first advanced training workshop an theory and...

First Advanced Training Workshop an Theory and Development Strategies for Rural Education

March l-April 11,1999 , (’ /.

UNESCO International Research and Training Centre for Rural Education, Nanjing, China

1. First International Advanced Training Workshop on Theory and Development Strategies for Rural Education was organized between March 1 and April 11, 1999 at INRULED, Nanjing, China.

3. Professor Chen Jingpu, * deputy director of INRULED Nanjing is giving a lecture on Introduction to Rural ~ Education. I

01 2. Professor Huang Tao, vice president of Nanjing Normal University is giving a lecture on comparison of rural education between developed and developing countries.

Q- 4. In chilly weather as evidenced by the child with warm cap, participants are having a cordial talk with pupils in Nanliuji Primary School, northern Jiangsu.

FIRST INTERNATIONAL-tVORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Part 1 Proceedings ................................................... 1 1.1 Workshop Summary ............................................. 1

1.2 Theories on Rural Education ................................. 3

Part r[ Theses of Trainees ZAMBIA

Rural Educational Reform and Strategies for the Development of

School Education : The Zambian Experience

By Ndawambi Daka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

NAMIBIA

Education of Reform and Educational Development in Rural Areas

in Namibia

By G. Kauna Ekandjo . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

GHANA

Rural Education as a Factor in Rural Development -The

Ghanaian Perspective

By Jsaac Oppong Manu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.. 33

KENYA

Strategies on Fund Raising and Mangement for Schools

By Patrick Kaaria Kiugu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

ETHIOPIA

Selecting Contents and Teaching Methodology for the Rural Adult

Class

By Kebede Sima . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

TANZANIA

Provision of Basic Education for Disadvantaged Rural Children in

Tanzania

By Ms Julia Thadeus Hoza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

CHINA

New Perspective of Literacy Education Corresponding Strategies By Liu Yibing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION

Unbalanced Development of Rural Education in China and its

Countermeasures

By Wang Qiang . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

A Survey on Rural Non - Formal Education Promoting Local

Economic Development -A case study of the Extension of Mushroom

Production Techniques in Huang zhuang Village, Nanxi Town, Jing zhai

County

By Zhang Jiayong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.. . . . . . . 1.. . . . . . . 81

The Impact of Rural Women Non - formal Education on Women’

s Living Quality

By Zhuang Xizheng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

An Investigation of Rural Non - formal Education in Rugao

County and its Implication

By Sun Dejun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

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Part One : Proceedings

I. Workshop Summary

1.1 Introduction The First Advanced Training Workshop on Theory and Development

Strategies for Rural Education was organized at the International Research and

Training Center for Rural Education Nanjing during March 1 and April 11, 1999.

12 experts, scholars and officials from NarQbia, Tanzania, Kenya, Zambia,

Ethiopia, Ghana. and China participate in the training workshop.

Mr. Yousif, a UNESCO expert, Mr. Yu Fuzeng, secretary-general of Chinese

National Commission for UNESCO, Chen Nailin, deputy director of Jiangsu

Education Commission, Ms. Zhu Xiaoman, vice president of Nanjing Normal

University, Mr. Huang Tao, vice president of Nanjing Normal University,

Professor Diao Peie, a well-known specialist in rural education and some other

representatives were present at the opening ceremony. Mr. Yousif and Mr. Yu

Fuzeng addressed to the opening ceremony. Professor Chen Jingpu, deputy director

of International Research and Training Centr for Rural Education Nanjing briefed

the training program and arrangement of the workshop. Ms Gertrude Kauna

Ekandjo, on behalf of all participants, expressed thanks and confidence in ideas

sharing at the workshop.

1.2 Theme and Objectives The main theme of the workshop is ” Rural Education and Rural

Development”, which covers both basic theories and experiences in rural education.

The purpose and task are to facilitate all the participants to acquire basic knowledge

and principles in research of and implementation of rural education. The participants

keep abreast of the main challenges confronted in the innovation and development of

rural education in developing countries, and probe into innovative, responsive and

initiative strategies.

1


1.3 Materials for Training The main materials developed by INRULED specialists and experts are: Rural

Education and Rural Development, Introduction to Rural Education, Rural

Education, College and Agriculture Development, Rural Anti-illiteracy Education

and Rural Girls Education. Some reference materials on different themes in the field

of rural education are offered at the workshop.

1.4 Cultural Exchanges Participants watched with keen interest the performances by teachers and

students of the Music Faculty of Nanjing Normal University. Academic Salon was

organized among the trainees to the Advanced Workshop and the college students in

Nanjing Normal University including some overseas students, so the participants

changed ideas and experiences that they are interested in.

1.5 Field Visits and First-hand Information During 12 days’ field visits and on-spot training in western undeveloped area

(Gansu Province > , central area ( Hebei Province ) and eastern developed area

(Jiangsu Province) in China, the participants achieved a better understanding and

perceptual knowledge of rural education in China. In Baoding the participants visited

the modern agriculture education of Hebei Province and the display of achievements

named “ Road to Taihang Mountains “. On the street famous for agricultural

technology, the participants saw retired professors solving farmers’ problems at

Caichang village. They visited the strawberry base, tasted the fresh strawberry

asthey had cordial and warm discussions with administrators, technicians and

farmers.

In Gansu, Mr. Ma Peifang, vice director of Gansu Education Commission

introduced the comprehensive reform program of Rural Education in Gansu. The

participants paid a visit to Tibetan Elementary School in Tibetan Autonomous

District at an latitude of over 3, 000 meters. In a poor natural and economic

contexts, the Elementary School serve as a multi-functional and, a cultural center.

In Jiangsu the participants see the differences and gaps in rural education

between different regions. Agricultural technology, in Siyang Agricultural

Vocational high School accelerates rapid development of rural vocational education. 2


Advanced teaching equipments, computer rooms, the electronics lab, and the

physics, chemistry and biology laboratories are impressive. Young plants, apple

experimental farm, green houses, large-scale pig raising farm, the rabbit warren

embody the true concept of rural vocational education for rural development.

1.6 Thesis Presentation After over a months’ training and field visit, the trainees have a better

knowledge of rural education in theories and experiences. Based on the conditions in

their own countries, each trainee completed a thesis on a certain theme in rural

education. On April 10, 1999 a formal session for thesis presentation and comments

was organized in INRULED Nanjing and all the trainees at the First Advanced

Workshop on Theory and Development Strategies for Rural Education made

presentations.

II. Theories on Rural Education

2.1 Definition of Rural Education

In a broad sense, rural education is defined as the education for rural

population fostering rural economic and social development in order to constantly

raise agricultural productivity and promote urbanization of rural areas. For many

developing countries, rural education can be defined as education for rural people to

obtain knowledge and working skills, awareness of modern citizenship and

entrepreneur skills at the transitional phase from agricultural to industrial civilization

when rural and urban areas coexist and farmers are under disadvantaged conditions.

Source: Chen Jingpu, Introduction to Rural Education

2.2 Major Challenges in Rural Education Major problems of human progress found in those areas (namely rural areas) of

the world are: high infant mortality, lack of education opportunity, little literacy

education, short life-span. The others were shortage of equipment for health care,

lack of knowledge of environmental protection and portable water and low housing

standard. It is estimated that the rural population can only have half the public 3

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medical and health care and safe portable water and one quarter of sanitary

equipment compared with urban population. The educated section takes up 98 % of

the total population in industrialized countries, 60 % in developing countries and only

37% in the least developed countries. The percentage of primary school dropouts is

as high as 60% in the least developed countries, 39 % in developing countries and

only 11% in industrial countries.

Source: Work Report at the International Symposium of Rural Education in

Developing Countries UNESCO, June, 1991

2.3 Purpose of Rural Education - - Rural population gain knowledge and working skills through education. This is

the cultural precondition to the elimination of ignorance and poverty among rural

people. Ignorance is brought about by backwardness in culture. ” In rural areas,

economic poverty usually results from cultural poverty. ” This is a conclusion made

by Professor Lu Jie after her investigation into some poor villages. She says, ” It is

necessary for everyone, including children, youngsters and adults, to have the

opportunity of education to meet their basic needs for learning. These needs include

basic means of study such as reading, writing, oral expression, calculation and

solution of questions, and basic contents of study such as knowledge, skills, values

and attitude. These contents and means are necessary for people to survive, fully

develop their abilities, live and work in dignity, participate in development as much

as they can, improve the quality of their own life, make wise decisions and carry on

their study. The categories and methods of basic learning vary in different countries,

cultures and times. ”

- - Rural population acquire the modem citizenship awareness, which is the mark

of personality and political precondition to the development of rural people. The

character refers to the combination of all the characteristics of human nature,

temperament and ability. Character education includes not only the process of

cultivating an individual’s good nature and moral standard of behavior but also the

process of developing one ’ s sense of citizenship such as justice and obligation.

- - Rural population obtain the capability of starting new undertakings, which 4

I ---. I ..--. .*._--..-..-l~.

FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP FOR RURAL, EDUCATION

forms a motive mechanism in rural people’ s self-development in adaptation to

economic and social reforms. In the International Symposium on Education For the

21st Century held in Beijing in December 1989, UNESCO suggested that students

should obtain “the third certificate of learning, namely the certificate of enterprising

spirit and entrepreneurship. It requires education of enterprising spirit and

entrepreneurship to be raised to the same level as the education for academic and

vocational certificates at present. Its aims are cultivation of skills in thinking,

planning, cooperation, exchange, organization, solution of questions, follow-up and

estimation. ”

2.4 Nature of Rural Education Rural education has some distinctive features: It is an education of

enlightenment in both scientific and technological culture, and humanist culture in

the new era. It is a universal basic education, education for all disadvantaged

population in the disadvantaged areas, and a kind of entrepreneur education that can

help rural people and society get rid of poverty and go on a track of sustained

development.

Priority Target

Rural education, carried on in the rural areas of developing countries, is

therefore the essential form to meet the goals set by UNESCO in elementary

education, literacy education, girls ’ and women ’ s education and special needs

education. Rural education can be regarded as the educational task set by the

international community to gain human development and sustained economic and

social development with a focus on the people who are in the urgent need of

education under the most difficult conditions.

Priority Strategies

Elimination of cultural poverty and economic poverty will result in greater

success in both cultural and economic achievements that could bring forth a new life

for rural people. Although East Asia has achieved an admirable 6% to 10%

economic growth rate for years, some of the Southern Asian countries fell behind

and became the least developed countries in the world. According to A Report of the 5

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World Education by UNESCO in 1995, only fifty percent of the male and twenty-

five percent of the female population can read and write in Pakistan and Bengal. In

India, only sixty-six percent of the male and thirty-eight percent of the female

population can read and write. Despite of a remarkable educational progress in East

Asia, the gender difference in educational attainment is becoming greater. It is

obvious that economic growth and human progress, if any success is to be expected,

must in the long run advance simultaneously. Therefore, rural areas in the

developing countries should start with enlightenment.

Secondly, the enlightenment today gives publicity to democracy and the legal

system, and to learning to live together as well. Special concern must be given to the

poor, school-age children deprived of education, school-age girls, women and the

disabled for their rights and opportunities of being educated, and to their personality

development.

Basic Education as a Passport for Future Life

The basic education for children can be defined as ( formal or informal)

enlightenment education. This kind of education will be in principle for children

from age three to age twelve. Basic education is a necessary passport to future life,

which can give every person the right to choose his or her future occupation, to

participate in building his or her collective future and to continue his or her study.

Basic education is also of vital importance in eliminating unequal phenomena such as

sex discrimination and so on, or the inequality between countries. In order to reduce

the pain brought by illiteracy to women, rural residents, poor people in urban areas,

minority people and millions of child laborers without any education, basic education

is the first step that must be taken.

Source: Learning: The Treasure Within.

Jacques Hallak of the International Institute for Educational Planning believes

that basic education is education at an initial level that calls for official entry, and the

comer-stone of the whole educational system. The definition of basic education is

flexible enough to cover (i) a minimum number of years of education in which a

beneficiary is expected to obtain, and ( ii ) the maximum number of years of

education that a government can afford to provide for all or most of its citizens. The

World Conference on Education for All calls for the establishment of a comprehensive 6


system of basic education which includes preschool education, primary education,

literacy education for youth and adults and the survival skill training for them which

gives priority to the least advantaged people. Primary education must be

universalized to meet the basic learning needs of all children, which should take into

account community culture, needs and opportunity.

Source: The World Declaration on Education for All

2.5 Entrepreneur Education for Poverty Alleviation and Sustained Development

Entrepreneur Education

“Learning to care” was suggested as a call to the reform of education at the

International Symposium on Education Towards 21st Century held in Beijing, 1989.

Against this background, Mr. Colin N. Power put forward the issue of entrepreneur

education.

Entrepreneur skills are the strong practical ability conceived, developed and

improved in practical activities. They are integrated skills with entrepreneur

practices as the key to its formation. Its creative features, embodied in the self-

development and self-realization process, are of great social value and significance.

Entrepreneur skills are an operation format closely connected with individual

inclination and characters that have emotional quality and willpower. They are a

stable psychological mode formed with the classification and generalization of

knowledge and skills that will be transferred and spread widely in new activities and

environments, thus bringing impact upon the manner, pace and efficiency of

activities.

Source: Mao Jiarui, Peng Gang, and Chen Jingpu, Some Issues in

Entrepreneur Education. From Education Research, No. 1 1992.

2.6 Functions of Rural Education II Rural education promotes the development of rural people

- - Improving the physical quality of the rural population

- - Developing awareness of health

- - Informing about basic knowledge of healthy life

- - Training rural people in the skills of pursuing healthy life


0 Eliminating the cultural poverty of the rural population

In a broader sense, human resource exploitation refers to educating, training

and utilizing the internal potentials of human beings ,W as to bring about social

progress and economic development. According to the definition of UNDP, human

resource exploitation has five ’ stimulating components ’ : education, health and

nutrition, environment, employment, political and economic freedom. Four of these

’ stimulating components’ are interrelated and interdependent, whereas education is

the base of all four. It is the most basic factor in the promotion of health and

nutrition, in the maintenance of a high-quality environment, in the development and

improvement of labor reserve forces, and in the preservation of political and

economic responsibilities.

II Rural education promotes the development of rural economy

- - The approach of rural education in amplifying economic function

Rural education, to rural people personally, increases their participating

opportunities in economic production. The popularization of rural education, to the

broad masses of rural population, is equal to the spread of numerous economic

participating opportunities. -- The implementation of rural education enables rural people to form an

adventurous and creative concept and the operating skills through participation in

new opportunities of economic development. Undoubtedly, it will help them to

transform opportunities of economic development from potentiality into reality,

cl Rural education promotes the development of rural society

The new concept of development is the “sustained development”. The function

of rural education in rural social development should also be premised on promoting

the reform of rural society, promoting the harmony and sustained development of

various factors, such as rural population, environment, urban and rural

relationships, building of democracy and the legal system, etc.

- - Sustained reproduction of rural education and the rural population

The key factor of rural education’s sustained development : It is not only the integral

part of welfare but also a factor in welfare development, through interrelation of 8


various factors like population, economy and society. Various factors of the

sustained reproduction of education and population have a close relationship with the

decrease of nationality, morbidity, and mortality, the increase of population quality,

and the promotion of population migration.

- - Promoting the sustained development of the natural environment,

First is broadcasting the knowledge of environmental protection.

Second is fostering the consciousness of protecting the natural ecological

environment.

Third is training rural people’ s skills of environmental protection.

0 Rural education promotes the harmonious development of urban and rural areas

Disparities between urban and rural areas are the premise of the existence of

rural problems including rural education.

- - Rural education promotes rural industrial reform.

- - Rural education promotes the rational cross-regional flow of rural population.

- - Rural education promotes the urbanization of rural areas and the modernization

of rural life.


ZAMBIA

Part Two: Theses of Trainees

Rural Educational Reform and Strategies for the Development of School Education: The Zambian Experience

By Ndawambi Daka

I. Introduction Rural educational reform and strategies for the development of school education

is quite a comprehensive field of study that is related with a wide range of contents

and far-reaching scope. In this paper, Zambia ’ s efforts in the development of a

sound and efficient system of education have been discussed. Starting with a brief

outline of Zambia’ s colonial and missionary educational history and how it proved

inadequate to meet the country ’ s manpower needs after independence, the paper

describes the implementation of various development strategies designed to alleviate

such shortages both in the short and long terms.

That Zambia managed to rapidly expand and integrate its school system, at the

same time made the education offered relevant to Zambia’s unique needs is a story of

success of which the country can rightly be proud of. At the same time “Morework

and much harder work, remains to be done! ” This paper therefore also presents

insights into the nature of remaining problems and their possible solutions.

Literature reviewed in this paper includes various resolutions and action

programmes on the problems of development of school education, various documents

about educational reform and strategies presented in government ministries and

practical experiences of their implementation. The reasoning and applicability of

fundamental school education concepts are proved through the study of historical

experiences and lessons.

10

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II. Background Both history and past scientific studies on education have helped shape current

thinking on the development of school education in Zambia.

2.1 Traditional Education

The people living in where is today called Zambia had evolved their own system

of education long before Europeans penetrated the African continent. Indeed, the

security and well-being of any tribal community depended on the efficacy of training

given to its members from infancy to adulthood. Traditional education was

essentially practical training which was designed to enable the individual member to

play a useful role in society. It is true that the skills of reading, writing and

mathematical computation as we know them today were not part of traditional

education; buit the role of traditional education was vital, and in fact, indispensable

for the smooth integration of growing children into society. Therefore, to the extent

that traditional instruction made a contribution to the preparation of boys and girls

for living in society, it was in every sense true education.

Traditional education varied from tribe to tribe, both in content and the

methods used, as these were determined largely by nature of the environment. For

example, in a predominantly pastoral community much of the training of the boys

upon herding cattle. On the other hand, among the lakeshore or island dwellers

living on fishing the boys were provided with the training of such skills as making

nets, fish-traps and canoes. In both situations, the growing child was required to

serve his community and appreciate the interdependence of its members. However

divergent the content and methods of traditional education among tribes, training

had one common aim; it was meant to preserve the cultural heritage of the tribe. In

this context tradition education sought to adapt the young generation to their

physical environment so that they could use it fruitfully for their own benefit and

that of the community.

In tribal society all reasonable persons of any age group assumed some

responsibility for training children in specific skills or in promoting their

understanding of the laws and customs of the tribe. However, parents were

generally responsible in collaboration with their own grown-up children and close 11


relatives, for educating their offspring, more especially during the years of its

infancy.

Formal instructions in conduct were given to boys during their initiation, a

period when they were secluded from normal life of society and subjected to severe

tests of courage and physical endurance, hornest and sense of responsibility before

they were allowed to enter the ranks of adulthood. Education and training was also

given to girls when they reached the age of puberty. They were secluded for a period

of time, and, according to Elizabeth Colson, sometimes for as long as three to four

months among “the Plateau Tonga”. The place of seclusion could be regarded as a

school in which the final instructions were given concerning their responsibilities in

adulthood-responsibilities, which had direct relevance to their marital life in future.

One of tragic consequences of Western culture and civilization upon African

traditional life has been its corrosive effect. Today much of what was good and

useful in African traditional life has disappeared. The emphasis which traditional

education placed on proficiency of individual in the practical skills, hut building, net-

making, blacksmithing, pottery or even doctoring, was intended to illustrate the

interdependence of individual members of the community. Above all the growing

child’ s traditional education stressed at every stage the importance of strict

adherence to the accepted moral code. Few missionaries who started schools at the

turn of the nineteenth century in various parts of Africa held a broad view of

education. To them only skills of writing and reading constituted education.

Therefore, they did not only disdain African tradition but they discouraged its

practice except in a very few instances. Their opportunity to develop a complete and

wholesome educational system, incorporating the best that was practised in

traditional training, was missed at least for a long period of time.

