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Argumentative Paper: Reimagining Ecology with an Apex Carnivore
Jared Brantley
8 December 2014
Metropolitan State University of Denver
REIMAGINING ECOLOGY 2
Abstract
The impact of ecological restoration on gray wolves in Yellowstone National Park was
studied. Far reaching and also immediate with in the ecosystem and regional economy that can
be directly or indirectly correlated back to the reintroduction of wolves were researched. Also
studied was the possibility of degradation of livestock and personal property and the compromise
that reimbursed official losses. A fear of wolves claiming territory outside of the park was
studied as well as a tracking device that allowed researchers to insure wolves kept to the
boundaries of the National park. Increased human traffic throughout the park was noted and
researched as well, yet the research yielded a significantly regenerated environment even with
such an increase in visitors. The research shows that the reintroduction of wolves in Yellowstone
National Park benefits numerous species of animals and vegetation throughout the park, as well
as benefiting the regional economy. The results also provide that although there may be loss in
property to livestock, parties with official losses would be reimbursed. Throughout the study,
wolves obtain respect as a unifying force in the balance of nature, rather than the villain they
personified as throughout the 19th century.
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Argumentative Paper: Reimagining Ecology with an Apex Carnivore
The reintroduction of gray wolves in Yellowstone National Park, a grandiose experiment
unfounded, yet through time has proven the crucial role all animals play in each environment.
The reintroduction of wolves in Yellowstone has impacted more than the environment. In
addition to the ecosystem, the wolves have impacted the region economically and the people
surrounding the park. This wolf recovery program has changed the way scientists think about
balancing ecosystems. Predators, especially gray wolves have continued to improve the
environment in Yellowstone National Park by controlling animal populations, restoring trees and
willows, and revitalizing species that were once dwindling. The Yellowstone Wolf Recovery
Project has been the most successful to date. Throughout the last nineteen years these wolves
have been studied and the findings have been remarkable.
Yellowstone National Park
Yellowstone National Park is located in the North Western corner of Wyoming reaching
into areas of Montana and Idaho. Yellowstone was the first national park to be founded in the
United States and was signed into existence in 1817 by then President Ulysses S. Grant. The park
and its beauty captivated the country and soon was a place set apart for the enjoyment and
benefit of the people. In order to sustain that enjoyment, the Lacey Act was passed by congress
giving protection to wildlife in Yellowstone, except for wolves and coyotes (Haines, 1977, p.
60).
Wolf Trouble in Yellowstone
There is perhaps no other large predator that is more deeply embedded in our human
psyche than the wolf. Historically, gray wolves defined by the Encyclopedia of Life as Canis
Lupus, have been given a role vilified by people through literature and legend. Between the years
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1883 and 1914 bounty hunters killed 81,000 wolves in Montana alone (Lister & McDaniel,
2006). According to the Yellowstone Wolf Project, by 1926 gray wolves were officially
extirpated from Yellowstone National Park. The slaughter of wolves would eventually cease in
1973 when the Endangered Species Act was passed making it a crime to kill wolves punishable
by a $50,000 fine and up to a year in jail (Lister & McDaniel, 2006). Not surprisingly wolf
populations had been thoroughly diminished by this time throughout North America. In addition
to protecting threatened species, the Endangered Species Act also provides for their
reintroduction into former habitats. In 1987, the Northern Rocky Mountain Wolf Recovery Plan
recommended that the gray wolf be reintroduced into Yellowstone National Park (Lister &
McDaniel, 2006). In the following years the reintroduction of wolves would play out in federal
courts.
Wolf Reintroduction
The United States Government was charged with implementing and enforcing a
compromise between those for and apposed to wolf reintroduction. Those for the reintroduction
included many biologists, members of congress, and the Defenders of Wildlife, which was
founded in 1947. The majority of people apposing the recovery plan were those living in the
surrounding the area, such as ranchers and farmers whom feared that the reintroduction of
wolves would relinquish the safety they had become accustomed to for their domestic animals.
