improperly balanced, unpalatable

Alternative proteins impact production performance, livestock resilience

Sources of essential fatty acids can be limiting

Alternative lipids affect fillet nutritional value, reproductive performance

THE OPPORTUNITIES… Seafood demand continues to rise Roughly half of seafood consumed is farm-raised Food security for 9 billion people by 2050 Seafood provides 1/3 of the population with 15% or more of

daily protein—aquaculture grows by 7-9% annually Aquaculture produces protein efficiently Strategic use of resources solves problems

Swine 3 to 1

Beef Cattle 8 to 1

Poultry 2 to 1

Fish 1-2 to 1