2.2 Early Education Establishments During the period from 1882 to 1905 there was intense missionary activity

which led to the establishment of several mission stations throughout Zambia. The

basic motive, which prompted early missionaries to establish mission stations in

Zambia, was evangelisation of the indigenous people, their conversion to the

Christian faith and reclamation of their lives. The provisions of schools and

educational facilities by the missionaries were merely complementary to their much- 12


desired objectives of increasing the numbers of their Christian followers. With very

few notable exceptions, very little was done by the early missionaries to stress the

importance of education for its own sake. Recruitment of pupils was quite difficult

and sustaining the interests of the pupils who were eventually enrolled was even

more difficult because the school environment was neither inspiring nor sufficiently

organised to provide truly worth while and interesting occupation for pupils.

Instructions in village schools were given under the open sky, or within a grass

shelter, or under the shade of a tree, except at some schools where mud-and-pole

classrooms were provided. Absenteeism in village schools was the order of the day,

which made some missionaries adopt some incentives for some pupils in the form of

part-time employment for very little pay.

The early days of educational development in Northern Rhodesia were difficult.

Before 1928, there were few, if any, in fact hardly any qualified indigenous teachers

who were capable of delivering effectively the three R’s and Bible knowledge because

opportunities for obtaining a reasonably satisfactory education had been severely

limited. Therefore, whereas education was effective at mission stations, in the

village schools the level of education was generally ineffective and completely

unsatisfactory. Also teachers’ pay was poor and conditions of service unsatisfactory.

School equipment in the form of chalk, desks and other educational requirements

were either in short supply or unavailable. The poor quality of education was

recognized by the missionaries who wished to improve the level of educational work

but improvement was difficult to achieve without the necessary funds and support

from the central administration - - the British South African Company.

In spite of the early difficulties and problems of educational development, a

fairly widespread educational system had been established in Zambia by 1924 when

the British Government assumed direct responsibility for the administration. Of the

estimated number of 200,000 Af rican children for whom educational provision was

required at the end of 1923, only about 50,000 were in any kind of school. Only

600 out of that 50,000 were in non-mission schools. Along side with the missionary

schools, the Colonial government had also established governmenal schools. In

contrast to the restricted, inadequately financed system of education for Africans in

Northern Rhodesia, European education was more efficiently organized and more

adequately provided with funds during the Colonial government’ s control of the 13

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territory. Rigid separations of races in education were enforced. There were separate

schools for Africans, separate schools for Asians and Coloureds, and segregatory

schools for Europeans. All these schools formed watertight racial compartments of

education. With very few exceptions, European schools were generally superior to

schools built for other races in terms of staff qualifications, school buildings,

equipment and facilities for sport and the welfare of pupil’s.

Missionary educators were the pioneers in providing vocational training in

Northern Rhodesia. Besides teaching the three R’ s and religion work in schools,

learning in carpentry, building, agriculture and other manual-work also formed a

significant part of the curriculum. In agricultual learning, the importance of

combining theoretical instruction with practical demonstration in the gardens was

emphasized. Teachers ’ training was also an important form of post-primary

education for Africans, especially before secondary education was firmly introduced

in 1939.

The educational scene in Northern Rhodesia was dominated by the missions

almost to the date of independence in 1964.

2.3 The Problem of 1964 Due to shortcomings of the Colonial Government’ s educational policy in

Northern Rhodesia, Zambia’s problems about human resouces were very serious on

the eve of independence in 1964. Compared with other Brtish independent

territories, Zambia was under unfavourable condition in terms of available local

educated human resources. While Zambia could count only 1,200 Zambians with full

certificate in 1964, Ghana had reached this target before 1943, at least fourteen

years before her independence. Kenya and Tanzania had attained this target in 1957

and 1960 respectively. The number of university graduates was pitifully small at the

end of 1964, estimated at about one hundred.

Apart from the problem of shortage of human resonrces, the inadequate

educational system, the uneven distribution of educational facilities and the

disparities in educational opportunities throughout the country encouraged young

people to migrate from rural area to urban areas. It was not possible to make major

reform in 1964 before considering, with care, certain minor issues and finding

appropriate solutions. The immediate expansion of secondary schools and revising 14


procedures for recruitment of foreign teachers for secondary schools and other post

primary institutions were imperative. The heavy dependence upon expatriate

teachers in secondary schools inevitably increased the cost of education. More serious

was the problem of curriculum content at primary school as it was largely foreign

with very little relevance to the African children’ s environment. Many textbooks,

too, were unsuitable. This situation applied to secondary schools because senior

secondary schools were geared to meet the requirements of external examinations.

Facilities for adult education were not only inadequate but also unevenly distributed

in the country. The problem of girls’ education, the poor standard of rural primary

schools’ buildings, classrooms and teachers ’ houses and etc. added to the grave

difficulties, which confronted the new government at the beginning of 1964.

III. The Growth of Education after Independence

When UNIP came to power in 1964, among its educational priorities were the

elimination of racial segregation in schools, expansion of educational provision and

achievement of rapid output of high-level human resources. In order to implement

these priorities, a number of bold decisions had been taken. The structure and

organization of the educational system were changed; tuition and boarding fees were

abolished; the capacity of the system was substantially increased and governmental

expenditure on education services increased at unprecedented rates.

3.1 Quantitative Education Developments, 1964 - 1990

During the period 1964 - 1990, Zambia made great strides in the provision of

facilities for formal in-school education. From the colonial situation where access to

education beyond the most elementary level had been available for only a few,

educational opportunities at all levels expanded at a very rapid rate. The enrolment

in primary schools increased fourfold in the period 1964 to 1990, growing at an

average annual rate of 5.5 % . Secondary school enrolment increased by more than

twelvefold in twenty-five years, growing at an average rate of more than 10. 5 %

annually throughout these years. In 1990, there was room in the primary schools for

approximately 9 out of 10 children of school-going age while 1 out of every 4 could 15

_.


proceed to secondary school. In terms of numbers there were 1.452 million children

enrolled in primary schools in 1990, of whom approximately 47 % were girls; at the

secondary school level there were some 170,000 enrolled, of whom 38 % were girls.

At higher levels of education, two universities were established and in contrast

with the frequently lamented figure of over 100 graduates at the time of

independence the country enjoys an annual output of approximately 900 university-

trained individuals in a wide variety of disciplines and fields. The education sector’s

own needs are met by an annual output of some 1, 800 trained teachers from 11

colleges for primary school and 550 qualified secondary school teachers from the

University of Zambia and other institutions. A coordinated policy of training in

technical and vocational areas was adopted in 1960s and followed through in the

following years, with formal pre-service and in-service training.

But the rapid numerical expansion of education was not maintained after 1985.

Primary school enrolments, which had grown by almost 30 % in the period 1980 -

1985, increased by less than 10% in 1985 - 1990. The deterioration was even more

marked in grade one, where enrolments grew by more than 35 % in 1980 - 1985 but

less than 21% in 1985 - 1990.

This slowing down of rate occurred because strategies adopted in 1975 to

increase the enrolment by more intensive use of existing facilities through double

sessions and excessively large classes was not accompanied with additional

investment. Therefore in 1990, approximately 190,000 children of primary school

age could not find places in schools. The problem was more serious in Lusaka and

rural areas where only three-quarters and two-thirds of the school-aged children were

enrolled in primary schools respectively.

3.2 Issues of Quality and Finance The qualitative and quantitative problems that beset educational provision can

be attributed to the declining level of public resources for education and in part to

structural deficits in the way of funds for the sector teing utilisedp. The proportion

of public funds devoted to the education sector dropped from 13.8 % in 1981- 1985

to 9. 8% in 1987 - 1991. Th’ is severe drop occurred when the system was still

expanding numerically, even if at a decreasing rate than earlier years. In 1980.

K269.5 million was spent on the educational needs of 1.15 million students of all 16


kinds. While in 1989, K151 million was spent on the needs of 1. 65 million

students: while the total number of students increased by half a million. The global

expenditure decreased by K118.5 million. The diagram below brings out clearly the

increasing enrolments and declining expenditures.

Equally low levels of spending on recurring departmental charges matched the

low level of investment for the sector’ s infrastructure. From 1980, a significantly

large proportion of the recurrent education budget was devoted to personal

emoluments for staff (97 % at primary level in 1991)) boarding and students welfare

(over 97% in 1989), and university students allowances. Between 1988 and 1990,

the proportion spent in this way accounted for more than one-fifth of all educational

expenditures. Consequently, limited resources were availlible for supplying

institutions with and other educational materials, for carrying out necessary

maintenance and repairs, and for providing* the system back up and the monitoring

of inspectors and others. The result of this was the decline in the levels of students’

achievements. In other words, the price that was paid for quatitative developments

was serious deterioration in the quality of education.

IV. Strategies for Development of School Education

4.1 The Nature of Zambian Society

Zambia is evolving into a new kind of society inspired by democratic values and

by fundamental respect for dignity and rights for all human beings. In the face of

grave economic problems it is seeking to ensure increased justice, liberty and equality

for all by facilitating living conditions worthy of human dignity. This new society is

a co-operative and developing venture of individuals and groups in which each one

grows with the opportunity to be fully-developed human and each one accepts

responsibility for promoting the human development of others.

4.2 The Aim and Goals of the Zambian Education System The fundamental aim of the school system in Zambia is to promote the integral,

harmonious development of the physical, intellectual, affective, moral and spiritual

endowment of all students so that they can develop into complete persons for their 17


personal fulfilment and for the common good of the society of which they are already

members and in which they share responsibilities as adults.

In the circumstances of Zambian society today, it necessitates a thorough and

sound intellectual formation; an appreciation for the achievements and traditions of

the past; a careful and critical study of the social and physical sciences and

technology; the development of the imaginative, affective and creative dimensions of

each student; the development of important character traits and a personal sense of

moral values; an appreciation of the importance of work in human development; and

provision of a substantial and systematic preparation for adult life.

In attaining these goals, the schools education has the following tasks:

To help all students to become independent learners and to assume responsibility

for their own education. The curriculum should be centred on the student rather

than on the material to be covered, promoting active students’ participation rather

than passive reception;

To awaken the individual’s political consciousness so that the student become

increasingly aware of the existence of social power and its components and of the

forces working in schools, the local community and the nation. The student-centred

teaching will encourage students to express their own ideas freely and to be tolerant

of the views of others thereby fostering democratic virtue of respect for others,

whatever their race, tribe, age, gender, religion, educational background, or social

and economic status;

To give all young people rigorous training in fundamental communication and

numeracy skills so that their capacity for subsequent education and training is

enhanced ;

To foster in all members of the education community the deep conviction that

every human being has a dignity which is independent of gender and which reflects

the individual’s unique inner worth. In particular, it must seek to eliminate every

practice and attitudes which demeans, excludes or under-represents women and girls

or which shows itself more favourable to men and boys;

At the time when the earth’s resources are being damaged or dissipated through

wasteful practices, deforestation, soil erosion, over-fishing, atmospheric, soil and

water pollution, and other human practices, the education system has the task of

instilling a reverence for creation as encountered in one ’ s own environment and a 18


desire to participate maintaining a healthy ecological balance. Only then will the

earth become fruitful for the generation to come;

To ensure that the living cultural tradition of Zambia are safeguarded from

further erosion and that opportunity is provided for their enrichment and

refinement, the education system will encourage a healthy appreciation for one’ s

own and other’s cultures by giving prominent role to local languages, expressions,

rites, symbols and art.

4.3 Adjustments in Policies Affecting Education Transformations in Zambia ’ s sociopolitical structures and economic

developments in the direction of trade liberalization and the market have had their

impact on the education sector. Arising from the changed socio-political and

economic environment, there have been some major adjustments in educational

policies and strategies.

The most significant changes concern the provision and financing of education.

Until recently, the view prevailed that the government should be the principal

provider of educational services. The attitude towards voluntary agencies and private

providers was one of benevolent tolerance. Although the government expressed

appreciation for the education contributions of voluntary agencies, Educational

Reform (1977) effectively marginalised these bodies when it stated that the ultimate

goal was that the state should make educational provision for everyone.

But the thinking expressed in official government documents has changed in

recent years. The Interim National Development Plan (INDP, 1987) stated clear

terms that “the responsibility for the education of children rests primarily with

parents and it is they who must ultimately provide educational services. ” The

recognition of parents’ rights and responsibilities has led to a clear understanding of

the community’s role in all that concerns education. Consequently there has been

development towards more pluralism in educational provision. In principle,

beneficiaries are now expected to make major contributions to boarding and similar

costs, although in practice their contribution remains minimal in relation to the total

costs. But manifestly, the principle of cost sharing has been accepted. What remains

to be seen is whether it will be applied in a cost-effective manner where it is already

in operation and whether it can be extended to areas such as tuition and book cost in 19


secondary schools.

4.4 Priorities in the Delivery of School Education National policy statements have expressed the need to give more priority to

primary education. This priority is based on equity, social, economic and

educational grounds. The social benefits that primary education brings are

impressive. Child mortality rates of educated mothers are lower than those of

mothers without education, while women with a full primary education tend to have

fewer children than those with incomplete or no education. Children of educated

parents are more likely to enrol in schools and to complete more years of schooling

than children of uneducated parents. The primary school is a major agency in

inculcating new attitudes, values and ways of behaviour, and in opening up the

minds of students to new ideas and methods. Those who have completed primary

school are likely to be more active in community affairs and to participate more

dynamically in the process of change and development than those who have little or

no education. The economic benefits of primary education are also positive. There is

abundant evidence to show that primary education promotes agricultural productivity

and that, in relation to the amount invested, the returns from primary education are

very much higher than those from secondary and high education. There is also

increasing evidence to show that countries that invested more heavily in improving

the quality of primary education have made greater economic progress than those

which invested less, while evidence from across the world bears out that providing

the poor with primary education is a key approach to the eradication of poverty.

The education grounds for concentrating on primary education are that it is at

this level that the foundations are laid for further education and training.

Performance in secondary schools will obviously improve with better graduates from

primary schools and as this improvement works its way up to higher levels, the

entire education and training system benefits. On the other hand, when quality is

poor at the lower levels, considerable resources must be spent at each level

remedying the deficiencies carried forward from the lower level.

“Poor primary schools compromise the entire system of human capital

development. They produce graduates who are poorly prepared for secondary and

tertiary education and ill equipped for life-long learning. The consequence is an 20


insufficient number of truly educated managers, workers and parents who can

efficiently contribute to development” .

Republic of Zambia, Ministry of E&cation, Educational Reform Proposals

and Recommendations, Government Printers, October, 1977, P. 77

A further consideration that is of importance in the universalization of primary

education is that the more -widespread primary education becomes, the greater is its

positive impact on agricultural productivity, fertility and nutrition. Individuals

appear to find it difficult to adopt new practices, even beneficiaries, if they are

foreign to the society to which they belong. If primary education is to realise its full

potential in bringing social and economic benefits, it must be spread to every sector

of the community and be universalised.

These equity, social, economic and educational considerations justify the high

priority that is now being accorded to the expansion and improvement of the primary

sub-sector. But it should be clearly understood that priority to primary schools does

not mean neglect of secondary schools or higher-level institutions. The priority to

primary education must be viewed in the context of an integrated education system

and of qualitative improvements at all levels. But for the reasons already outlined,

and because there has been so much neglect in the past, more detailed attention and

more generous support will be given to the enhancement of quality at the primary

level.

4.5 The Investment Priorities for the Education Sector Confronted with the evidence for a growing crisis in education, the Zambian

Government has set as its most general educational investment priority “to reversing

the decline in the quality of and access to education that has resulted from the

difficult economic situation” . More specifically, it “has set as its principal goal to

reorient public expenditure towards primary education”. It is also the governmental

policy, as a part of the economic restructuring programme, to increase the current

departmental charges for education (and other social sector areas), thereby reducing

the proportion that must go to salary payments. Public documents have also

expressed concern in the proportion between public spending per student at the

university and in primary schools and have expressed the intention of rectifying this

imbalance by requiring university students to pay more of their personal and tuition 21


costs. Implementation of the policies that have been enunciated would see an

increase in the volume of public resources devoted to the education sector, and

within the sector, a recognition of commitment would remedy the structural defects

that prevented funds being used in ways that respond to national priorities and the

objective of the sector.

Within the policy framework of according highest priority to the quantitative

and qualitative development of primary schools, the following strategies will be

adopted :

The necessary human, material and financial resources will be provided for the

physical expansion, development and rehabitation of primary schools and, to the

extent necessitated by these developments, of the primary teacher training colleges;

Emphasis will be put on schools as institutions where students are suppose1 to

learn and teachers are suppose1 to teach. This will entail completed by: providing

educational materials, textbooks, supplementary readers and library books to

primary schools; improving the quality of the pre-service teacher’ s education and

promoting the on-going professional development of serving teachers; reforming the

secondary selection examination; developing and facilitating the professional and

managerial competence of primary school heads, school inspectors and education

officers; improving the overall management, organisation and planning capacities

within the education sector as a whole; and fostering the community’s demand in

primary education by curriculum improvements and measures to the special needs of

disadvantaged groups.

At the secondary level, priority in the allocation of resources will be given to

the physical rehabitation of classrooms, laboratories and specialist rooms ; the

provision of textbooks, library books, and other educational materials; re-equipping

science laboratories and providing consumables ; improving the professional and

managerial competence of school heads; facilitating the professional activities of

school inspectors +

v. Concluding Remarks Implementation of these strategies requires considerably more information of the

educational sector than what is presently available. Sufficient information is lacking 22


in such areas as the employment and the use of primary school teachers; the number

and use of non-teaching staff in secondary schools; the physical state of primary

schools and the extent of rehabitation programme that needs to be undertaken. Data

are also need for teacher ’ s accommodation needs in the rural areas. High priority

must be accorded to filling this information gap and to developing a management and

information system that will provide a sound basis for educational planning.

National resources alone will not suffice to meet all the needs of primary sub-

sector. Hence, there will be a continuing need for aid from abroad to supplement

national resources and efforts to revitalize and develop primary education and effect

substantive qualitative improvements in secondary schools.

References 1. J. M. Mwanakatwe, The growth of education in Zambia Since Independence,

Oxford University Press (1974)

2. Republic of Zambia, Ministry of Education, Education Reform Proposals and

Recommendations, Government Printers, October, 1977

3. Republic of Zambia, Ministry of Education, Focus on Learning Strategies for

the Development of School Education in Zambia, Government Printers May,

1992

4. Republic of Zambia, Ministry of Education Annual Reports, Government

Printers

5. Republic of Zambia, Second National Development Plan, Government Printers

(1971)

6. Republic of Zambia, First National Development Plan, Government Printers

(1966 - 1970)) Government Printers (1966)

23


NAMIBIA

Education of Reform and Educational Development in Rural Areas in Namibia

By G. Kauna Ekandjo .

I. Introduction and Background Namibia is a large country with a total population estimated at 1.6 million. In

1990, Namibia achieved its independence from South Africa and has changed its

image to a multi-party democratic country. After Independence, the Namibian

government inherited an education system characterized by fragmentation along

racial and ethnic lines, unequal access to education and training, irrelevance of

curriculum and a lack of democratic participation within the educational system.

Three separate educational systems were introduced by the colonial government, one

for the Whites, one for the Blacks and another for the Coloreds with huge gaps and

unequity between them. School attendance for the Whites and the Coloreds was

compulsory whereas most Blacks had no access to education. According to the

Human Development Report of 1992, it was estimated that 60% of the adult

population were illiterates. @ At the same time, in the early 1990s it was estimated

that more than 400, 000 Namibian young adults were functionally illiterate. o

According to the 1991 Namibia National Census, 21% of the unemployed aged 15

and over had no schooling while 78 % had just primary or junior secondary

education. Only 1% of the unemployed had senior secondary or university

education. o In 1992, it was noted that over half of the teachers in Namibia had not

attained the required credentials that could match with their positions. 60

It is also a recognized fact that the country’s rural areas share the fundamental

characteristics of underdevelopment and widespread poverty which has led to

complex interrelated problems. Key problems are of health and educational standards

due to inadequate availability of social services, health, education, and skill training

facilities. There is a high level of poverty due to a low level of food production. As a

result, most of the rural poor are affected by malnutrition. o Widespread 24

_I__-____- ----.- ._... _ -.-


unemployment is evident amongst the economically active population in most regions

as well as low levels of popular participation in local decision-making. On this

account, the development of education in Namibia should be understood based on its

historical context. Above all, the need for educational reform and educational

development in Namibia should be seen as playing a pivotal role in nation-building

and national cohesion.