Two decades of fighting would ensue before a green light would be given to begin the project. In
1974, the federal government would appoint a wolf recovery team and the first recovery plan
would be released in 1982 (“Defenders of Wildlife”, 2006). The public and apposing parties
were consistently against the plan, which caused federal and state agencies to revise the recovery
plan. A second recovery plan was released in 1985, yet congress required more research before
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giving the green light to implement a recovery plan (“Defenders of Wildlife”, 2006). The plan
following was adjusted and included the studies ordered by congress and the Defenders
announced an established $100,000 Wolf Compensation Fund to reimburse ranchers for verified
wolf depredations of livestock (“Defenders of Wildlife”, 2006). The final piece of the recovery
puzzle was to prepare an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). Court hearings would be held
to discuss EIS three times until 1994 when the final EIS is issued and a green light would
officially be received to begin reintroduction (“Defenders of Wildlife”, 2006). During the week
of January 3, 1995 wolves from Alberta, Canada were captured and carted to recovery zones
within Yellowstone National Park and placed in acclimation pens (“Defenders of Wildlife”,
2006). An important part of the recovery plan was the use of the acclimation pens. Studies have
shown that wolves carry strong bonds, which is the reason that many wolves were taken from the
three separate packs and kept together once they arrived in the United States (Smith, 2005). The
acclimation pens were used to ensure the wolves would remain in the area instead of making a
mad dash back to Canada after the release. The wolves released in 1995 were kept in the
acclimation pens before their “soft release” for ten weeks (Smith, 2005). A similar operation
would be held the following year and another group of wolves would be released in Yellowstone
in 1996.
The Wolf Effect
By nature, wolves are carnivores and prefer to eat large hooved mammals such as deer, elk,
bison, and moose. In Yellowstone National Park the effects of a lack of wolves were felt long
before 1973 when the Endangered Species Act was established. Without wolves, elk and other
large hooved animal’s populations increased exponentially and as Douglas Smith states in the
2010 Yellowstone Park Foundation’s periodical, “when wolves were reintroduced in 1995,
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Yellowstone was the best place in the world to have wolves that did not currently have them,
since there was an abundant prey population”. As with any large population, a primary necessity
is food. Elk, for example, rely on vegetation for sustenance and without wolves, plant vegetation
was being rapidly consumed, overgrazed, and was beginning to decline. Once wolves were
returned to Yellowstone National Park, elk were influenced greatly. Wolves have a continuous
effect on their surroundings often described as a trickle down effect. An abundance of animals
like elk, or a missing species like wolves (before 1995) change systems for better or worse.
Actions taken by packs of wolves are beneficial and far-reaching throughout the ecosystem and
food chain.
Trophic Cascade Approach
Wolves are often described as an “apex Carnivore” meaning that they are atop the food
chain; Elk, bison, and deer are considered consumers. The relationship between all animals can
be perfectly viewed through the lens of a trophic cascade. Trophic Cascades are extremely
complex chains that systematically link all animals within an ecosystem together. Envision a
rope ladder, when parts of the rope are cut the ladder becomes unreasonable, or extremely
difficult, to climb. John Muir, an early advocate of preservation of wilderness in the United
States once stated the importance of balancing ecosystems perfectly when he wrote, “When we
try to pick anything out by itself, we find it hitched to everything else in the universe” (Muir,
1911). In keeping with Muir’s philosophy, if parts of an ecosystem are removed it is hard to keep
the balance of that ecosystem. In this case the carnivore are wolves, and the herbivore is elk;
simply put, the carnivores prey upon the herbivores effectively controlling their population size.
Not only does the population of elk come under control in numbers, further research conducted
on wolves by Adolph Murie in Alaska determined that wolves would selectively target the
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weakest and most vulnerable members of deer, elk, bison, and other wildlife. Such a selection
process will undoubtedly enhance the health and vigor of the park’s game species. The cascade
is, in fact, much more complicated than simple food chain statistics. Elk are directly impacted by
the return of wolves through killing for food, yet indirectly wolves impact elk distribution
throughout the park, as well as how the elk behave (Smith, 2005).