II. Provision of Education after Independence The Namibian government is committed to endorsing the World Conference on

Education for All held in Jomtien, Thailand by the year 2000. @ Immediately after

Independence, the Namibian government, especially the Ministry of Education and

Culture, embarked upon a strategy which included a wide range of studies such as

indepth situation analysis with the assistance from individuals and various

institutions. These initiatives resulted in a theoretical framework, structure for the

new educational system as well as in a strategy for its implementation. To mention a

few, among the initiatives have been Basic Education Reform, Language Policy

Formulation, Junior Secondary Curriculum Reform, Teacher-in-service Training,

Literacy Programme Development and Distant Education. ’

2.1 Basic Education Reform

Practically, the government has embarked upon a policy document “Toward

Education for All”, which gives clear direction as to what the educational system has

set itself to achieve. @ For example, the government is committed to achieving 80 %

literacy by the year 2000. Other estimates on Namibia indicate that 80 - 85 % of

school-aged children begin primary school. @ As shown by the government ’ s

commitment to education for all, the Ministry of Education and Culture developed

and approved a common curriculum that intends to build on the learners’ needs and

social context; that promotes reconstruction of knowledge; that encourages active

learning and participation of the learner; that prepares the learners for the world of

work and that equip them with various skills and attitudes. @

25


2.2 Language Policy Formulation The government ’ s efforts have also been directed at building an equal and

democratic society. As a part of the reform process, in 1992, the Ministry of

Education and Culture launched a National Conference on the New Language Policy

Implementation which resulted in declaring English as an official national language

for Namibia. This initiative was based on the fact that, in the past, Afrikaans was

used to legitimise the inequalities of power and privileges by serving the colonial

administration. @ Although English has been officially declared as a national

language, all local languages are regarded equal. @

2.3 National Literacy Programme This programme is targeted towards meeting the needs among the youth and

adults who are functionally illiterate. The programme was officially launched in 1992

by the Department of Adult and Non-formal Education, Ministry of Education and

Culture. The initial programme enrollment was 15,000 participants with an annual

expansion and target enrollment of 80, 000. @ This justifies the move by the

government in rectifying the situation after it was estimated that 400,000 Namibians

were functionally illiterate. @ On the other hand , non-governmental organisations

are expected to reach a target of 10, 000 more participants through their literacy

programmes. l5 The programme aims at teaching English and local dialects as well as

setting up income-generating projects in order to promote and enhance the capacity

of adults for self-reliance.

2.4 Distance Education As a strategy, Distance Education is targeted mostly towards adults and young

adults who have already completed formal and non-formal education, and at the

same time, who seek to upgrade their skills. This area attracts a wider audience

from the society due to its flexibility. For example, learners can combine their work

and studies. The course content varies from English, in-service teacher education,

community management skills, etc. @

2.5 Continuing Education Continuing education accommodates learners who have basic literacy knowledge

26

-_- ^.., ~-_- . . -.-.~-


and who wish to continue with their education. Prior to Independence, the learners’

enrollments stood at 5, 000 and were drawn from 33 Continuing Education

Centres. Q

2.6 University of Namibia Established in 1992, the main objective of the University of Namibia is to

develop human resource and to advance education and research. Several institutions

of higher education have been established country-wide with the aim of providing

various courses and access to education of university. Higher education, in this

respect, is expected to produce competent expertise in areas of productivity,

advanced technology, teacher education, etc. @

2.7 Teacher Colleges The government successfully established Teachers’ Training Colleges in various

regions as well as The National Institute for Education Development( NIED) . NIED

aims at curriculum development and revision as well as teachers’ in-service training.

2.8 Polytechnic Education Coordinated efforts on polytechnic education are geared towards students who

have completed full secondary education. The Ministry of Education and Culture is

responsible for school curriculum design and non-formal education as well as technical

training. On the other hand, the Ministry of Labor and Manpower Development

takes on the responsibility of artisanry, etc. The Ministry of Agriculture and Water

Affairs provides formal agricultural education and training and in-service training for

extension workers. Generally, the content of training comprises technical services,

accounting, information systems, technical education, management and

administration, hotel and catering services, etc. @ Although the g ovemment ’ s major

role is to forge for strong cooperation and coordination among various institutions,

coordinated efforts seem to be lacking in some aspects of programme

implementation. Thus, most of the time, programmes are run in a fragmented

manner. @I

27

-- -------- -.-


III. Positive Aspects of Namibia’ s Educational Reform In pursuing the policy of “Education for All”, Namibia has set itself some major

goals based on access, equity, quality, and democracy. @ Expanded access towards

“Education for All” contains the provision of universal basic education and covers ten

years of general comprehensive education. The rationale is to expand capacity in

terms of school facilities, teaching staff, etc, and to consolidate equity in terms of

expanding equitable education to all. Affirmative action programmes are being

embarked on and they serve as a cornerstone in addressing discriminatory practices of

the past. @ Quality is geared towards the content of education as well as to teacher

training. In this sence, teachers are prepared to take on major responsibilities and to

develop their skills and expertise. A conducive environment is also created for

learners by improving the physical facilities. @ The cornerstone of the educational

system, on the other hand, is based on the principle of democracy. The

government’s commitment is to teach the rights and responsibilities of citizens and it

is believed that democracy would only function better with a literate community.

The government has committed itself to establishing networks of cooperation

and collaboration based on governmental minorities, non-governmental organistions,

international organisations, etc. The purpose of all these combined efforts involved

in education is to provide substantial capacity in the area of non-formal basic

education.

IV. Experiences/Lessons from China

With only nine years of Independence, the Namibian government continues to

show tremendous efforts towards educational reform and development. However,

the government still has got a long way to go in solving problems related to

education, especially with reference to rural education. However, the country can

learn and benefit from China’ s long experience with educationel reform and

education development. In this respect, China could serve as a good model for

Namibia on rural education and for sharing the same status as developing countries.

There are several reasons why Namibia needs to pursue and put more emphasis

on rural education. First, it is evident that Namibia’s major problems are related to 28


rural development due to the fact that most of the rural population is poor. Namibia

encounters problems such as inadequate availability of social services, health,

education, and skill training facilities; high levels of poverty related to low levels of

food production; widespread unemployment amongst economically active population

in most regions; and low levels of popular participation in local decision-making. @

Other related problems are that, with 64% of the population living in rural

areas in 1995, Namibia’s human poverty remains three times that of urban areas

with 35. 99% the urban population. @ Thus, the Hu m a n Poverty Index ( HP1 )

value for Namibia is rated at 30.0 % with ranking at 41 as compared to China, with

only a 17.1% HP1 value ranked at 16. @ In view of the above, China’s low HP1

value could be attributed to compulsory basic education coupled with a strong

political will which serves as a key to rural education and rural development. With a

total population estimated at 1.2 billion in 1997, China’ s adult illiteracy rate has

been lowered to 18.5 % as of 1995. @ Historically, just like Namibia, in the past,

China’s colonial educational system reinforced the nation of second-class citizenship

and favored the most privileged class. On the other hand, skills development was

neglected. In the period before 1949, China’s illiteracy rate topped 85 % of the total

population and 95 % in the rural areas@. This prompted New China to opt for a new

democratic educational system as a first step to educational reform which attracted

more workers and farmers.

China’ s leaders have shown a high political will and commitment. For

example, Mao Zedong strongly felt that “ when workers and farmers become

empowered politically and their lives has improvedt, they themselves and their

children become more eager to go to school and learn knowledge”. Thus, to him,

wiping out illiteracy among 80 % of the population is an important task in New

China. @a

As a strategy for rural education, in 1988, China introduced Integrated

Education Reforms for Rural Development as a National Programme. Emphasis is

put on the rural poor with less weight put on academic learning. Thus, China’s

rural education includes vocational and adult basic education, agricultural and

technical education with rural-based agrotechnology. Due to this strategy,

improvement has been noted in terms of technological and literacy levels. It is worth

noting that there is a strong combination between training practical skills with 29


. teaching of literacy skills and numerical knowledge. The rationale behind this

approach is to induce interest and to win the learners’ /farmers ’ enthusiasm for

participating in literacy programmes.

Extensive training courses are carried out in rural areas to prepare farmers for

new changes in technological fields such as in planting, farming, etc. More

emphasis is put on science and technology, and a series of techniques and methods

related to agriculture are demonstrated to the rural poor.

Strong linkages between agricultural colleges, technical bodies and grassroots

communities exist, especially for farmers. More interestingly, school technicians

and agricultural university professors are continuously in contact with the farmers.

Through their efforts, model agro-technical households have been identified and

established. Expert advice rendered is based on periodical on-site lectures, etc.

On the other hand, financing of rural education in China is mostly dependent on

inputs from the central government, local government, and individual donations.

The State Compulsory Education for the rural poor is the sole responsibility of the

central government whereas the development of middle and junior-level education

have been shifted to governments at provincial, prefecture, county, and township

levels . Special conditions have been attached to the appropriation of funds directed

towards rural education . For example , 70% or more of the project funds are to be

directed to the poorest counties as determined by the central government. ’ Also,

appropriated project funds are to be used for special purposes otherwise the actions

could be termed as illegal as well as criminal. (lecture notes ,7th April) . @

v. Considerations/Suggestions

In view of China’s progress, Namibia, as a developing country, could benefit

more in various ways. Areas of consideration are as follows:

A shared vision and strong political will are needed for success in rural

education. To accomplish this, through the policy of decentralization, greater

autonomy and responsibility should be given to local governments authorities for

decentralized development planning and management in educational matters as well .

as with the management of natural resources. Thus, local governments ’ main 30


responsibilities should be to bring together different sectors, governors, councillors,

teachers, extension workers and affected communities to share their vision on rural

development and education.

At the national level, priority should be given to long-term planning of linking

education and poverty eradication programmes in conjunction with local agencies.

Thus, there is a need for a national programme on the integrated education reform

for rural development. In this regard, the government’s coordinating role needs to

be strengthened in order to promote greater accountability of responsibilities.

Intense investment in education in poverty-stricken areas is needed in order to

ensure sustainability and to address regional disparities that exist regionally.

Higher institutions of learning such as universities and colleges should embark

upon integrated research with focus directed to rural areas. Research should strive

for new orientation toward technology education as well as vocational education in

order to serve as a breakthrough for restructuring no only rural development but the

rural educational system.

VI. Conclusion

In the Namibian context, educational reform and educational development in

rural areas should be understood in light of correcting the past imbalances and

reducing inequalities of access to education. Though in its infancy, the Namibian

government is committed to the principle of “Education for All. ” Close cooperation

with non-governmental organizations and the private sector is pursued to address

problems of rural poverty, unemployment, education, etc. Finally, building on

experiences accumulated over the past nine years of Independence, and experiences

from other developing countries, Namibia remains in a powerful position in

overcoming most of its problems. Thus,

to ensure that all its citizens benefit from

the government ’ s fundamental concern is

planned socioeconomic development.

Endnotes : 1. Human Development Report, 1992, United Nations Development Programme,

NY 31


2. Toward Education for All : A Development Brief for Education, Culture,

and Training, 1993, P. 102

3. National Census Statistics for Namibia, 1991

4. Same as in 2, P.75

5. The National Agricultural Policy of Namibia: Related Cross Sector-al Issues,

Rural and Regional Development, P. 42

6. Same as in4, PP.3,5

7. Same as in 6,P.20

8. Reform Forum, July 1996, P. 20

9. Same as in 7, P-72

lO.Same as in 8, P.20

11. Same as in 9, P. 65

12.Same as in 11

13. Same as in 12, P. 102

14. Same as in 13

15. Same as in 14

16. Same as in 15, P. 104

17. Same as in 16

18. Same as in 17, P. 109

19. Same as in 18, PP. 93,94,116 117

20. Same as in 19, P .94

21. Same as in 20, P . 67

22. Same as in 21

23. Same as in 22

24. Same as in 5, P.3

25. United Nations Statistics Division, 1997, United Nations Publications

26. Human Development Report, 1998, United Nations Publications

27. UNESCO Division of Statistics in 1994

28. Han Jialing, Historical Experiences in China ’ s Rural Education : A case

study of Leishan County

29. Sameas in 2S, P.3

30. Lecture notes

31. Lecture notes 32


GHANA

Rural Education as a Factor in Rural Development -the Ghanaian Perspective

By Jsaac Oppong Manu.

I. Background

Like most developing countries, Ghana is a predominantly agricultural country.

Its population in 1960 (three years after independence in 1957) was approximately 6

million. But due to the relatively high population growth rate, which now stands at

about 2. 9% per annual, the population of Ghana has increased to 18 million.

According to the 1998 UNDP Human Development Report, 64 % of Ghana’ s

population is rural, engaged in agriculture-related occupations.

Until the mid-1970’s Ghana had one of the most highly developed and effective

educational systems in West Africa. The economic decline of the 1970 ’ s however

deteriorated the educational system. Enrolment rates, once the highest in Sub-

Saharan Africa, stagnated or fell, apparently due to quality decline. The percentage

of GDP allocated to education dropped from 6.4 % to 1.5 % in 1984. Government

resources were no longer available to construct, complete, or maintain educational

facilities. At the same time, foreign exchange dried up, preventing the purchase of

textbooks and other essential instructional materials. There was a mass exodus of

trained teachers to other countries, and at the basic education level the ratio of

trained to untrained teachers fell significantly.

By the mid-1980’s it had become evident that the quality of education provided

in the school system had deteriorated considerably and this had adversely affected the

quality of manpower produced. The school curriculum, had lost its relevance to the

social cultural and economic needs of the country and the duration of pre-university

education was too long and therefore not cost effective. Access to education had also

reduced considerably with an increasing drop-out rate. A significant 5. 6 million 33


adult Ghanaians were illiterate, representing about 30% of the population. To halt

this situation the Government initiated an Educational Reform Programme in 1987.

II. Educational Reforms

Given the long term vision of Ghana that by the year 2020 the country will

have achieved a balanced economy and a middle-income country status, there was

the need to enhance the quality of the country’s human resources. The decay in the

educational system was therefore incompatible with the country’s long term vision,

hence the need for reforms.

Under the reforms all children of school-going age are to attend school under

the formal sector educational programme known as “the Free, Compulsory and

Universal Basic Education ( FCUBE ) ” . The educational structure up to pre-

university level has been changed from 10: 5 : 2 ( ie 10 Years elementary, 5 years

secondary and 2 years senior high school ) to 6 : 3 : 3. This new structure has reduced

the pre-university school years from 17 to 12 years. Out of the 12 years the basic

schooling covers 9 years ( Primary and Junior Secondary School [ J . S. S ] level >

which is compulsory.

A curriculum enrichment programme was introduced which made sure that

students are taught subjects relevant to the nation’s needs. New textbooks using

Ghanaian situation and examples were written to enhance the reform programme.

A functional literacy programme was also initiated and the Non-Formal

Education Division (NFED) of the Ministry of Education was established in 1992

with the aim of reducing the illiteracy rate within a decade and helping the 5. 6

million illiterates to become functionally literate by the year 2000.

III. Funding of Projects

In addition to Government’ s own funding, substantial donor support was

received from International agencies. The World Bank credit of US $65.1 million

and International Development Agency ( IDA) support of US $200 million helped

greatly in carrying out the reforms. The reform programme which runs through the 34


entire educational system, from basic and secondary to tertiary and adult literacy,

involves changes in structure and content and aims at improving access , equity and

quality of teaching and learning.

The first phase of the reform concentrated on the nationwide implementation of

the J. S. S programme. This was followed by the second phase which included

Primary School Development Programme (PSDP) . The PSDP involves:

0 The construction of 10,977 classroom pavilions in most deprived areas and

two-bed room houses for Head-teachers at each site;

0 Re-roofing of 1,546 Classrooms ;

II Eliminating all fees and levies not officially approved by the Ministry but

imposed on primary school children;

Cl Orientation of key district officials and community leaders from each school

area ; and

0 Training and retraining of Head-teachers in school level supervision.

IV. Progress on Reforms

Reviewing the extent of progress on Ghana’ s Educational Reforms, the

President of Ghana, in his address to Parliament quoted in the newspaper Du;Zy

Graphic of 15th January, 1999, gave the following account of the outcome of the

Reforms :

“Apart from upgrading all 5,260 f ormer Middle Schools to Junior Secondary

Schools, an additional 339 JSS h ave been established since the reforms started in

1987, Primary School enrollment has risen from 1,625,137 in 1987/88 to 2,333,

504 in 1997198 , an increase of 43.6 % .

The proportion of school-going age population in primary school also increased

from 69.2 % to 76.5 % over the same period. The annual primary one intake has

grown from 188,529 to 478,688, an increase of 153.9% ; whilst the number of

primary schools has increased from 9,424 to 11,775 or 25 % .

Enrolment at JSS level increased from 610, 094 in 1987/88 to 695, 468 in

1997/98, representing an increase of 14 % , Th e numble of students entering JSS

increased from 180,855 to 260,172 or 44 % increase; whilst 127,349 JSS students 35

__.-- - -


graduated in 1987/88 as against 202,000 in 1997/98, representing an increase of

58.6 % . Enrolment at the Senior Secondary School recorded a 33. 2 % increase

whilst graduate from SSS in creased from 20,158 to 57,708 in 1997/98. “@

V. Non-formal Education

With the need to adequately communicate to the population in programmes such

as the Economic Recovery Programme and rural development strategies, the

Government initiated the Functional Literacy Skills Project. This is designed to give

particularly women and people living in the rural areas the necessary consciousness,

attitudes, skills and ledge so that they can participate fully in national development.

So far NFED has established 48,000 classes for 1.3 million learners made up of 40 %

males and 60 % females.

The programme has several components including literacy classes, development

activities, income-generation, monitoring and evaluation taught by volunteer

facilitators in 15 local languages. Primers include topics such as civic awareness,

health, life skills, occupational skills, and lessons are based on daily life and

concerns such as family planning, animal rearing, child caring and potable water.

It is hoped that the programme will reduce considerably the illiteracy rates which,

according to the 1996 World Bank Development Indicators was 35.5 % overall, with

male illiteracy at 24 % and Females 46.5 % of adults.

VI. Effect of Education Reforms on Rural Developmenit

Ghana has over 64% of population in the rural areas who are engaged in

agriculture. Therefore rural development in this context has to be assessed mainly on

the extent that rural education, both formal and non-formal, has contributed to the

promotion of agriculture and agri-based industries in the rural areas. It is only by

this means that the long-term transformation of the rural people, their economy and

society could the assured.

This is based on the premise that it is only through the use of new scientific and

technological imevations in agriculture through rural education that the rural 36

- - - -~ lll--____-__ll___I__-..-_- _ . . . - - _ . - - -


economy could be industrialized and then gradually lead to the urbanization of the

rural areas. In Ghana, with the provision for health services, safe drinking water,

improved access roads and an ambitious rural electrification programme across the

length and breadth of the whole country, the enabling environment has been created

and visible signs of rural development are all over the country. Value-added agri-

based processing like palm-oil extraction, Shea-butter processing, soap making, gari

processing, log milling and a host of other cottage industrial ventures are established

in the rural areas.

The link between urbanization of a country and its development is shown in

Table 1 below:

Table 1: the Correlation of. Rural Population and the World Hunan Development

Index Ranking (HDI) in 1995

Country HDI Ranking Rural Population Real GDP per Capita

(as% of total) ($)

Singapore

Chile

Namibia

Ghana

China

Tanzania

Ethiopia

28 0% 22.604

31 16% 9.930

107 64% 4,054

133 64% 2.032

106 70% 2.935

150 76% 636

169 85% 455

Source: Human Development Report 1998, UNDP.

The table shows that the less rural population in a country, the higher it is

human Development and real GDP per Capita. Therefore “ the major way of

transition is to raise the agricultural productivity and the level of urbanization of rural

areas so as to turn more and more rural people into urban inhabitants through

introducing science and technology and investing the capital of manpower motivated

by education”. @

37


VII. Problems of Correlation Betweem Education and Development

Although one can not easily discount the positive role that adult literacy and

functional education programmes of NFED have played in rural development in

Ghana; it is a little more difficult to establish the effect of formal rural education on

rural development in the country. “In fact there is solid evidence to suggest that the

education which is imparted in primary and secondary schools has often been

counter-producfive to rural development. It is implicated in the exodus of talents

from the rural areas; it orients students towards the small modern sector which is

concentrated in the cities that is already hard-pressed to absorb the influx of young

labor force entrants; its curricula and structures are patterned on colonial models and

ignore the real learning needs of the rural poor”. @ Even those who stay on in the

rural areas largely disdained manual work, and rarely choose to continue with the

parental occupation of agriculture.

In recognition of this reality, the President of Ghana, in his address to

Parliament, spoke about efforts “to make the unemployed and unemployable youth

more employable. He touched on the programme to mobilize. the youth for

agricultural production as well as enabling the 24 National Vocational Training

Institutes double their intake of J. S. S graduates by the year 2000. To encourage

these graduates to become self-employed, the Ministry of Employment and Social

Welfare, in conjunction with EMPRETEC, has developed 20 business profiles of

short gestation projects in the agricultural, industrial and services sectors 9) @I .

VIII. Lessons From China’s Education Reforms

By virtue of China being the largest developing country with the highest rural

population and the most successful rural education, it would be worthwhile drawing

lessons from the Chinese example, not withstanding the apparent vast differences in

size, population, culture, and political orientation. Table 1 above shows that Ghana

and China have many others things in common and therefore good enough for

comparison. 38

FIRST INTERNATIONAL. WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION

Professor Lu Jie of Nanjing Normal University, China concludes that “In rural

areas, economic poverty usually results from cultural poverty”. To her “the first

purpose of rural education is to make it possible for rural people to gain knowledge

and working skills through education. This is the cultural precondition to elimination

of ignorance and poverty among rural people. The other purposes are to acquire

modem citizens Consciousness, and the capacity of starting new undertakings or

enterprising spirit” . @ The Chinese successful story was witnessed by participants of

the UNESCO’s Advanced Workshop for Rural Education Theory and Development

Strategies in March 1999 during our visits to selected schools in various parts of

Jiangsu Province in China. We observed that right from the Primary Schools

through to the Senior High and Vocational Technical Schools, curriculum was

designed to produce graduates with skills to serve the local economy and to export

excess labor to the urban centres.

Schools train students in all round development in morality, intelligence,

physique, esthetics and labouring. The most remarkable area of particular interest is

the education of pupils with “labouring technology so as to fit into the society”. By

this, the schools actually engage in practical agriculture and get every student to

participate actively in it. This is followed by extension of scientific knowledge to

farmers with in the community who by this become models in the process of

economic development. Modem scientific and technological ways are thus

transferred to farmers in the catchment areas of the schools. In addition to this,

winter schools and adult education programmes are organized for farmers by these

schools. There is complete devotion to duty by teachers who are well-motivated by

high salaries and decent accommodations for all categories of teachers.

For the vocational schools, the Jinnan Middle School in the Jinhu County of

Jiangsu Province provides a shining example worthy emulation. This school which

became a combined junior and senior high school in 1970, had the senior part

converted into a vocational school in 1982. Its slogans are Labour Market

Orientation, Enterprise Orientation, and National Defense and Security

Orientation. The products of the school are middle-level managers, accountants,

technicians, caterers, security personnel etc. who are readily employed by the

factories and hotels in the province. Those graduates from J . S. S unable to go on

further are given additional one year in technological instructions to become fit for 39


the society.

In short, rural education in China does not lose touch with the needs of the

rural areas, so there is always a big impact made by schools on the social and

economic standards of its area of location.

IX. Proposals

Putting the Ghanaian and the Chinese rural educational systems into

perspective, the following proposals are suggested for consideration by all developing

countries :

1. There is the urgent need to link theory with practice. Here practice should

not he limited to the laboratories and experimental farms but rather should be

practised on the farms or factories right from the primary school level.

2. More technical/vocational training institutes, which have direct links and

relevance to the local economy should be established to train those J . S. S and S. S. S

graduates who are unable to advance further to tertiary institutions so that they can

acquire skills to either be on their own or get employed by local industries.

3. Adult literacy programmes require more emphasis on quality functional

education, hence the reliance on mostly volunteers who are usually not professionals

as instructors should change. Well-trained teachers and experts should be used.

There is also the need to intensify post-literacy programmes to monitor and further

enhance the capacities of learners.

4. All categories of teachers should be well motivated by provision of decent

accommodation to accept postings to the rural areas.

5. There should be vertical and horizontal integration of formal rural educational

structures and others educational programmes run by various ministries,

departments and agencies. Accordingly, Ministry of Education Programmes and

those being run by Ministry of Agriculture, Cooperatives, Community Development

etc, should be co-ordinated in such a way that they would be more beneficial to the

rural people.

6. There should be greater investment and co-operation in the coming years

between governmental agencies, NGOs, universities and other research institutions 40


to eliminate illiteracy and enhance rural development.

7. Finally, there is the need to inculcate the philosophy of service to the

community and local people who made it possible for us to be educated right from the

primary schools. This will go a long way to debunk the wrong notion that the place

for the educated is the city, so that the youth could be psyched to stay back in the

rural areas to help in development.

X . Conclusion

It is an undeniable fact that rural development depends on several influencing

factors. However, the role of rural education, both formal and non-formal, as a

major factor in rural development cannot be denied.

It is therefore necessary that developing countries which have a greater

percentage of their populations in the rural areas should pay more attention to rural

education if they are to transform their social and economic structures into more

urbanized industrial structures which are the hallmark of development.

NOTES: 1. Ghana ’ s Vision 2020 Document, PP. 56 - 58

2. An Introduction to Rural education, Feb. 1999, edited by Chen Jingpu, P. 6

3. Education and Rural Development : Issues for Planning and Research edited by

Dr. Berstecher , PP. 46 - 47

4. Presidential Address to Parliament of Ghana, Daily Graphic of January 15,

1999, P.ll

5. An Introduction to Rural Education, Feb . 1999, PP. 9 - 10

41


KENYA

Strategies on Fund Raising and Management for Schools

By Patrick Kaaria Kiugu

I* Background

The text below on raising funds for schools is dedicated to Headteachers/

Principles, Parents, Teacher Unions, and all Stakeholders in Learning Institutions.

Many institutions have a lot of problems because of poor management and inability of

managers, who fail to implement the strategies, poor accountability of finances and

lack of funds for developments. i

1.1 What Problems are to be Solved? The theme is to formulate ways and means of raising and managing funds for

rural education because if rural education is to succeed, hundreds and thousands of

shillings is involved and good managers must run the school and with a good vision.

1.2 Why I Write the Thesis? On many occasions, school finances have been used on dubious projects that

they were not intended for, On the other hand, as the Government undertake major

national projects, there is need for the local community to help raise funds and speed

up Education for All. Everyday in the world new science technology is coming

through Internet, hence great need to build and equip our schools adequately with

modem facilities.

1.3 Reasons Which Made me Forward These Problems ; Cl The UNESCO policy on Education for All is that everyone must know how

to read and write and learn basic life skills for improvement of living standards;

Cl To provide basic education opportunities to the disadvantaged; 42

- _. - ..--. .._ “_ .- --.


Cl The need to equip our learning institutions with modem facilities.

1.4 Basic Conditions Which Made me Forward the Problems: Countries like USA, Japan, UK, have become industrialized countries and

computerized and about 98 % of the rural population use modem technology in their

everyday life. In the developing countries, very little population is exposed to the

world of science. Africa is one example where majority of the rural community,

70% are not exposed to such technology because of lack of electricity, computer

services through Internet. So there is a lot to be done to the rural setting.

Cl Policy.

The policy of every government is to see to it that its rural community learn to

read and write and learn the basic skills for life, but since the government

commitment are many, there is need for other suppliers to equip learning institutions

with modem facilities.

0 Past experience.

When Kenya became independent in 1963, there were very few schools. The

government was capable of building and supplying books. By then the aim was to

educate so many children to take over the running of the country and this was so for

a long time.

1.5 Where Money from? The government allocates a big percentage of its budget towards education, but

to quicken development in rural education on modern science and technology, the

rural community must be educated on their right of ownership and decision making

and future vision for their schools so that they can help equip them;

NGOs when approached by the relevant authorities donate generously and

willingly in material form like building materials, computers, etc ;

Local governments, banking institutions should be contributing a certain

percentage of their yearly income towards equipping learning institutions.

1.6 How to Use the Money Effectively? Proper planning is always the key to total quality management. By keeping

proper records, regular auditing and going by the plan, any project would be 43

-..-..--- -.-._-_ ..-I__-


completed in time. This is the case in China where projects are completed, equipped

and used within the stipulated time. 0

II. Factors Affecting the Raising and Management of Funds

2.1 Economic Factors Geographically some parts of our country are not favorable for agriculture,

hence the income per capita is very low to the local community. Therefore equipping

institutions in such areas which have semi-permanent classrooms is a big burden.

People have very little income from modern agriculture. Many areas in the rural

setting are not industrialized because there is no electricity which is the major source

of energy to industrialization. Electricity is used in farming to pump water for

irrigation during times of draught. In many countries the gap between the rich and

the poor is great. Most of the poor live in the rural areas and there is great need to

educate them on modern agricultural technology and the need of starting rural

industries in the rural areas. With better resources, education in the formal and non-

formal sectors will be improved, which will mean better life and modern schools for

the rural community and with better resources, contributions will be more and the

big gap between the rich and the poor will be small.

2.2 Social and Cultural Factors In the African context in the past, it was true that many children in a family

were a great wealth because they could do a lot of work per day and a huge dowry

for girls marriages. Many children today should be difficult to care for. It was also

cultural belief that after independent, the government would take full responsibilities

of building and equipping education institutions and up to today some people have

the same ideas.

2.3 Community Management It’ s true that available finances for educational revenue and expenditure is

declining. The older people who have no children in school are unwilling to pay for

the development. The well off people within the community ignore the plight of the 44


people and keep away from any contributions.

2.4 Political Factors

Most countries in the world have multi-party system these days. Opposition

parties are always at logger heads with the government of the day and the

headteachers/principals and the management fear to be associated with the

opposition parties and therefore refuse donations from the opposition politicians as

many politicians, during campaign seasons, give out a lot of money to voters and

schools to influence stakeholders to vote for them. .

To the rich, few who would like to be identified give out a lot of money to

schools so as to have more influence in decision making. We have seen Headteachers

who accepted building materials from opposition MPS and were interdicted or

transferred far from their former schools. But when our beloved President

intervened, they were posted back to their former institutions and the same positions

of headteachers/ principals.

IL Main Principals for Solving the Problems

3.1 Right Obligations of Doing Things

After schools get donations from the governmental donors and wellwishers, it is

their right obligation to see that the money is used for the right purpose it was

intended for. It’ s also the right of the beneficiaries to get the most for their lives

from the donated money. Students should learn its their responsibilities to have

interest in their school, their studies and to love their neighbours and their

environment. And so then will become responsible citizens of their country.

3.2 Equity and Efficiency of Utilization of Funds

It happens that in many countries, schools in developed areas like the urban

areas get more attention from industries and NGOs, and those in disadvantaged

areas get less attention because there are no industries and poor infrastructure and

poor living conditions. It’ s the right that every student should get the same

attention. The disadvantaged areas should got more donations so that they can catch 45


up with more developed areas.

3.3 Giving Priorities to Equity In giving priorities, many students should graduate from the institutions by

using the available finances, which means more should be done by students and

administrators using the low cost output. The community should also benefit from

the available resources.

I.V. Summary of Past Experiences in Kenya

From Looking back in 1963 when Kenya gained independence, the

communities havd contributed millions of shillings for schools, but most of the

money ended up in the wrong projects. In many schools these projects ended up half

completed, which lowered the contributors and beneficiaries moral. A few

Headteachers/Principals embezzled the funds and were interdicted or forced to pay

back. In 1995, inspectors and Headteachers course on PRISM (Primary School

Management) was launched countrywide, and most of the Headteachers/Principals

were trained that year. From the new course on Total Quality Management of

Schools, the standards of education have improved and the public relationship is very

good though most of the schools are running on very little resources. @

v. Strategies to be Adopted Raise and Manage Funds

5.1 Past Experiences Past experiences had proved that many did not take Education For All

seriously, especially girls who, when they became expectant went home for good or

were married very early. Today after girls give birth they are allowed back to schools

to which give them a better chance to better their education and become useful

members of the community. That the girls going back to schools, gives the rural

community more interest to contribute and bring more girls to schools. o

Before knowing the right of ownership and right of decision-making for their

institutions, many people always thought it was the governments right. to educate its 46


people and provide for all facilities and make final decisions.

5.2 SWOT Analysis (Strength, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats) By educating the rural community on their right of opinion and ownership and

analyzing the future vision of the institution, all will be willing to donate. This will

be possible if SWOT analysis are understood by all. These are the Strength,

Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats the school has.

The management and rural community should know what strength the school

has in form of trained teachers, pupil, parents etc.

Weaknesses like low enrolment of pupils is a great weakness of a school, poor

community which can do very little in terms of finances.

Opportunities-management must find ways of improving the weaknesses, eg,

sending children to school, more seminars for teachers on new approaches to

Education.

Threats, poor economy, low education standards, poor public relationship are

not good to any community.

VI. Case Study of Mariene and Nyweri Primary Schools

6.1 Mariene Primary For many years, Mariene Pry School had built good permanent classrooms for

lower and upper grades and equipped them, but had ignored the pre-primary

classrooms. The two classrooms were built of iron sheets which had long worn out.

There were long tables and forms for children to sit on which made them very

uncomfortable. Children were always cold and shivering. One day the local MP

visited the school. On his tour round the school, he was shown the conditions of the

pre-primary class. He promised to help raise the funds to build modern

classrooms. @ On the material day, four dignitaries arrived to help raise the funds.

The President personally sent about 1, 500 US dollars. Today new modern pre-

school classrooms are built.

47

FIRST INTERNATIONAL, WORKSHOP FOR RURAL EDUCATION

6.2 Study Case of Nyweri Primary School : The rural community of Nyweri Primary School had managed to build a library

together with a modern administration block, but could not manage to buy a single

text book for the library. After several years, the management organized a public

collection day where they raised over one hundred and fifteen thousand dollars ( 115,

000 dollars). With this money they were able to buy most of the book for their

library and reference books for the teaching staff. ’

References : 1. Total Quality Management and the Schools by Stephen Murgatroyd and Colin

Morgan

2. Introduction to Rural Education

3. Country Reports

4. Primary School Management Modules-Kenya

5. Ministry of Education Policy on Girls Education-Kenya

6. Mariene Pry School File

7. Nyweri Pry School File

48

----~ ---_- _I -.-...--- -.~_ .._- .._


ETHIOPIA

Selecting Contents and Teaching Methodology for the Rural Adult Class

By Kebede Sima

I. Introduction and Background

Whenever national planning is thought there always arises the agendum of

priority. Questions like what, to which area, what amount, when. . . , etc. become

indispensable. Genuine planning process always takes the human element into

account first, as the source and implementing agent. Today, in most developing

countries the question of manpower has come to be the order of the day. The reality

in these countries is very disastrous and shocking. The majority of the population,

who lives in the rural areas of these countries are illiterate and as a result becomes the

victims of poverty and ignorance. Therefore, development efforts face a lot of

challenge. Among these, provision of literacy education to the illiterate and poor

population and empowering these literate people to lead productive lives are the ones

that most countries are trying to overcome. Most of the illiterate population in these

countries live in rural areas, where there is no access to transportation, health

facilities, etc. Thus the provision of literacy education in these countries should deal

with selected learning contents in order to empower the rural population and enable

him to fight against his enemies (ignorance, poverty, etc. > . In this paper I try to

discuss precisely three issues related to contents of non-formal education. These are:

1. Needed assessment to select and decide the contents of learning

2. Quality of contents

3. Source of contents

In addition to the issues of contents, the nature of the teaching methodology in

the adults’ classroom is briefly discussed.

49


II. Methods

In writing this paper, I have used materials from the following sources:

1. The observations in the field visits in different areas of Hebei, Gansu , and

Jiangsu provinces of China;

2. Interviews and discussions with scholars working in different institutions in

the above mentioned areas;

3. Classroom lectures;

4. Reviewing academic papers and books written by different scholars;

5. Personal experiences.

III. What is Non-formal Education

A participant in the International Training Workshop on Rural Education for

Development which held on September 15 - 16, Boading , Hebei Province , China,

defines non-formal education as

“That form of education which consists of mostly assortments of organized,

semi-educational activities operating outside the regular structure and routines of

formed system, and it aims at meeting a great variety of learning needs of different

sub-groups. ”

From the definition given above, one can conclude that non-formal education is

flexible in its organization and programs. In addition to this, it is operating outside

of the regular educational system and meeting a great variety of learning needs of

different individuals or groups. It is also clear that non-formal education has no hard

and fast rules that restrict the procedures or regulations from being flexible and

smooth. This fact is clearly indicated in the following.

“The chief feature of non-formal education is that the education is conducted

flexibly in different places and to different learners. The teacher conducts the lessons

according to individual students’ level, age and capability, and does not make the

same requirement on every student. The teacher goes to each student ’ s home

irregularly to teach lessons. When the learner is busy with farming work, they can

spend less time on study. And they can make up for it when there is less farmimg 50

-.--....... -..-_. ..-^“-l-_._l_l -,.- -“-___-


work. The schedule can also be adjusted in the case of urgency. The teacher is

always ready to teach when the learner comes. ”

Thus, when I am talking of adults in this paper, I am having in mind the rural

adult, especially in the Ethiopian, where adults go for a three years of literacy and

post literacy education and join the regular program afterwards.

IV. Selecting Contents for Non-formal Education

4.1 Need Assessment The provision of any type of education always needs earlier assessment,

planning and preparation. Before preparing a certain package, one has to do a deep

assessment of the needs and interests of the target group. To carry out this task, a

certain mechanism should be devised. A group of researchers or an institute

responsible for such purposes could come up with feasible results. In the places I

traveled in China, I was able to see responsible and effective institutions doing

researches to identify the needs of adult learners. Gansu Institute of Educational

Research and Agricultural University of Hebei are two of the many institutions with

such type of specialization.

These institutions make researches on the problems of the rural people and

disseminate the results to the respective development agents ( Ministries of

Education, Agriculture, etc. ) in China. And these development agents in turn use

the research results to prepare pertinent educational materials that help to teach the

rural population. The contents in these materials will be very familiar to the adult

learner. Therefore, the adult not only enjoys learning these contents but also

internalizes and applies them in his farming, business and related activities.

The case in Uganda is another example that indicates the need for assessment of

learnersp needs. First, there is a needs assessment survey. Then Using results of the

needs assessment, a functional adult literacy curriculum was developed. And by

using the curriculum, learning and teaching materials addressing key concerns in

different regions of the country have been developed in local languages.