Continuous Trophic Cascades
Another cascade that is being correlated to the reintroduction of wolves is the carcass’
they leave behind. In the event that a pack grows large enough to eat an entire animal they kill,
there will always be morsels left behind for scavengers to eat. According to wolf expert and
Yellowstone wolf recovery project leader Douglas Smith, wolves that prey on deer live in packs
of five to seven while elk killing deer range from eight to twelve. Wolves that prey upon moose
and bison will often be in packs with fifteen plus members (Smith, 2005; 121). Not only does
this fact help illustrate the tactical strategies that assist wolves in hunting, but the understanding
of the environment that wolves have throughout their entire habitat. Their understanding of
survival, without human intervention, is magnificent as wolves are able to work together as a
whole. The reintroduction of wolves has brought in a varying array of scientists and researchers
to observe the wolf effect. For instance, Biologist Dan Stahler and noted raven expert Bernd
Heinrich spend time watching ravens that follow wolves. The birds understand that if they stick
around long enough they are also going to receive a meal. Stahler and Heinrich discovered that
the average wolf kill attracts 29 ravens, yet they have observed nearly 135 ravens on two
adjacent kills (Smith, 2005; 122). As part of their research Stahler and Heinrich wanted to know
how much the ravens were reliant on the wolf killings. For their research the pair would hike
around Yellowstone and would place elk carcasses on open ground. The research team also
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discovered that the ravens would not attempt to eat the artificially placed legs and would
continue flying, yet after a wolf kill the ravens would immediately stop and begin eating.
Trophic Cascades Explored Above
While some trophic cascades can be easily observed as top down, one interesting
example is that of grizzly bears, or black bears. The bears are easily more powerful than the
wolves, yet they lack the agility to prey upon large hooved animals successfully. Bears are able
to easily take over a kill made by wolves. An important time of year is at the end of winter when
bears leave their dens extremely hungry. What better way to wake up then to take over a carcass
from a pack of wolves without much of a fight? Wolves are to grizzlies what mosquitos are to
humans, an annoyance. Wolves will harass the bears, but will rarely be able to retrieve a kill after
a bear has staked its claim. This example is important to understand because both are apex
carnivores, yet the bear is above the wolf. While the bear may be able to control a wolf kill with
impunity, there is a different tune when it is coyotes that come calling for food. Much of a
coyotes diet consists of mice and ground squirrels, so the sight of several hundred pounds of elk
meat would be terribly difficult to resist (Smith, 2005). In a similar order, coyotes are to wolves
what mosquitos are to humans, an annoyance. Throughout these examples it is easy to digest that
wolves are crucial to the survival of the environment that they inhabit. Without wolves bears
might struggle, coyotes would not be kept in line, and ravens survival would become more
dependent on others. Wolves provide a balance that every ecosystem truly needs.
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Elk Connections to Wolf Population
APA Citation: Yellowstone Center for Resources Annual Report 2006. (2007). Yellowstone Center for Resources.
Retrieved November 15, 2014, from http://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/loader.cfm?
csModule=security/getfile&PageID=325473
From figure 3 above it can be determined the average amount of elk killed during the
winter months from 1995-2006, which allows researchers to determine the direct correlation that
wolves have on the population of elk. The chart below shows elk population before wolves were
reintroduced in Yellowstone National Park and after the reintroduction. Elk population numbers
were consistently between 1500 and 2500 elk before reintroduction and between 500 and 1500
after the reintroduction of wolves. As figure 3 depicts, both populations are dependent on the
other. As one population grows, so to does the other. Both animals benefit from such a
dependency. Wolves are smart and usually prey upon weak or struggling elk, which actually
helps the elk in becoming stronger as a whole. Figure 4 below helps depicts the populations of
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elk between 1929 through 2004. Just looking at the figure, one might assume that something
wrong is happening with a decrease in population, but there is a lot happening behind the figure.
When the strong survive the population of Yellowstone elk gradually begins to become stronger
as well. Although elk populations are less in numbers, the populations are much stronger in 2004
than in 1929, four years from the year that the gray wolf was officially extirpated from
Yellowstone National Park. Vice Versa, as elk populations grow stronger, wolf populations
throughout Yellowstone National Park grow stronger as well. Since reintroduction, wolves have
made Yellowstone National Park a healthier habitat for many animals, especially elk.
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Figure 4: Populations of Elk in greater Yellowstone Area 1929-2004, APA Citation: Hamlin, K. (2006, January 1).
Monitoring and Assessment of Wolf-Ungulate Interactions and Population Trends within the Greater
Yellowstone Area, Southwestern Montana, and Montana Statewide. Montana Fish and Wildlife Parks.
Wolf Reintroduction Influences Foliage
Wolves killing elk is indirectly connected to recoveries throughout the National park.
Researchers began observing a rebound of foliage between two or three years after wolves were
released (Smith, 2005). Correlation between the recovery of willows and the recovery of wolves
was determined by the behavior of elk. When wolves were not present to dictate where elk could
spend time the elk had the option to remain in places for a longer duration of time. However, as
soon as wolves were reintroduced to the park elk soon discontinued their time in the places that
they were most likely to be killed by wolves, thus instating a recovery for willows in those areas
(Smith, 2005). Some researchers criticize this approach to revitalizing willows stating from
research that moose eat more than elk. However, due to a massive forest fire in 1988 the number
of moose declined, so if in fact moose were the primary variable behind the recovery of willows
then recovery would have began much earlier (Smith, 2005). An indirect effect that wolves have
on revitalization throughout the park is on aspen trees. A study conducted by biologists Bill
Ripple and Erik Larson yielded important information confirming the importance of wolves in
the ecosystem (2001). After drilling into the cores of more than a hundred trees the researchers
discovered that the trees stopped regenerating around 1930, which is near the time wolves were
extirpated from Yellowstone (Larsen & Ripple, 2001). In addition, it was becoming apparent that
the Lamar River was becoming over-widened. The banks of the river were eroding and the soil
was being taken and distributed down river (Bescheta, 2003). This information is crucial to the
link between wolves and the ecosystem. Due to overgrazing, vegetation that used to line and
keep the riverbanks safe had vanished (Bescheta, 2003). Because of the impact wolves have on
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the behavior of large hooved animals, vegetation located on the banks of the Lamar River has
started to rejuvenate. Ecosystems are extremely vulnerable and the slightest change can have far
reaching impacts. Similar to a game of chess, the balance of entire system is crucial to the
assistance of all inhabited species. The information provided by countless hours of research
allows an incredible amount of knowledge to be revealed. Thanks to wolves, researchers now
understand better the delicate act of balance between all species, human and animal. Since the
return of the wolves in Yellowstone the plants and vegetation have made a comeback, herbivore
populations are under control, and the ecology of the park has started to become healthier and
better balanced.
Annual Economic Impacts
In 2007 wolf restoration in Yellowstone had reached its 11th year and was becoming the
most successful wildlife recovery project in the history of endangered species conservation.
From 2003-2006 the Yellowstone Park Foundation (YPF) conducted a study with support from
other groups, which would aim to quantify the economic impacts of the wolves in Yellowstone
post-recovery. The research was gathered by interviewing thousands of park visitors over the
time period to understand just how wolves are influencing people’s decisions to visit the park,
and the corresponding impact on the regional economy. It was determined that visitors who
come to Yellowstone to view wolves contribute $35.5 million annually to the region (YPF,
2007). With added funds throughout the region, money can be spent to assist in schooling,
continued preservation of parks, and to help educate the communities of the importance that all
animals have throughout the environment. Also, the information that this research presents is
extremely valuable for the immediate surroundings of Yellowstone National Park in that it
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allows for better management of wildlife, community development of wildlife education, and
public recreation.
Opposed to Wolf Reintroduction
Many concerns were gathered from reintroducing wolves into Yellowstone National
Park. A majority of the concerns were linked to the extensive damage to livestock, decimation of
game species, or causing death to humans. Regardless of the research conducted to prove that in
fact wolves were not responsible for loss of game species. In actuality, wolves helped maintain
healthy population levels of game species that human hunting could not accomplish on its own.
Also, according to a study conducted by Professors Brad Lister and Carl McDaniel, biologists
were unable to document a single instance of wolves causing deaths to humans anywhere in the
world (2006). A major concern that the people living in the areas surrounding the park attempted
to validate was that wolves that were reintroduced into the National Park would eventually leave
the boundary of the park and come into contact with people. One of the first actions that was
taken once the wolves were captured in Canada was to place a radio collar around each wolves
neck. Collars are key to wolf studies, The Yellowstone Wolf Foundation states:
Wolves range far and wide throughout Yellowstone’s 2.2-million acres of
dense wilderness, yet the Park’s wolf population is one of the most studied
populations of wild wolves ever. It is radio collars that enable the monitoring
of multiple wolf packs across this vast area (2014).