51


4.2 Quality of content Contents should not be selected for the sake of filling a textbook. While

selecting contents, questions such as why, for whom ( the target group), where

(the facilities , the ethnic situation >, when (the duration a certain course takes),

etc. should be considered. Thus, these questions lead us to select contents relevant

to the life situation of the target group in our mind. For example, in Gansu Province

of China farmers are learning variety of lessons that reflect their needs and interests.

Besides basic knowledge ( writing, reading, calculation ), they are taught

agricultural and business subjects such as how to use fertilizers, family planning,

sanitation and hygiene, sewing, repairing and driving a tractor, etc. The following

Indonesian practice also illustrates similar efforts.

Contents of the curriculum is based on felt-needs of a given community and

aimed at making literacy relevant to daily life needs and activities. Using reading

materials from daily life based on learners’ interests.

4.3 Sources of Contents 4.3.1 The Learners

The adults’ classroom is one of the places to conduct needs assessment. The

learners may come to the teaching class with their own topics or questions that need

solutions. Therefore in such situations, the teacher can use the students as the

sources of their learning. The Bangladesh experience as it is reported by its delegate

in the International Workshop on Rural Education for Development held on

September 15 - 26,1997, in Boading, China, illustrates this fact as follows:

Learning groups themselves decide what kinds of skills they want to learn;

Learners are considered as esources in terms of knowledge and experience ;

Learners create their own materials in their own languages.

4.3.2 The Textbook

The textbook in most cases helps the teacher to select contents for his adult

learners.

4.3.3 Authentic Materials

There are materials apart from the textbook, such as newspapers, radio, 52


television, information from Internet, magazines, etc. They could give the learners

more interest than the textbooks. The contents in these materials help the adult

learner to broaden his outlook and try to explore the world hidden from him because

of his ignorance and backwardness.

4.3.4 The Community

The problems and achievements, the successes and failures of a community

could be interesting contents in the adult classroom. The community to be referred

can be that of the adult learners or others.

4.3.5 The Teacher

The teacher could serve as the best source of contents provided that he is

committed to help and liberate his students from backwardness and ignorance. The

authentic materials mentioned above, could be mainly collected and organized by

him. For him, to be a source of his adult learners and to bring practical change on

their entire life, he should do a continues effort, such as reading different materials

and collecting whatever he thinks familiar to their lives, information from different

types of medias and using inter-net, etc.

V. Teaching Methodology in the Adult Class

Richard and Rogers define methodology as design ( specifying objectives,

learning teaching activities, learner and teacher’s roles, and the role of instructional

materials) and procedure (dealing with classroom techniques and procedures ) . The

teaching methodology that should be applied in the adult classroom may vary

according to the subject, learning and teaching facilities, level and age of students,

training of the teacher or trainer, etc. But it is unquestionable that the dedication,

the training and strength of the teacher or trainer determines the effectiveness of the

methodology applied. The adult, especially the rural one, always looks for solutions

of his immediate problems. He is inclined to accept things if they have some

attachment to the solutions of his problems, and presented to him in an interesting

way. He doesn ’ t need to worry himself with unsystematized learning since he has 53

_-.


got enough from his life situation. As a result, the lessons that a teacher present to

the adults should be carefully prepared and well designed so as to create interest in

the learners. The teacher can use different approaches (problem solving, discussion

method, independent work method, discovery method. . . , etc. > . The main thing

in applying the above methods is to make sure that learning is effectively conducted.

The teacher in the adult class should consider himself as a participant, not as a

provider of knowledge or correction. Moreover, the adult classroom will be very

attractive if the students are made to learn from each other. The teacher should

facilitate their learning by forming groups and pairs and letting them learn from each

other ’ s experience. Problems that couldn’ t get solutions in the group discussions

might be dealt with the whole class and could come up with solutions. If the class is

given outdoors in the field (f armers’ farms) or handicrafts producing centers , the

farmers, handicraftsmen, etc. should demonstrate the needed skills that they should

acquire. Th ere ore, f the training becomes a trainee-centred rather than a trainer-

centred The case I have seen in Taihang mountain ( Hebei Province, China >

farmers’ village is a good example of this type of learning. Demonstrations are held

in farmer’ s farms and they are carried out by farmers themselves with close

inspection of the professors from Agricultural University of Hebei. The case in

Papua New Guinea is another example worth mentioning.

“The method of conducting the course is farmer or trainee-centred. Most of the

applied skills will be done in the farmers’ farm. All skills are demonstrated and

trainee farmers all take part in the demonstrations. . . “( Unesco, Country Reports,

vol. 2, 1997, Boading, China)

The following statement given by the Indonesian representative in the

International Training Workshop on Rural Education for Development held in

Boading, China, from September 15 - 26, 1997, indicates that the country is

following the same approach of teaching.

“All teaching is learner-centred intended to benefit the learner to improve the

quality of life. ”

Therefore learner-centred approach could be the best way in adult learning.

Moreover, winning the love of the adult learners or trainees , living with them

(eating with them , sleeping in their house, etc. > would contribute a lot in a

teachers’ teaching. In Taihang mountain, I mentioned above , the professors from 54


Agricultural University of Hebei spend days and nights with farmers teaching to and

learning from the farmers. In addition to this, professors from the same university

sell seeds for farmers in markets, with the intention to give directions in sowing and

at the same time to answer any question that the farmers might ask on their farming

activities.

References : 1. Reference ( material supplied in the Advanced Training Programme on Theory

and Practices in Rural Education. > , INRULED( Nanjing) UNESCO

2. Hengxi, X ( 1999 ), U niversity and Rural Development, the Successful

Achievement’ s of Agricultural University of Hebei, Baoding, China

3. Jingpu, C ( 1999 >, A n introduction to Rural Education, INRULED

( Nanjing) , UNESCO

55


TANZANIA

Provision of Basic Education for Disadvantaged Rural Children in Tanzania

by Ms Julia Thadeus Hoza

I. Introduction The 1967 Arusha Declaration and the Policy of Education for Self-Reliance

(1967) states that Education for Self-Reliance should be a type of education that

should increase man’s physical and mental freedom to have control over themselves,

over their own lives and over the environment in which they live. Following this

Declaration curricula were reformed to enable primary school education to be village-

life oriented instead of being oriented towards white-collared jobs as was the case in

the colonial era.

1.1 Universal Primary Education The 1974 Musoma Resolution underscored the need to Universalize Primary

Education ( UPE) . F o 11 owing this resolution there was need to train more teachers,

to build more classrooms and teachers quarters and to provide more school materials.

Though Universal Primary Education w& supposed to expand opportunities for basic

education, until now the goal of equal access to basic education has not been

realized .

1.2 Compulsory Education After independence there was a growing awareness among the people that

education is a necessary tool for equitable socioeconomic development. They

considered investment in basic education to be better than in other levels of schooling

because it is central to any other long term development strategy. It is quite obvious

that without basic education, a development process centred on human beings can

not initiated or sustained and opportunities for future education can not be ensured.

Basic education is also considered to have significant effects in people’ s welfare, 56


nutrition, health and enables people to face problems at home and work places and to

cope with rapid so&economic development. For these reasons the government

declared the seven years of primary school to be a compulsory education.

1.3 The State of Literacy in Tanzania At independence in 1961 literacy rate was 15% . Therefore the new

government put special emphasis on literacy and post-literacy programmes. This

meant mobilization of human, financial and materials resources for literacy and post-

literacy activities. Following successful implementation of the programmes, literacy

rate rose to 90% in 1986 with enrolment rate of 1. 8 million adults. However ,

between 1986 and 1993 the enrolment in literacy classes dropped to about 1. 4

million.

Despite the government is commitment to make basic education compulsory to

all the goal of equal access to education has not been realized. A recent study by

UNICEF indicated that more than 2 million children of primary school age are out of

school and most of them are from disadvantaged rural areas. The study also showed

that the average drop out rate by the end of primary school is 30% . A high

proportion of children drop out before Grade Iv which is the minimum stage

necessary for literacy of the illiteracy population which is estimated to be about

25%.

IL Poverty The majority of Tanzanian ( about 85%) live in rural areas and some

communities live in extremely difficult circumstances. Their per capita income is

estimated to be US $ 90 , a low figure compared to the Sub-Sahara1 average of US

$ 640. 75% of th is income is spent on food. Due to economic hardships, poor

parents are unable to support their childrens ’ education, because in such families

education is not a priority. Parents in such these families rely on children’s labour

for their survival and therefore decided to keep them out of school.

Poverty in rural population can be attributed to the following factors: climatic

conditions, poor farming methods, poor soils, poor economic base, customs and

traditions.

57


2.1 Climate Conditions Tanzania is divided into three major climatic zones namely: the Coastal Belt,

the Northern and Southern Highlands and the Central Plateau. The most productive

areas are the Highlands where cash crops such as coffee, tea, pyrethrum and food

crops like maize, beans, potatoes, vegetables etc are grown. Along the coast the

climate is suitable for cashewnuts and coconut palms as cash crops, rice and cassava

as food crops. Rainfall in these zones is more reliable and with improved agriculture

practice farmers are better off. However, the Central Plateau experiences one rainy

season and rainfall is sparce and very unreliable. The cash crops are tobacco and

cotton and food crops are millet, maize and other drought resistant cereals. The zone

experiences frequent a froughts leading to poor yields and hence low income. The

majority of farmers are relatively poor and hence unable to send their children to

school because they cannot pay for the costs.

2.2 Poor Farming Methods The majority of rural farmers are still using traditional methods of farming.

They use the hand hoe and traditional varieties of seeds. There is a lot of labor work

involved in using traditional agriculture but yields are normally poor. Most of them

get just enough for food and there is no excess yield to be sold to cater for other

recessities such as school, medicine, good housing and the like.

2.3 Poor Soils In some areas of Tanzania, arable land is very scarce leading to over-

cultivation. Over-cultivation is a practice which depletes the soil of its essential

minerals rendering it poor and hence resulting in poor yields. In other areas pastoral

communities keep large herds of cattle, usually larger than the carrying capacity of

the land, which will leading to overgrazing. Overgrazing leaves the land bare and

prone to wind and water erosion. This phenomenon renders the soil unfit for

agriculture unless scientific methods are employed.

2.4 Poor Economic Base Because of poor economic base subsistence, farmers can not afford to buy

fertilizers, pesticides and ploughs. Using of these modem farming methods would 58

-I__-- _-


have greatly increased their yields and consequently their income.

2.5 Customs and Traditions Poverty can also be a result of sticking to outdated customs and traditions. In

some rural areas, farmers are unwilling to accept changes and advice from

agricultural extension officers. Their sense of conservativeness in agricultural

practices is a factor which sometimes contributes to their poverty.

For example, some years ago a research institute discovered a new variety of

millet, which matures within a short period of time, was more drought resistant,

resistant to pests and produce more yields compared to the traditional variety. The

institute wanted to try the new variety among millet growing farmers in central

Tanzania. First of all it was very difficult for the researchers to convince the farmers

to accept the new variety. Eventually they accepted. But after getting very good

yields, they complained that the new variety was tasteless and they did not want to

grow it again. However after a series of droughts and a lot of sensitization the

farmers agreed to grow new variety which increased their income.

2.6 Illiteracy

If farmers are functionally illiterate, it is difficult for them to do away with

outdated customs and traditions. It is also difficult for them to accept new farming

methods such as contour farming, mixed farming, use of manure, fertilizers, new

varieties of seeds, pesticides, etc. On the other hand accepting new farming

methods would improve their yields and hence their income from agriculture.

From the above discussion it is imperative that factors which contribute to

poverty are inter-related and a starting point for sowing could be by conducting

functional literacy programs.

III. Disadvantaged Rural Children

Disadvantaged children are school-going age children (5 to 15 years ) who for

one reason or another find themselves excluded from basic education. Compared to

boys, girls are in more disadvantaged state. 59


In Tanzania, rural children become excluded from basic education due to the

following factors : Poverty, customs and traditions, pastoral and mobile way of life,

and geographical isolation.

3.1 Customs and Traditions In some rural communities basic education opportunities for girls are hampered

by various factors which include cultural practices and negative attitudes towards

education and in particular girls’ education.

Girls drop out of school due to many reasons including domestic workload and

early marriages. Research has also revealed that girls drop from school due to gender

biased teacher-pupil interaction whereby teachers tend to encourage boys to be more

expressive and creative while fostering inferiority complex in girls a reflection of

gender steriotyped roles which have been internalized from society. Other factors

include gender-biased-learning materials.

The customs and traditions that affect delivery of basic education include:

initiation ceremonies, status of women in society and the dowry (bride price) .

3.1.1 Initiation Ceremonies

In some ethnic groups in Tanzania initiation ceremonies are important

components of their culture. In these ceremonies girls are prepared for their role as

future house-wives and boys as future husbands. Where such ceremonies are

practiced, the girls’ education is greatly at stake. The ceremonies usually take place

at the age of 9 - 13, just before or at puberty.

This is the period when they are in grade IV-VI. The initiation may take a few

weeks to several months. In many cases girls drop out school after initiation. The

incidence of dropping out of school is more if the parents are illiterate because usually

they will find a suitor and marry the girl off. In this case it is not only a question of

customs and traditions, but also the value the parent attaches to education. This will

depend on whether the parents are literate or not. If the parents are literate, they

will make the initiation period shorter so that children can return to school in good

time. If the parents are illiterate the ceremonies are a sure way of getting their

children out of school.

60

..- _~.----_--_~---_~.


3.1.2 Status of Women in the Society

There are ethnic groups in rural areas who still believe that the woman’s place

is in the kitchen. In these cultures girls are expected to assit their mothers with

household chores, takeing care of their sisters and brothers, or married and raise

children. If parents are to send any children to school, priority would be for boys

and not girls.

3.1.3 Dowry

In some ethnic groups the suitor is expected to pay dowry (bride price) before

marrying a girl. The bride price varies in value from one ethic group to another and

may range from few cows to hundreds of cows. In such ethnic groups cattle are a

symbol of wealth and the larger the number of cattle, the higher the status.

Therefore having girls in the family means more wealth when they marry and

increase in status for the family. Given such a situation if the parents are illiterate, it

is very unlikely for them to send their girls to school.

3.2 Mobile Communities. There are ethnic groups which move from one place to another in search of

pastures in case of nomads and pastoralists and in search of animals in case of

hunters. These communities are characterized by their negative attitudes towards

schooling. Girls are the most disadvantaged because they are expected to marry and

bring to their parents bride wealth. In these communities schools are very few and

scattered and children have to walk long distances between home and school.

Enrolment in primary schools is very low and drop out rate very high. Because of

harsh environmental conditions and lack of social services, teachers are not willing to

work in these communities.

3.3 Geographical Isolation In isolated remote and hard-to-reach areas, there are no reliable transport ation

and communication facilities. Teachers in these areas work in difficult conditions

characterized by lack of teaching materials and poor social services. Such schools are

staffed with few less qualified teachers with heavy teaching loads to the disadvantage

of pupils. Due to geographical isolation qualified teachers are unwilling to take up 61


assignment in such hard to reach areas, so that it is common to find a whole primary

school being run by only four teachers.

Iv. Intervention Strategies

4.1 Government Intervention After independent in 1961, the Government of Tanzania embarked on its major

priority of providing its citizens with education. It has since then been financing

education by putting in place the infrastructure of schools, training of teachers and

providing teaching materials. However due to financial constraints, the governments

commitment to expand basic education for all has not been realized, because what I

mentioned earlier. There are about 2 million children of school-going age who are

out of school. The majority of these out-of-school children are the disadvantaged

rural children.

The education and training policy of 1993 emphasized the need to promote and

facilitate access to basic education for all children and to pay more attention to

disadvantaged rural children. Promotion of basic education calls for concernted

efforts from governments, community, inter-governmental and non-governmental

organizations and bilateral organizations .

4.2 Parents Intervention Few year ago the government introduced the Cost-sharing Program which

parents are required to contribute to their children education. Under this program

the parents buy textbooks, exercise books and stationery for their children and

contribute financially to build new classrooms, repair and maintent of existing

classrooms. Many parents have accepted this program and helped to improve the

running of schools.

4.3 Community Interventions Since 1967, rural communities, through self-help schemes are contributing to

the development of education by building new schools. They also participate in

running the community school by being members of Education Committee. 62

FIRST INTERNATIONAL, WORKSHOP FOR RURAL, EDUCATION

However participation of communities on development of education depends on

their level of literacy and their income. In communities where level of literacy is

high, participation in educational activities is also high and projects are more

sustainable. Whereas in communities which majority of its members are illiterate,

participation in educational activities is very low and projects do not take off well. In

such areas it is common to find half-finished classrooms. In communities with better

incomes, contribution to education is better than in communities where incomes are

low.

4.4 Intervention by Inter-governmental, Non-governmental and Bilateral Organizations

Many organizations have been involved in promotion of basic education in

Tanzania for a long time. Assistance has been in terms of in-service training for

teacher, provision of books and other teaching materials, capacity building, human

resource development, infrastracture development constancy and research . Some of

the organizations involved in promotion of basic education in Tanzania are:

UNESCO, UNICEF, UND, DANIDA, SIDA, EU, USAID, FINNIDA, and

NORAD.

Examples of donor intervention in education include the Complementary Basic

Education Program in Tanzania (COBET) which UNICEF is funding. This is a

pilot program which is aimed at providing basic education outside the formal

schooling system. The program caters for out-of-school youths, drop-outs and those

who have never enrolled in normal primary schools.

UNESCO is doing a study on mobile populations in Tanzania with aim of

developing appropriate basic education programs for them. UNESCO is also

conducting a pilot project titled “Inclusive School Project” , whose objective is to

train teachers to accommodate disabled children in mainstream primary schools.

These are just a few examples, there are many more donor funded programs in

Tanzania. However , as we enter the twenty-first century, the aim is to generate

education resources from within the country rather than continue to depend on

external donors to initiate and support education projects.


V. Problems and Constraints

Delivery of basic education for disadvantaged rural children is faced with a

number of problems and constraints, which include:

shortage of schools;

shortage of teaching materials;

shortage of books and other publications for reading purpose;

Lack of properly trained and well motivated teachers ;

Curricula which are irrelevant to the social needs of certain groups such as

nomads mobile populations, fisherman, etc;

Increase in the number of illiterates;

Customs and traditions which discriminate against girls in the provision of

education.

VI. Possible Solutions

We have found that the provision of basic education to rural children is a

complex matters in which many factors : social, cultural, economic, political and

natural are involved . This means that to solve the proplers the government needs to

come up with an array of possible solutions . The following are possible solutions to

the problems mentioned above.

Communities must be mobilized to construct new school buildings where they

don’ t exist. They should also be given the mandate to oversee the management of

the schools.

Communities should be sensitized to ensure the availability of teaching and

learning materials in their schools by way of collecting fees and other donations.

Shortage of books in the schools can be alleviated by sensitizing parents to buy

relevant books for their children and also encouraging teachers to write books on the

subjects they teach.

Government should ensure that pre-service teachers are properly trained , in-

serviced teachers are given refreshing courses and opportunities for advancing their

profession. Teachers teaching in remote and hard-to-reach areas should be given 64


special incentive packages, such as special allowances on top of their monthly pay,

free housing and medical care.

Curricula should be modified to suit the needs of children depending on their

way of life e. g. Children from rural communities should learn skills which will help

them become good farmers, whereas children from pastoral or fishermen

communities should learn skills which will help them become good cattle keepers and

good fisherman respectively.

To deal with the increase of the number of illiterates and literates who relapse

into illiteracy, government, communities and grassroot NGOs should develop

complimentary basic education programs to deal with this group of children.

Parents and communities should be sensitized to do away with customs and

traditions that discriminate against girls and to have positive attitudes towards

education of their children and especially girls. This can be done through launching

special advocacy campaigns by grassroot organizations, communities development

officers, political parties and even religious groups.

VII. Conclusion

Despite Tanzania ’ s commitment of providing basic education to all children

there is still the cohort of rural children whose education needs have not been met.