The radio collar that was placed on the wolves is similar to a dog collar, but with Very High
Frequency (VHF) and Global Positioning System (GPS) attachments to allow researchers to
track the wolves (YPF, 2014). The collars that are placed on the wolves are the key to wolf
studies. However, even with technological tracking devices, some wolves do eventually tend to
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drift outside of park boundaries. In 2003, depredation caused by 301 estimated wolves equaled
the sum of 291 animals, where 211 were sheep, 64 cows, 6 dogs, and 10 goats (Taylor, Johnson,
Shelby, 2005). Three years earlier, a study was conducted to determine the depredation of grizzly
bears in the greater Yellowstone area (GYA). There were 152 grizzly bear-human related
conflicts in 2000 where 45% was determined to be bears obtaining anthropogenic foods and 32%
was determined to be bears killing livestock (Haroldson & Frey, 2001). The fact of the matter is
that simply living on this earth means a balancing act between all animals, humans included.
There are going to be wildlife to human encounters, yet when humans take a step back and
reflect at a “30,000ft view”, the positive effects of balancing ecosystems outweighs the
depredation of livestock.
Compromise for Depredation
Much thought was put into compromises for both sides of reintroduction. While
depredation of livestock would eventually occur, a compromise would once again be set and laid
out in front of congress and the public within the final recovery plan. As stated before, the plan
included the studies ordered by congress. The Defenders of Wildlife (a major contributor, pro
wolf recovery) announced an established $100,000 Wolf Compensation Fund to reimburse
ranchers for verified wolf depredations of livestock (“Defenders of Wildlife”, 2006). Both parties
want to keep both wolves and humans safe along with all domesticated animals. Those parties
for certainly do not want to harm the famers, or ranchers, way of life, source of income. This
additional fund allows for a light at the end of long tunnel in the eyes against wolf reintroduction
of Yellowstone.
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Increase in Human Footprint
However much good comes from the reintroduction of wolves in Yellowstone National
Park, there is an increased amount of strain that has been put onto the fragile features throughout
the park by increased human traffic. The human footprint increase at Yellowstone can be traced
back to the influx of accessibility of the automobile. The world is ever growing at a rate faster
than ever witnessed. It is inevitable that visitation would increase with the amount of people
calling Earth home. Fast forward to 2006 and there are more people visiting Yellowstone than
ever before. Yellowstone National Park topped 3 million visitors for the fifth straight year in
2011 (NPS, 2014). On average, Yellowstone National Park receives more than 2 million visitors
throughout the last 15 years. Amazingly, 20,000 people are seeing wolves in Yellowstone every
year (Smith, 2005). National parks are founded on the basis that preservation is crucial, so even
with such a massive population Yellowstone National Park must be kept alive and well. The
balancing and conservation of ecosystems allows for these parks to continue in growing healthier
even with an incredible amount of visitors. For the amount of people that visit Yellowstone
National Park, more and more people will leave the park more knowledgeable than they arrived.
Understanding that protection and a certain amount of distance is key in observing the natural
beauty of this countries first national park will help keep not only the wolf alive, but also entire
systems alive in the years to come.
Yellowstone National Park has lived through thousands of years of change, and the wolf
has stood near its side. The impact that wolves have had on the ecosystem throughout the park is
a monumental beginning for conservation projects in the years to come. Wolves are a pivotal
species that are able to assist in population control, ensuring that wolves are not only becoming
stronger, but the prey animal becomes stronger over a period of time. The reintroduction of gray
REIMAGINING ECOLOGY 16
wolves in the park has allowed other species, specifically ravens, a sure meal. It is difficult to
observe the crucial role wolves play in the revitalization of Yellowstone National Park.
However, through research the understanding of the role is becoming as grandiose as the story
behind it. As time continues, more research conducted, and data collected, the educational
benefits will allow successful projects throughout the future.
REIMAGINING ECOLOGY 17
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