The challenge therefore is to develop new strategies which will fully address the

situation. This calls for new visions, new cost-effective policy measures and

commitment on the part of the government and the people . There is also need to

explore and learn from other developing countries strategies on to providing basic

education for rural communities.

References : 1. Government of Tanzania and UNICEF, Programme and Plan of Operations:

Country Programme of Cooperation 1997 - 2002 , UNICEF , Project 8:

Complimentary Basic Education in Tanzania , COBET , Dar es Salaam ,1997.

2. Mhaila, P. J. Education on the Move ; Self-reliance in Education in the

United Republic of Tanzania, UNESCO, 1979. 65


3. UNICEF , COBET Initiatives in Tanzania A Brain Child of Basic Education

Master Plan and Sector Development Programme, Ministry of Education and

Culture ,1999

4. United Republic of Tanzania ( URT) , Basic Education Statistic in Tanzania

(BET), Dar es Salaam, Ministry of Education and Culture, 1994.

66

._I_------ .-.-.I_--_- .__-


CHINA

New Perspective of Literacy Education Corresponding Strategies

By Liu Yibing

Literacy education seems to have a history as long as that of the existence of

written languages, nevertheless, what’ s regrettable is that literacy education has

long been out of profound and systematical study. Since 196Os, UNESCO has

devoted itself to promoting literacy education all over the world, with it as the

important goal of realizing basic human rights and developing economy. However,

the achievement is still a great far away from our expectation. No matter in

developing or developed countries, illiteracy has been a common social and cultural

phenomenon. At present, there are near 1,000 million illiterates, among whom at

least 70 % are in developing countries. In Canada and America, about 20% adults

are still regarded as functional illiterates. Although the statistics by UNESCO show

that the number of illiterate population is falling, more and more people began to

question how many problems on earth can be explained through these figures. At the

World Conference on Education for All in Jomtien, Thailand in 1990, the

government of each country put forward encouraging goals of literacy education.

Whereas, at the Mid-term Evaluation Conference in Amman, Jordan in 1996, the

achievements of literacy education were just frustrating, which forced UNESCO to

again call on more attention should be given, by each country, to the adults’ basic

education with literacy education as the core. Viewing the practice of eliminating

illiteracy on a whole level, we find it far from being sufficient to comprehend

eliminating illiteracy from the angle of technical operation or experience. In order to

raise the efficiency of literacy education we should understand literacy education from

theoretical level and multi-angle perspectives. The following is just what the author

has learned from the study and class discussions in international Workshop on Rural

Education held in Nanjing, on the basis of which the author’s personal point of view 67


is put forward.

I. The Essence of Literacy Education

Since the time is always making progress, our interpretation of “illiterates” or

“literacy education” should keep up with the progress. In China, the “illiterates”

refer to those who can not read or write. It is defined in China Encyclopaedia that

illiterates refer to those who can neither read nor participate in social activities by

literal means. It has been a common practice in other countries to define “illiterates”

as people without comprehension ability to read and write short paragraphs in daily

life. The comprehension of “illiterates” in China is generally derogative, and always

connected with being ignorant, slow-witted, superstitious, short-sighted, extreme

in mind. It is under the influence of traditional and popular ideas that the literacy

education is simply comprehended as education of learning words, neglecting its

deeper connotation. It is rather inaccurate to classify those who cannot read certain

language or cannot think, express, or communicate in certain language as

“illiterates” or “ignorant persons” . In fact, the relatively insufficient ability shown

when using certain language doesn’ t mean that the person or the group is sure to be

ignorant. Therefore, the distinction between “illiterates” and “literates” should not

only based on the single angle of language. In modern society, those that may be

included in “illiterates” should be those who are lack of the basic education and

ability required by modern life.

Based upon the above comprehension, the essence of literacy education should

be represented in the following aspects.

1.1 Eliminating Illiteracy Is the Process of Promoting the National Stability and the Progress of Democratic Politics.

It is a long history in every country to regard the literacy education as basic

means to realize the national political goals. Take Sweden for example, to popularize

the Bible, its national religious book, the national literacy campaign had been carried

out among its population of lower class since 16th century. It is a doubtless fact that

the learning of official language in the movement promoted the national stability and 68


reinforced the people ’ s common consensuses. Successful literacy education can

greatly rouse the subject consciousness of the disadvantaged, and enable more people

to realize their rights, obligations and responsibilities for national and social

development. Just as the famous educationist of literacy education, Paul Freire said,

transliteration and understanding of language is the starting point to develop self-

consciousness and to understand and reform the world. Lind and Johnston also

pointed out that the movement of eliminating illiteracy is often utilized as the means

of achieving political goals. In the most general sense, literacy education is

considered as the necessary means for the social members of the low-class to develop

the critical thinking, creativity and civilian ’ s good responsibility consciousness

needed by the development of democratic society.

1.2 The Process of Literacy Education Is That of Promoting Economic Development.

The main target group of literacy education is adults, the practical labor forces

that have entered the laboring market and that can directly create wealth for

individuals or the society. Therefore, literacy education is regarded as the new

starting-point of the economic development in backward areas. The aim of literacy

education has long been oriented to promoting working efficiency. Now, all the

literacy education programs in every country stress that the contents should focus on

improving the economic ability of its trainees. A number of developing countries

connect literacy education closely with the program of poverty elimination or

alleviation, emphasizing on the relation between learning contents and economic life.

In a world with severe competition, the precondition for a country to achieve

sustainable development is its minimum educational level or the rate of adults ’

literacy. It is estimated the direct economic loss in America caused by current adult

illiterates amounts to about $40,000 million per year.

1.3 Literacy Education Is the Process of Cultural Acquisition. During the process of literacy education, the study of language plays a critical

role. Language is a special culture. The study and grasp of certain language

simultaneously enables the illiterates to profoundly understand the cultural spirit

embodied in the language. Especially in the minority areas where the non-mother 69

--- -- ---


tongue used as the language in literacy education, the study and grasp of non-

homogeneous language is actually the process of cultural acquisition or cultural

selection. In the process of literacy education, the most important thing is to input

advanced ideas and spiritual culture into the illiterates’ minds. Just as Prof. Lu Jie’

s view: in rural areas, economic poverty usually resulted from cultural poverty.

Thus, the process of literacy education in poor areas essentially is that of helping the

poor reform their cultural concepts, which in turn enable them to gain the intrinsic

power of eliminating poverty.

1.4 The Process of Literacy Education is That for the Individual to Achieve Self- perfection and Improve Self-help Ability.

It seems to be a deep-rooted concept of the people that literacy education is only

a sort of language learning or the tool skill to master written language. Considering

the worldwide trend of literacy education and the requirement of social development,

it has become the requirement of the times to realize the transition from tool-centred

paradigm to culture-intellectual centred paradigm, and divert the emphasis of

literacy education from tool skills to developing intelligence and capacity, so as to

improve the learners’ comprehensive quality on a whole level. During the process of

literacy education, the learners ’ living skills, creative thinking capacity, the

enterprising ability, self-confidence, self-realization should all get continuous

development.

II. The Strategies of Literacy Education

Under the premise of correct understanding the essence of literacy education, a

series of strategies of literacy education must be implemented. Seen from the history

and present condition of literacy education and the successful cases of literacy

education home and abroad, the following strategies must be carried out:

2.1 The Strategy of Centring on Government’s Responsibility Literacy education is a socially systematic engineering that demands widely

mobilization of social forces to participate. Therefore, the government should 70

~__-- ._..^. - .._. - . . . .--. -_____._..... .-.


recognize its role as the main body of implementing literacy education. Literacy

education usually takes place in the areas with a low social development rate, a

fragile economic basis and relatively backward education and culture. As a result, it

goes without saying that it’s a rather complicated and long-term task to implement

literacy education in such a background. “Without national intention and political

will, it is impossible to realize education for all. ” To carry out the strategy of

literacy education with the government as the subject, it is essential to change the

traditional ideas and ways of developing economy before eliminating illiteracy. In

poor areas, it is not practical to give attention to literacy education only after the

economic development. To get rid of the mal-circulation of poverty and backward

economy profoundly, we must take the strategy of dealing with ignorance before

dealing with poverty, and the input should be made in advance of the economy

instead of at the same speed.

2.2 The Strategy of Fully Utilizing the Systematic Resources of Formal Education For a long time, literacy education is considered belonging to non-formal

education system, and implemented with informal education methods. As the basic

education for adults, it hasn ’ t acquired its proper status in the government ’ s

education system. Being conducted in non-formal ways, the implementation of

literacy education lacks serious study and careful organization in its goals,

programmes, teaching contents, implementation and even in evaluation. As a

matter of fact, non-formal education should be a sort of formal education.

Concerning the quality and effectiveness, there is no profound or essential difference

between literacy education in the system of non-formal education and general

education in the system of formal education. In implementing literacy education, the

flexibility of courses, teaching arrangement as well as teaching method doesn’ t mean

arbitrariness.

To guarantee the quality and effectiveness of literacy education while the non-

formal educational resources are relatively insufficient, the easily workable and

efficient strategy is to make full use of formal educational resources for the service of

literacy education. In Chinese remote areas and minority areas, it has been proved

successful to make full use of teachers, classrooms, equipment, book references of 71

,--. -.-.--


the regular or general schools for the service of literacy education. For example, in

Gansu Province, China, 90 % of the teaching task of literacy education is assumed

by the teachers and students in rural primary and secondary schools, and about 80,

000 teachers, with more than 1,300,OOO students of universities ard secordary and

primary schools, take part in the activities of eliminating illiteracy and scientific and

technological activities in rural areas.

2.3 The Strategy of Constructing Learners’ Capacity It seems a very popular idea that the illiterates are ignorant and mentally

retarded. The outstanding late Brazilian educationist Paul Freire wrote a book

entitled Pedagogy of the Opressed, based on the long-term and practical study on

the oppressed illiterates of the lower class in Latin-American countries. He revealed

that social public or the upper class had some traditional prejudice towards the

illiterates. Furthermore, the disadvantaged illiterates’ culture and the values of their

life have been neglected and been looked down upon in general. Freire pointed out

the disadvantaged illiterates have low self-esteem and lack of healthy self-

consciousness. They evaluated their capacity of self-help negatively. Consequently,

the most important task of education is to rouse their self-respect and self-

confidence. Joel S. Migdal pointed out “the society of farmers does not simply

accept the world-wide strong impact caused by the global economic reform and the

state policy in a passive way. ” We should fully recognize the potential power of the

learners. One of the conclusions by the Asia-Pacific Development Centre( APDC) in

their carrying out the program of poverty alleviation and the research of its operating

system is, “the poor people have an extremely strong power to help themselves, ”

however, they “need market, information and training, and the organizations that

support their activities as well. . . and need the necessary social services such as

education, medical service, clean water, health service, etc. ” Therefore, those

working on literacy education should regard the illiterates as the subject of learning,

and lead them to a proper recognition and evaluation of themselves, inspire their self-

esteem, self-confidence and motives to make efforts to reform current conditions; at

the same time, cultivate their self-independence, and creativity and other good

qualities, and directing them to divert their learning from passive learning to

initiative and creative learning, and eventually enable them to acquire the capacity of 72


self- help and development.

2.4 The Strategy of Creating Learning Environment More and more evidences show that, in a society stressing the creation of new

knowledge, those who don’ t know how to learn and are not good at creative

learning should be included in the group of “illiterates”. To guarantee the making of

achievements and to prevent them relapsing into illiterates, we should pay attention

to the construction of learning environment. The family is often neglected but it is

actually the most important learning place. In addition, libraries, stadiums, zoos,

and parks are the places where various education experiences are available. Recently,

UNESCO has made preliminary success in its Program of Community Learning

Centre implemented in some countries. Community Learning Centre is a village-

based centre that provides learning resources and activities, and also a multi-

functional one capable of doing economic, social and cultural activities. Those of

different sex, with different interests, and different requirement all can find their

respective place in the Center. So long as it is well organized, the Centre can become

a low-cost and efficient learning place for all the people.

73


CHINA

Unbalanced Development of Rural Education in China and its Countermeasures

By Wangqiang

Along with the implementation of the policy of Innovation and Openning

world, productive forces of China are being liberated and people’ s enthusiasm in

production is enhanced greatly. As the progress increases, the gap between the East

and the West in terms of economy, social development and education is widening.

The most conspicuous phenomena of the gap in education are the unbalanced

development of rural education between the East and the West.

I. Social and Economic Background

,According to the statistics in 1990, about 45. 7 % of poverty-stricken

population live in the west areas. The frequency at which the poverty occurs in the

East is 5 % , 7.8 % in the central area and 16.8 % in the west area. Among the

poverty-stricken counties at the national level listed in the State-“87” Poverty Relief

Programme, 307 poverty-stricken counties are in the west area, which account for

52% of the total poverty-stricken counties in China. In west areas most of the

counties receive financial subsides from the Central Government, 90% of the

counties in Ningxia receive financial subside, 81% in Yunnan, 51% in Sichuan,

76 % in Shanxi, 69 % in Gansu. In 1993, among the top ten provinces with high

net income per capita, nine provinces and municipalities are in the East, and the

annual net income per capita in the East was twice as much as that in the west

areas.

The ethnic minorities with a large area of land and abundant natural resources

settle the west area. But the west area is characterized by poor natural conditions,

poor agricultural and industrial foundation, inconvenient transportation, low level of

social development, fast population growth, poor educational conditions. 74


Many people in the west areas tend to have poor capacity in knowledge, science

and technology, and people are inclined to persist in preserved and out-of-dated

ideas.

In the market economy system the west area can’ t get rid of the vicious circle:

in poverty-stricken areas, low level of productive forces, weak aspiration for modem

science and technology, professional personnel hardly play their roles, so less

attention is paid to the enhancement of people’s competence.

The limited funds are only used for living instead of investment in education for

facilitating personal development. In return, the low level of education result in low

level of people’ s capacity, backwardness in science and technology, low level of

productive forces and poverty. The elimination of the vicious circle will pose impact

on the social and economic development not only in the west rural area but also the

entire country.

The development of education in the west areas, especially provision of basic

education to all the disadvantaged groups, would be the essential factor for

enhancement of living quality of local people and the development of local

communities.

II. Current Conditions and Problems in Unbalanced Development of Rural Education

The ultimate goal of rural education is to have rural population acquire

knowledge, skills, sense of civics and enterprising capacity.

The core of the rural education is to universalize basic education so as to help

adult illiterates, semi-illiterates receive at least the minimum education. Mr.

Hallak, Director of the Institute of Educational Planning said that basic education is

the type of educational at the starting period of the whole educational process and it

is the basis of the entire education system. From the viewpoint of learners, the basic

education refers to minimum education needed by learners; from the viewpoint of

provider of education, it refers to the maximum education that government could

provide with its citizens.

The comprehensive system set by the World Conference on Education for All 75

FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSIyICJP FOR RURAL EDUCATION

include pre-school education, primary education, literacy education and short-term

training for living skills. The goal of the basic education is to meet the primary needs

of learners. Accordingly, basic education is the people’ s primary human right and

all the citizens should have equal opportunities to recieve education.

The object of EFA pays special attention to the education of poor disadvantaged

children, adult literacy education, gender gap in literacy education. These are the

problems exist mainly in rural areas in developing countries. The highlights cited

here would also indicate the unbalanced development of rural education in China.

2.1 Slow Development of Basic Education Resulted from Limited Input, Which Lead to the Low Capacity of Labor Forces.

According to the National Census in 1990, among the population at the age of 6

and above in the 9 west provinces, only 1. 23 % population received higher

education, 0.36 % lower than the national average.

The population with higher education in Guizhou, Yunnan and Tibet accounted

for no more than 1% . The percentage of illiterates and semi-illiterates on average in

China was 20. 66 % , and the percentages in Tibet, Qinhai, Gansu, Yunnan and

Ningxia were over 30 % . In 1990 the total educational expenditure in 29 provinces,

municipalities and autonomous regions were 37. 8 billion RMB yuan, but the

expenditure in 8 west provinces and autonomous regions was 6.7 billion, accounting

for 17.7 % of the total educational expenditure.

In the west areas the financial input in education is far from the actual needs, as

a result many school-aged children are kept out of school.

2.2 Education of Ethnic Minorities Leaves Behind. In 9 west provinces where ethnic minorities live in compacted communities, 44

ethnic minorities mainly live in the areas. According to the National Census in 1990,

among all the ethnic minorities and the mainstream Han, on national average the

population with primary education and above each thousand population was 698. But

that of the ethnic minorities in west China was low, the number of Hui ethnic

minority was 584 and Tibetan 264.

The backwardness in the education of the ethnic minorities results in the lack of

ethnic minority intellectuals. In the west provinces and autonomous regions of 76

- . -..-.


Gansu, Ningxia, Qinghai and Xinjiang, ethnic minorities accounted for more than

30 % of the total population, but technicians and professionals from ethnic minorities

accounted for only 10 % of the total technicians and professionals, no more than one

third of the national average.

2.3 Literacy Education Is a Vulnerable Point. In the 1950 ‘s and 1960 ’ s the distribution of illiterates was balanced nationwide

because of the large number of illiterates in China. As the gap between different

regions in social and economic development increases, the distribution of illiterates

becomes unbalanced.

From 1950 to 1970 the target groups for literacy education were composed of

cardres in urban and rural areas, staff members and workers in factories and

enterprises, youths and middle-aged farmers, urban residents. After decades of

literacy education endeavor, the illiteracy rate among cardres, workers and urban

residents are almost eradicated, with not more than 5 % . From the ‘geographic

viewpoint, the illiterates are mainly concentrated in rural areas. In 1990 the total

illiteracy population in rural areas was 15, 408, accounting for 85 % of the total

illiteracy population in China.

The indicators show the educational gap between rural and urban areas. At the

same time it tells us the core for literacy work lies in rural areas, the main objective

is to eliminate youths and middle-aged illiterates in rural areas.

The rural education also shows the geographic difference. In the areas with

better social, economic and educational foundation, the literacy education develops

faster, the number of the illiterates decreases. On the contrary in the poverty-

stricken areas, especially in the mountainous isolated ethnic minority areas,

illiterates are concentrated. According to the Fourth National Census in 1990 the

illiteracy rates in Tibet, Gansu, Qinghai, Yunnan, Anhui, Guizou, are above

24 % . The female illiterates account for 69.5 % of the total illiterate population.

77


III* Main Causes for Unbalanced Development of Rural Education

China has a large area with the highest population in the world. The natural

conditions and social and economic development in different regions are quite

different. In townships, developed rural areas and urban areas with better social and

economic foundation, people have experienced the benefit of education. The

enrollment rate of school-aged children keeps above 99 Oh, which stop the pouring of

new illiterates into society. The original illiterates are decreasing. So most of people

in the region could receive basic education. But in the west area school-aged children

and adults have great difficulty in access to basic education. The main obstacles are

as follows :

3.1 Poor Natural Conditions and Limited Available Educational Resources In the underdeveloped areas with poor economic foundation, great gap exists

between the increase in educational need and resources available. In some areas there

are not enough schools or quality educational facilities. In addition, the inconvenient

communication and other factors keep the children out of school and new illiterates

come into society continuously.

3.2 In Some Regions with Slow Economic Development and Low Level of Productive Forces, Poverty Frequently Haunts the Local People.

Along with the development of market economy and township enterprises, the

economic, cultural and educational causes are upgraded. But in the west areas the

economy develops slowly. The local people live and work in a simple and backward

way. Most of the illiterates become poor backward laborers. The local people

obediently accept the current conditions and have no desire for education.

3.3 Out-of-dated Ideas

Because of the backward productive way, many local farmers can’ t experience

and see the benefit of education. Influenced by the traditional ideas that Learn to be

Officials, many farmers stick to the idea that the objective of schooling is to leave 78


rural areas to work as cardres. When many secondary graduates return to work on

farm, many people think that the graduates’ schooling is in failure. Dominated by

the traditional idea of preference for boys over girls, and the idea that girls without

knowledge have great virtue so many girls don’ t go to school. The dropout rate of

girls is high.

IV. Countermeasures

4.1 Reform the Education Management System to Play the Role of Government

Since the foundation of the People’s Republicsf China, China adopted a high

centrally controlled management system. The system contributed much to the

development of education in rural areas, especially in the poverty-stricken areas. But

the management system lacks the flexibility, so it was difficult to cater for the

varieties of social and economic and educational conditions of different regions.

Unitary standards obstacle the enthusiasm of schools and local communities in school

operation.

Since 1985 China undertook the reform of education management system to

stimulate the enthusiasm on local governments, schools and local communities, a

decentralized education management system is adopted. But the decentralized

management system results in the unbalanced development of rural education because

of the difference in social and economic development in different regions.

Provision of education is firstly a governmental behavior, so the educational

resources in poverty-stricken areas should be allocated by government. Such

governmental function is not replaceable. So the government should adopt the

strategy of unbalanced educational input so as to guarantee the balanced development

of basic education.

4.2 Education Management by Category in Accordance with Different Conditions According to the different conditions of different regions, different strategies

should be adopted. According to different target groups, different instructional

methodology should be taken. Choose educational contents in accordance with local

needs so as to have the basic education including literacy education respond to local 79


needs. Basic education develops in content with enhancement of people’s quality and

development of local communities.

4. 3 Formulate Favored Policy to Undertake Charge-free and Compulsory Education and Literacy Education

In the process of universalization of compulsory education, gaps between

different regions often occur. It is essential to formulate responsive policies to help

the under-developed areas to universalize basic education.

To reach the goal of universalization of basic education in China, the decisive

factor is to universalize basic education in rural areas, especially in the remote,

isolated, poverty-stricken ethnic areas. The counties with low enrollment rate are

usually the absolute poverty-stricken counties with the overage income per capita no

more than 300 RMB yuan. In these areas people are short of food and clothes.

Children confront surviving problems, so it is hard for them to go to school. Such

problems could not be solved in a short period of time. So the government should

take practical measures to have the children receive complete charge-free education,

including charge-free textbooks. Government and communities should remove their

survival problems and help the children and adults enjoy educational opportunities.

80

__ _ --.-. . ..- I .._-_-l_ .“-...-^~-.- ..__._ -_-.- _II -_-..- ,-_


CHINA

A Survey On Rural Non-Formal Education Promoting Local Economic Development

- A Case Study of the Extension of Mushroom Production

Techniques in Huangzhuang Village, Nanxi Town, Jingzhai

County

By Zhang Jiayong

I. Objective and Approach of the Survey

With a relatively loose structure, non-formal education has a more direct

objective and a decentralized organization, and it has flexibility of time, so it may be

conveniently employed according to local features. With a flexible approach, it is

learner-centred and stresses on concrete experiences rather than abstract theories.

Anyone can participate only if they have interests and opportunities, regardless of

their age. The teachers are employed with more consideration of their opportunities,

tendency and experience than of their official certificates. Based on practical or

immediate profit as well as the local areas ’ special contents and regulations, non-

formal education makes its thinking with regards to the development of agriculture,

hygiene, service, nutrition, labor, etc. Since it keeps touch with many common

people’s life and more applicable to technical extension, it has a rapid and immense

potentiality in doing contribution to people and the nation. Therefore, specialists all

over the world have given more and more attention to non-formal education, which

developed since 1960s. In order to make clear what function it performs in the

development of the poverty-stricken rural areas, and find out the ways to promote

local economic development and social progress through non-formal education, the

author chooses Huangzhuang Village, Nanxi Town, Jingzhai County for the case

study. 81


Mainly with the approach of interview, supplemented with that of observation,

this survey collects materials by means of on-the-spot investigation, spot visit, and

spot recording etc.

II. Introduction to the Target Group and Place

2.1 Introduction to Huangzhuang Village

Lying in the southwest of Jingzai County, with its western side surrounded by

Dabie Mountain and the other three sides by waters of Shi River (one of the three

branches of Huai River) , Huangzhuang Village is only connected with the outer

world through a narrow hilly road, less than 0. 5m in width. Otherwise, people

have to go by waters across Shi River, so the traffic there is rather inconvenient. It

is rather dangerous to sail across Shi River. The village has a population of 779

persons. At the founding of New China only several people there could read and

write, while its education level has greatly improved since then. Nevertheless, it is

still far behind when compared with the county’ s average level ( the county’ s

illiteracy rate being 2.9 % ) . Among the young and robust, aging from 20 to 45,

5 % of them are illiterate, 12 % are graduates from primary schools, 23 % are from

junior middle schools without qualification, 60% are graduates from junior middle

schools. The illiteracy rate among those over 45 years old is about 78 % . (The above

is adopted from a report of Huangzhuang Village and it is estimated that the actual

figures are higher). The village has an arable land of 585.5 mu, less than 0.8 mu

per capita; moreover, most of the land has a low yield in the shady sunless place.

Since 1978, most of the young and robust have gone out of the village to make a

living, those who left with farming are those over 45 years old. 59 poverty-stricken

households in all, which accounts for 60 % of the total population, the local people

live a hard life with a per capita income less than 700 yuan, depending on farming,

selling firewood and using charcoal. Being the noted poverty-stricken village, the

team collecting taxes, which had come with great zeal, has to leave it empty-

handedly and much disappointedly every year. With a low education level and weak

understanding of legal system, those working outside usu,ally fail to make much

money but commit many crimes, and more than ten of them have been arrested 82


subsequently. However, Huangzhang has its advantages as a typical “ rich

mountain, poor people” village: rich in wood resource, with wide areas of over 10,

000 mu. The villagers there used to live only by selling fireworks and charcoals,

which is a waste of labor and resource. Since 1992, led by Zeng Qingyu, they began

to cultivate eatable mushrooms and work well on the way to becoming rich.

2.2 An Introduction to Zeng Qingyu

Zeng Qingyu, male, 38, a farmer of Huangzhuang Village, graduate of senior

middle school, once a member of the Youth League. His father is the famous scholar

in a old-style private school there; his old brother Zeng Qinghe and young brother

Zeng Qingqun work as teachers, and Zeng Qingfu, another younger brother, is the

leader of Huangzhuang Village. As a child, Zeng Qingyu studied after his father and

was a clever and outstanding student, especially good at math. He graduated from

junior middle school just at the late period of “Cultural Revolution”, a time when

entrance to senior middle school required recommendation. He had to return home

since the recommendation quota was taken away by the son of one of the leaders.

Half a year later, he was sent to a so-called senior middle school to study, 40 miles

away from the village. After graduation, he again returned and did farming work.

Early in 8Os, he, as a peddler, began to buy and sell Chinese medicines but failed to

become rich. In the spring of 1992, under the advice of Zeng Qingqun, he began

the extension of mushroom production techniques. At first, with 4000 yuan

borrowed from others, he produced 7000 bags of mushroom seed and sold them to

the farmers all on credit, which eventually brought him success. Presently, his

station built for the extension of mushroom production techniques sells 500,000 -

80,000 bags of mushroom seeds per year, whose output reached over 3,000,OOO

yuan .

III. Process of the Survey

(January 27, after walking 5 km across the mount and rowing across Shi

River, we arrived at Huangzhuang Village. Along the road, we saw many

mushroom production bases built with waste wood. Hardly had we entered his room 83


when we found some are peeling among the waste wood, each of, which is 4 cun in

length lying in front of the door. The main room is separated into two, one as the

inoculation room, the other as breeding room. More surprisingly, a balance together

with some beakers and testing tubes is put on a trivet, and on the table lay various

tablets. The TV set in bedroom is TCL color TV, which is rarely seen in the

village. It is said that Zeng Qingyu never misses the program broadcast by CCTV

economic station every evening. Unfortunately, suffering from late cancer in

addition to his indifference to fame, he didn’ t agree to have an interview, so we had

to conduct it among his brother Zeng Qingqun who is 32 years old male teacher and

some of the villagers. >

The following are dilogues between the interviewer and Zang Qingqun. The

interviewer raised questions and Zeng answered .

Q: How have you come to get engaged in the extension of mushroom production

techniques?

A: For many years, using the traditional farming means and being backward in

productivity, our villagers had been living a very difficult life. Every time when I

came back at Spring Festival, I found my fellow villagers couldn’t pay the taxes or

the tuition for their children, I would be very sad. As a university graduate of the

village, I wanted to do something for them, but without money and power, I could

only rely on my major -biology. I calculated in this way: using the waste wood

as firework is a waste of resource, 100 jin firework can just turn into 10 jin charcoal,

worthy 5 - 6 yuan. Whereas, 100 jin wasted wood can be used to cultivate 3 jin

black eatable fungus, with a considerable profit of 120 yuan. The development of

mushroom is a short-term high efficient project that needs little investment and has

low risk and low requirement of technique; which can save the Huangzhang people

out of their difficult situation right away. During the holiday, I did spot

investigation in the production bases of Gutian in Fujian, Luming in Henan and

Qingyuan in Zhejiang, besides, I went to Shanghai, Canton, and Hangzhou to

survey and analyse the market. After that, I made strict selection and introduced

the improved breeds, and then carried out improvement tests in the lab of the

school. Since I was too busy to go home, the concrete work was all done by my 4th

elder brother, Zeng Qingyu. He is very clever and grasped the whole set of

technique quickly and could do the study work independently. 84


Q: Everything is hard in th e b eginning. How did you open up a new prospect?

A: In the spring of 1992, with the support of the village leaders, we called a

motivation meeting in the primary schoolyard and distributed “ A Letter to

Huangzhuang Villagers” . We talked with them and asked them to think about the

question: why we are poor? After the meeting, we went to visit each household to

persuade them. Eventually, eight households, including my own, became the first

batch of households of cultivation. That year, my 4th elder brother, with the help

of relatives and friends, collected 4000 yuan and sold all the 7000 bags of seeds on

credit to the villagers, despite that his own children couldn’t hand in the tuition on

time and the whole family had no meat to eat. After the distribution of the seed, my

4th elder brother began to provide the technique service from door to door and I

occasionally went home to teach as well. The residents in mountain areas don’t live

so closely that we had to walk more than ten miles hilly road to get to a household,

with another one is also over ten miles away. To be responsible to those households,

we managed to avoid the man-made loss by setting off early and returning late,

drinking spring water, and eating cold steaming-cakes. It proved to be fruitful that

the first batch of cultivation households achieved success: Wang Deren made a profit

of over 8000 yuan with an input of 400 yuan; Cai Liang 12000 yuan with an input

of 600 yuan; Wand Dexi 20000 yuan with an input of 800 yuan.

Q: What approaches did you take in the extension?

A: We can’ t be very strict in farmers’ theory, and it’s all right if they can operate.

First, we gathered all the cultivation households to the cultivating scene. We taught

them hand by hand, and explained the key points again and again, directed them to

operate. When doing that, we tried not to use technical terms and didn’ t stop

explaining each step in local accent until they grasped it. Secondly, we provided

door- to-door guidance. We helped them buy materials, disinfecting, pack,

inoculate, and breed. Thirdly, we provided all-angled and 24-hour service. My 4th

elder brother would answer questions as long as he was at home. Fourthly, to train

technically skilled persons. With the rapid increase of the cultivation households, we

selectively chose someone from the households to train technically skilled persons,

and these skilled persons would pass technique to other households around them.

Fifthly, we printed technical references. There are a lot of illiterates among the

cultivation households, but usually there is a student in each household, so we 85

. ..-. ---~ _


printed 7 kinds of referential materials over 5000 copies.

Q: Would you please talk about the first batch of cultivation households?

A: The first batch of cultivation households are those who have a better economic

condition and relatively flexible in mind and relatively high in educational level.

They have the courage to try. Even if they failed, their normal life would not be

affected. They are very attire in trying new things. What ’ s worth mentioning is

that farmers have immense creativity. Many of them became technically skilled

persons from knowing nothing, and even put forward more advanced method in

some operating procedures. With their experience, we revised the former materials

and reedited and reprinted them, which led to the joint improvement of production

technique level.

Q: Apart from economic profits, have the farmers got improvement in other

aspects?

A: First of all, there are changes of the farmers’ ideas. In the past, they were

accustomed to waiting, depending on others and asking for what they need and they

believed in fate and fortune, but now they just believe that only science, only

courage can make them rich. Secondly, they have developed a preliminary

realization of the market. They used to have a superficial understanding of goods and

fail to know the market law, but now many of them have understood the idea that

“larger scale, less risk” and developed the production bravely. Furthermore, they

have a different attitude to literacy. They used to regard literacy as a way out of

farming house, but now they know that literacy is the root of becoming rich.

Q: What have you done regarding products’ sales?

A: The peddlers will come to purchase as soon as it is the season. Then the agents

will gather the goods and send them to medicine market in other places. It is not

necessary to worry about its sales at all. We contact the foreign traders as well,

trying to get higher price to export. This year, we signed a 15-ton contract with the

clients from Japan and South Korea. The market is raised by our purchase at the

price 45 yuan / jin higher than the market price.

Q: Have you thought about cooperating with the government?

A: The government staff are so self-fish that the people don’ t trust them. They are

not willing to endure hardship and their working attitude is not serious, which

results in their low efficiency, no practical gains. The government of Nanxi Town 86


once invited my 4th brother to work in the agricultural technique station, but we

refused.

Q: Have you ever planned to propagandize through the mass media, so as to enlarge

its influence or to do the extension of techniques?

A: It’s not necessary. We don ’ t worry about the sales. They will come to buy as

long as we have the goods. Moreover, it’s too expensive. We can’t afford that.

Q: How do the farmers spend their money after they become rich?

A: 100% households of Huangzhang Village have built brick houses, l/3 of them

plan to build houses of several stories. A few of them have enlarged the production

scale and replaced equipment, but for me, I haven’t got quite ready in doing this.

Wang Deqiu, Male Farmer 78 in Age

(The old farmer lives in a 2-story building, in which we saw color TV, fridge and

other electric equipments . On the first floor , a shop selling all kinds commodities

has been opened for half a year. >

Q: Could you tell us how you become so rich?

A: Owing greatly to Mr. Zeng Qingyu and Zeng Qingqun , who help us produce

mushroom, our lives are bettered recently. He is just like a shoulder pole that

anyone can use it to carry heavy burden. Hey! Kind person lives short life. His son,

11 years old, died of illness last year. Now he is suffering f;om cancer. The God has

no eyes.

Q: Are you afraid that there are so many mushroom producers nowadays?

A: The more producers are, the more famous our village will be and the more

peddlers will come. We are glad about it.

Q: Will you dare to plant Chinese-traditional medicine if some one asks you to?

A: surely will.

Q: Now you’ve got money. Which do you prefer, building new houses or sending

children to school?

A: Both of them are important. If I could choose only one, I would send children to

school. Because without knowledge, nothing could be done. Zeng Qingyu has more

knowledge, thus he has the ability to help us. In the past, we believed in fate, now

we all understand that it’s science and knowledge that can help us.

87


IV. Analysis and Conclusion

Popularizing the mushroom productive techniques, Zeng Qingyu achieved a

great success in rural areas, where education and economic level are relatively low.

His experiences can be summed up as follows:

4.1 The Advantage of Technology

Being a biology teacher, Zeng Qingqun has done research work on mushroom

techniques for a long time . He made strict selection and introduced improved breeds

so that the local people have trust in him.

4.2 Omnibearing service “Our objectives are highly identical. Only you got rich, can my station be

prosperous. ” (Adopted from references printed by Zeng Qingyu) Since objectives

and benefits are consistent, the services can be ensured. Only combined his own

services with households’ benefits, can he provide excellent services. Only excellent

services can determine the efficiency of the extension.

4.3 The Spirit of Bearing Hardship

In order to help the households, Zeng Qingyu endured lots of hardships,

climbing high mountains, crossing icy water and eating cold food etc. The spirits of

bearing hardships can rarely be found among government staff.

4.4 Making Change Flexibly According to the Market Zeng Qingyu did spot investigations on markets in different places that have

been mentioned above. He knew what kind of mushroom was popular on the market

and made strict selection for introduction. Thus all the products meet the need of the

market.

4.5 Efficient Forms of Extension. Cl Demonstration on the spot;

0 Gotting people together to train; 88


0 Printing references ;

0 Compulsory consulting services;

Cl Individual guides.

In a word, employing non-formal education, taking full advantages of local

resources, Zeng Qingyu achieved a great success, showing the enormous potentiality

and tremendous power of non-formal education in promoting local economic

development. From it we can see:

a. Economy can be improved by bringing science and technology into rural

poverty-stricken areas. However, bringing science and technology into rural areas

depends on intellectuals. Non-formal education has great vitality and a vast worldin

these areas. Zeng Qingqun, an intellectual, is the direct resource of Zeng Qingyu’s

skills. Under his guides, a few farmers was awaken, who are sparks started a prairie

fire in rural village.

b. Men like Zeng Qingyu, who is familiar with farmers and willing to bear

hardships, are indispensable factor of the success.

Only combined with the development of rural economy and requirement of daily

life, can non-formal education produces good result. Literacy education, vocational

education, extension of agricultural technology and farmers ’ evening schools have

not produced satisfactory results for a long time, mainly becluse they are isolated

from practice, from farmers’ life, therefore can’ t stimulate farmers’ zeal.

During the process of receiving non-formal education, farmers are not always

passive. They use their intelligence to create new fruit of knowledge which will

promote the development of culture and technology, after collected by intellectuals.

The knowledge learned in academic schools can’ t be used directly in productive

labor. To acquire wealth, we must employ practical techniques as a bridge.

Although a number of junior middle schools graduates came out in Huang Zhuang

village the situation of the village wasn ’ t improved directly. Whereas, it ’ s

necessary to combine academic school, vocational schools and adults schools

together.

89


V. Problems and suggestions

5.1 The Forms of Extension The forms of mushroom techniques extension in HuangZhuang village are varied

and efficiency. These forms are suitable for a small scope, but not for a county or

larger. To meet the enlargement of the extension, forms combined with government

as follows can be employed:

5.1.1 Make radio or TV programs on practical technology

In rural areas, nearly every family has radio or TV. Whereas, programs on

technique of each key link can be broadcasted at slack season. It’ s audio-visual and

fit for long distance teaching, saving time and efforts.

5.1.2 Farmers ’ Association

Headed by authoritative farmer, on a voluntary basis of mutual benefit, an

association can be organized. The orientation of the association is regional joint-stock

company, which will promote the specialization and intension of agriculture.

5.1.3 Specialized Class

Specialized classes on mushroom technology should be opened in vocational

schools, where students can learn the basic knowledge, theory and skills. Thus,

Practical technology extension and development will be ensured.

5.1.4 Farmers ’ Night school

Most of the farmers’ night schools in rural areas have been run out of work for

a long time. After hanging out the shingle, it’s common that everything is over .

The extension of agricultural technology can take advantage of night schools to set

up short classes in slack season.

5.1.5 Lectures on Special Topics.

Experts and experienced technical personnel can be invited to give speeches on

mushroom produce, who will enhance the productivity and bring new messages of

the market.

90


5.1.6 Explain the Main Points while Selling the Raw Materials to Farmers

The men who supply the raw materials should explain the usage of them to local

people.

5.1.7 Curry Out Training Activities, Combined With Literacy Education .

Literacy education is hard to get actual effect. Farmers who were taught to

read and write become illiterates again before long. However, combined with the

extension of practical technology and the development of the local economy, not only

can the literacy education be improved but also the farmers’ lifee be bettered.

5.2 About the Market The role of market is essential in developing commodity economy. But the

market of Huangzhuang village is an elementary market, in which the acts of

swindling are common. It’s indispensable to develop a mature market.

Take full advantage of media to extend influences.

Encourage enterprise purchasing stations, state-owned or private, to take part

in the circulation of mushroom. A circulation network should be established, at the

bottom of which are thousands of peddlers, in the middle of which are hundreds of

specialized households, at the top of which are big companies.

Government at regular intervals hold trade fairs. As it says that government put

up stage while economy and trade perform on it.

5.3 Institutional Framework The mushroom technical advice station in Hungzhuang Village is an entity that

integrates private science research and manufacture. Zeng Qingyu is not only a

technician, but also an administrator. When it’s busy, he employs a few temporary

workers to help him. The management of it is the same as that of a workshop,

which isn’ t suitable for the future development of the extension. In pace with steady

growth of production, non-governmental scientific research should combined with

government so that random, blindness, disorders can be avoided.

5.4 Social Influence While engaged in producing mushroom, the farrners in Huangzhuang Village

91


changed their ways of thinking from believing in fate /God to believing in knowledge

and science and got a deeper understanding on market. It ’ s a great progress,

however all these changes were taken place unconsciously and naturally. Still it’ s

common that farmers in Huangzhuang Village spend money in building new houses,

buying luxurious electrical equipment instead of enlarging the production scale and

replacing equipment. The government should grasp opportunities to guide the

farmers, promote the development of the whole rural community, and raise the

farmers’ cultural level.

92


CHINA

The Impact of Rural Women Non-formal Education on Women ’ s Living Quality

By Zhuang Xizheng

I. Non-formal Education and Its Characteristics

The concept of non-formal education first came into use in 1960s. In early

years, the weaknesses of traditional school education system were too obvious, so

people became interested in non-formal education, an outside-school education which

acts as a substitute for or a complement to formal school system. It benefited the

development of social economy and culture. Since the early 1970s it began to be

thought highly of and has developed rapidly.

As to the concept of non-formal education, as well as contents and its effects,

there are great divergences. Some appraise it as an effective complement to formal

education whereas others depreciate it as a second-class education. In fact in some

countries and regions, non-formal education did and does play an important role in

fields such as illiteracy elimination and labor’s vocational technology education. Also

it contributed or contributes greatly to economic and social development. It is

unnecessary and meaningless to set a concrete universal concept of non-formal

education. It never confines itself to a singular form or a concrete content. It is

dynamic in either contents, forms or medias, namely, in terms of different needs of

an individual or a group it can adopt any form in any area. Coins together with his

collaborator put forward the definition that non-formal education is any organized

educational activity except formal education with its aim to serve specific objects and

specific study item. It indicates that comparing to traditional education, non-formal

education hasno universal teaching contents, teaching process and length of

schooling; that classes such as literacy classes, anti-illiteracy classes and technique 93


training classes can be held for drop-outs; and that non-formal education is a mixed

education to those who have no chance to receive formal education or those who

want further education. Non-formal education is fit for the development of Chinese

rural areas, especially fit to educate rural women. As China is a developing country,

there are great differences between urban areas and rural areas. Even among rural

areas, some are developed whereas others are undeveloped. Delving into this

phenomena, the main reason is not because of different natural environments,

different customs and inheritances, but because of people’ competence. With low

competence people certainly cannot take advantages of modern scientific techniques

to fully exploit natural resources. People’ s low competence is due to the less

development of education.

n . Rural Women Are in Need of Help and Are Labour Resources With Great Potentialites

As the population of Chinese rural areas occupies 80% that of the whole

country, half of it are femals. At present women’s roles in society are consented by

more and more people. Usually Chinese rural women have to do much more work

than men. For instance, besides the same hard work in fields as men do, women

have to do housework and to breed children. However, their social status is still too

low. Guided by traditional beliefs that men’s superior to women and that women

without intelligence are virtuous, most rural women are excluded from being

educated. Girls born of a poor family have no chance to go to school. Even they

have got the chance to study in school, they have to quit school early to return home

to help the family. As a result, the number of illiterate women in rural areas is much

larger than that of rural illiterate men. Since women have no equal chance to be

educated as men, their intelligence cannot be fully exploited.

To what extent women are educated correlates with the improvement of human

health and the birth rate. Women of different cultural levels show great differences

in the quantity of children and the way of breeding children. In 1994, Programme

of Action of the 4th World Women ’ s Congress claimed clearly that since women

formal and non-formal education could result in good social and economic effects, it 94


is one of the best measures to sustainable development.

Chinese government also agreed to this claim. In the latest 50m years,

enormous labour force and material resources have been invested on education

(including women education), endeavoring to eliminate rural illiterate women. At

present nine-year compulsory education has been popularized so as to completely

change the phenomenon of inequality of men and women in education, to offer

women elementary education, life education and preliminary health protection, thus

promoting the sustainable development centred to human beings (including incessant

growth of economy). To some extent, great achievements are made only when rural

women take part in the process of developing rural economy through education. It is

only when rural women become independent from men and when the reformation of

economic structure is undertaken can rural woman become the necessary labors in

rural construction.

m . Non-formal Education Strongly Supports Rural Women in Rural Economic Construction. In rural areas, no high-quality formal education is offered to rural women.

Influenced by traditional education policy, formal education only imparts knowledge

to formal students to further study in universities. To those who don’ t go on further

study, the knowledge they have learned is useless to daily life. They have no

knowledge of various fertilizers and agricultural chemicals. As days pass by, they

may become illiterate. All this weakens the development of rural society, so it is 1 obviously urgent and important to implement rural women’s non-formal education in

terms of local situations. This education consists of two parts: one is to complement

to formal teaching contents some practical technique trainnings and other scientific

activities correlated with local production, and the other is to run mixed classes for

female drop-outs, lecturing practical techniques which are easy to learn and which

can bring immediate economic results. They enable women to take part in local

economic construction.

95


Iv. A Case Study: Ways Employed in Dingshui Town, Linyi City Shandong Province

4.1 Introduction to Dingshui Town Dingshui Town, located in the south of Yimeng mountains with the 206 th

national road across it, has a population of about 25,000. As its main land is plain,

the local people live on rice and peanuts growing. The yearly income is 1,500 yuan

RMB per capita, which simply solves the problem of enough food and clothing. In

order to lead a relatively comfortable life, most men in this town do manual work

outside the hometown, leaving women as main labour force in the fields and at

home. Thus in order to fully exploit these women’s potentialities, Dingshui Adult

Education Center unites agricultural technology stations, veterinary stations,

Dingshuyi women ’ s Federation, the Family-planning Association and hospitals to

organize various women non-formal education, making great efforts to lead women

to take part in the course of developing the local society.

4.2 Spreading out Agricultural Techniques Through Broadcasting

As local people mainly live on rice and peanuts growing, a famous market for

peanuts picking, perchasing and selling has been formed there. Each year large

quantity of peanuts are sold outside the town. Growing peanuts needs special

techniques, yet traditional ways of growing could only result in low production,

which explains the reason why for so many years farmers ’ production had always

been 200 to 300 jin per mu. However, as to modern scientific techniques, they were

not easy to be grasped because of labours’ low educational levels. So the Adult

Education Center united agricultural technology spreading stations to run Sunday-

training-classes in rooms of elementary schools. Women were trained to grasp

advanced and simple techniques such as plastic film covering farm chemical, applying

chemical fertilizer and planting improved variety of crops, promoting the

productivity. In order to make techniques more simple by women to grasp, the way

of broadcasting was employed for agricultural technicians to explain them explicitly.

In addition to that, demonstrations were given to solve problems raised in the

process of growing. At present peanut production has reac.hed 500 to 600 jin per 96


mu. The cases such as crops were burnt up because of the improper usage of farm

chemical have never happened again.

In recent years with the expanding of techniques of vegetables or strawberry

planting in plastic sheds and those of growing mushroom, the proper income can

reach 5000 yuan RMI3 per mu, thus raising women’s status in their families.

4.3 Populizing Knowledge of Maternity and Child Care Through Women Night Schools

Comparing to the past, the number of children in a family is not large, and

people’ s life is much better. However due to lack of hygienic knowledge and

knowledge of health care, unhealthy hygienic habits and the belief that men are

superior to women were once still prevailing. So the Adult Education Center united

the Family-planning Association and village hospitals to organize women night

schools in all villages. Teachers are rural women selected from each village who have

received formal education for five to eleven years. They are trained before they begin

to give lectures at night schools. They compile materials explaining physiological

hygienic knowledge such as the significance of eating iodized salt, common diseases

protection and cure, contraception, child breeding and cultivation, women health

protection, and equality of men and women. Together with other factors, women

night schools produce good results: Many families are one-child families, the health

of women and children has been improved greatly, and the incidence of infectious

diseases and epidemic diseases has dropped considerably.

4.4 Developing Material Processing and Animal Raising in Line with Local Conditions

With the 206th national road across the town, transportation there is quite

convenient. It takes only five to six hours to go to the harbour city Qingdao. For a

long time, each year after the busy season women just stayed at home breeding

children, thus causing great waste of time and manpower, so the Adult Education

Center sent men to Qingdao to look for business for women to do at home, such as

embroidery, weaving and knitting, which could increase women’s income. As the

requirement of quality of products is high, women need to be trained. Since the

techniques are simple, it usually takes women about 10 days to study. Followings 97


are the concrete process: First, the Adult Education Center sends men to find

business, to get raw materials, to make a contract on price and date of delivery, and

to invite technicians to give lectures on techniques as well as to strictly examine the

quality of products. Second, training classes are held for women to attend on their

will, and in turn, to train others in their own villages. Third, assignments are given

differently according to women’ s different requirements. Women are required to

regularly deliver products and to get raw materials. Last, the Adult Education

Center sends those qualified products to foreign trade departments and then pays

women according to their work. This kind of business has no set time, and each

year there may be several for women to do with. Actually it is warmly welcomed by

women for they not only have grasped techniques but also have increased their family

income.

Long ago the fuel villagers used were stems of crops, but at present with the

improvement of living conditions and increase in crops output, some stems of the

crops can be saved from being fuelled. After being processed these stems become

feed suitable for women to raise animals such as pigs and rabbits. Rabbit fur is one of

Chinese important exports with the price at 50 to 100 yuan per jin. Raising rabbits

is profitable, yet corresponding techniques such as how to use feed and how to

protect and cure diseases are required. So the Adult Education Center unites

veterinary stations to hold training classes expanding technology. Corresponding

booklets are also compiled for women. One woman in each village is trained to be a

message between peasants and veterinary stations. Besides rabbits, pigs raising

techniques are also trained in the same way. Women become independent in

economy, for they can earn 2000 to 5000 yuan RMB a year larger than their

husbands’ income. They become more confident in themselves.

4.5 Lessons and Suggestions Rural women non-formal education in this town has made great achievements.

The main reasons are as following.

a. Management

It is the Adult Education Center who unites others to implement non-formal

education, thus the management will never be thrown into confusion.

b. Funds 98


Funds come from the government allocation as well as funds raised by education

itself. The former is offered by executive departments whereas the latter is from

some subsidies and the service fees collected from women after they really have their

own economic income.

c . Teachers

Teachers are appointed to the position either on their free will or being invited.

The former are the cardres in executive departments and experts in agriculture,

while the latter are technicians outside the town.

d. Contents

Contents are set in line with local conditions. They are usually knowledge of

daily life and practical techniques which can fully exploit local natural resources and

labour resources. Corresponding books compiled for women are Knowledge of

Agriculture, Technology on Rabbit Raising, Embroidery, Weaving and

Knitting, Common Sense of Women Health Protection and Cure, 100 Problems on

Animal Raising, and so forth.

e. Time and form

Women can be assembled in spare time as at night or the time going to

markets. Ways employed can be broadcasting or village news boards. All these are

employed depending on the rural women’ s ways of living.

Meanwhile, there exists some weaknesses. Followings are the weaknesses

together with suggestions.

a. Non-formal education only takes into consideration the women outside schools.

Because of the traditional way of teaching ( i. e. the school only spreads out

knowledge enabling students to go on further study), females who have graduated or

will graduate from secondary schools still have no competence to work in farms. So

to speak, formal education should be linked with non-formal education and

becomplemented to each other. Students of pupils need have chances to learn

practical technology related to local production and life, and to attend various

training classes.

b. Funds are far beyond enough and equipments for teaching are too simple and

crude. As there still exists tendency to think little of non-formal education, the funds

from those for whole education are less than expected. Besides, the Adult Education

Center is in charge of non-formal education, yet itself has no places to hold training 99


classes. All this weakens the implementation. Though non-formal education is

secondary to formal education, it should have its basic equipment treated fairly, and

so the Equipment for formal education can be fully exploited.

c. Teaching contents and form are lack of creativeness. At present Chinese rural

women are still confined to traditional ideas. In order to emanicipate them

completely, taking part in economic construction is not enough. They need to take

part in politics as well as culture. Non-formal education needs to populizes the ideas

that women and men are equal in the society, sharing the same responsibility and

duty, and that promising future can be realized only through the collaborationof men

and women.

v. Conclusions

The education of women marks the degree of nation’ s civilization. Only when

women have the equal chance to be educated well could the whole society advance.

Non-formal education is one of the efficient measures. As its contents are practical

and profitable, it has great significance in rural women’s taking part in social and

economic constructions. It enhances rural women ’ s ability to live, and improves

their skills in farming and living.

100


CHINA

An Investigation of Rural Non-formal Education in Rugao County and Its Implication

By Sun Dejun

In January 1999, an on-the-spot investigation was conducted on the current

situation of rural non-formal education in Rugao County. Departments such as

Rugao Rural Operations Department, Rugao Agricultural Bureau and Rugao

Education Commission were visited. So were some rural adult education centers and

agricultural technology spreading stations. In the process some local farmers were

also interviewed. The purpose is to find some universal phenomena by the

illustration of this investigation. It’s hoped to help find the basic principles of rural

non-formal education, and to throw some light on how to perform the rural

education reformation.

I. Targets

The targets of Rugao ’ s rural non-formal education are: 1. to eliminate

illiteracy; 2. to improve farmers ’ education levels ( eg. , At present technique-

qualification diplomas are set for farmers. > ; 3. to help farmers master practical

techniques so as to make their lives better; 4. to help construct socialist spiritual

civilization and maintain rural community’s stability.

II. Contents

Contents of rural non-formal education nearly touch upon all areas of rural life

and production. To be specific, the contents of Rugao’s rural non-formal education

are grouped into the following parts.

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3.1 Rural practical techniques training. It is contemporarily one of the most important contents in non-formal education

and it occupies nearly 70% of all the contents. The purpose of it is to let farmers

master techniques of production to live better off, namely to make education serve

rural economic development.

3.2 Literacy education.

After several years’ endeavor, this county’s rate of literacy reaches 99 % . At

present efforts are made to consolidate this rate of literacy, and meanwhile to

promote these people’ education level.

3.3 Education in legality. It has nowadays become more and more important in rural non-formal education

nowadays, for it helps construct rural spiritual civilization and maintain rural

community’s stability.

3.4 Education in family planning and population.

Many adult education centers regularly hold lectures to inform people of the

knowledge of family planning, how to cultivate children and so forth.

3.5 Education in protecting environment.

Rural areas are no longer paradises out of the question of pollution. In 1998 this

county undertook an experimental education on environmental protection in two

villages. It is planned to popularize this education in 1999.

m . Measures

Ways to carry out rural non-formal education are various. Traditional ones such

as short- term training, night school, on-the-spot teaching and teaching through

broadcasting are still playing important roles. In the first half year of 1998, adult

education centers in this county ran altogether 581 training classes and trained 58,

453 persons. Adult schools run by villages held 5, 682 training classes. Besides, 102

.--.-


with the wide-spread usage of TV sets and computer networks, some modern

teaching methods have been employed. In the first half year of 1998, adult schools

run by villages held 749 lectures by the way of TV broadcasting, and 221 classes

with the help of electrical audio-visual aids. Addition to that, some agricultural

technology commpetition were held to stimulate farmers to study and apply

techniques. It was welcomed warmly by farmers and it produced good results. In

1998, the First Scientific Rice-growing Competition attracted totally 38 villages, 1,

451 farmers to take part in. In the process of competition, agricultural technicians

spread out newly advanced techniques, making this competition an efficient way of

education.

Iv. Teachers and teaching materials

The full-time teachers in adult education centers in Rugao are mostly from

common education system. Their duty is to organize rural non-formal education and

to see it through. Instructors are appointed to the position according to different

teaching contents. They may be cadres of different levels, agricultural technicians as

well as experts. They get no pay and usually give instructions on holidays or at

night. Some instructors themselves may become experts in certain areas of practical

techniques. For instance, Tian Wenhai, once a teacher in an elementary school, was

engaged to be an instructor. Then he made great efforts to study ways of raising

chickens, and spread out them to the farmers. In order to protect and cure chicken

diseases, he invented an effective medicine named Sanhuangtang. By attending the

chickengrowing technique training class with instructions given by Tian Wenhai,

many farmers grasped the techniques and set up chicken farms.

As one target of rural non-formal education is to promote rural community’s

speed of development, it should take into consideration the local situation. As a

result there are no universal materials. All materials are compiled by education

centers themselves. Once Rugao Agricultural Bureau compiled a series of materials to

promote “Green Diploma Project”, namely, peasant technique-qualification diploma

project. It is characterized by the followings: 1. having close contact with local

nature, society and economy; 2. employing simple words convenient for farmers to 103


understand; 3. being practical. All the contents in the materials can be applied to

production so long as they are grasped. And usually they will produce good results.

V. Funds

At present funds of rural non-formal education are from the government.

Obviously they can never meet the needs of the rapid development of education.

According to the government of Jiangsu province, the cost of adult education must

be averagely 0. 2 - 0. 5 yuan RMB per capita. But because of the present local

economy, cost of adult education in Rugao can only reach 0. 15 yuan RMB per

capita. Namely, one year only 1,500 yuan RMB is spent on non-formal education in

towns with a population of 10, 000. Comparing to the work of rural non-formal

education such funds are far below enough.

In order to solve the fund problem, Rugao County is undertaking a project

named Item Project. Adult schools are required to unite agricultural stations to

develop new items which can result better economy. In turn , these schools have the

ability to solve fund problems.

VI. Results

6.1 Social effects

Just in 1998, 170 anti-illiteracy classes and further education classes were run,

training over 7,600 persons. More than 800 lectures and training classes in aspect of

population education were held, training over 57,400 persons. And 1, 134 short-

term training classes in aspect of practical techniques were run, training 104, 724

persons. More and more farmers are ready to receive non-formal education. They

view it as a part of life and also expect to grasp techniques to live better just with the

help of such education.

6.2 Economic effects.

As is estimated by Rugao Education Department, over 10, 000, 000 yuan RMB

can be gained only though the practical technique training. Item Project undertaken 104


in towns or villages enlarges farmers’ income. For instance, in 1998, with the

wide-spread technique of raising chicken and rabbits in Chemahu, farmers ’ income

was increased over 700 yuan RMB per capita. In Changqin, with the development

of Sugarcane Growing Item, farmers’ yearly income reached over 2,500 yuan RMB

per capita, over 500 yuan more than that of the year before.

W . Inspiration

Rugao rural non-formal education has made great achievement. Following are

inspiration and lessons drawn from it.

7. 1 It gave prominence to the characteristics of rural non-formal education,

namely, being practical and efficient. Rural non-formal education has to serve

agriculture, villages and farmers in town and village administrative areas. It

developes in the course of contact with practice and economy of local areas. Thus

there is not a set model in rural non-formal education*development. Each area has to

analyse its own situation to find a suitable way to develop itself.

7.2 The advocation of Item Project offers a good example of thinking to the

development of rural non-formal education. Item Project means to choose practical

technology as training contents of a separate unity to train farmers so as to lead them

to make wealth. This technology usually has a promising future in the market, that

can result better economy, and that can be widely spread out. Item Project consists

of two parts: Item Entity and Item Education. The formal is the basis while the

latter is the measure to make a profit. So to speak, Item Project helps non-formal

education relieve government ’ s financial burden and acts as Model Project and

Leading Project attracting farmers to receive non-formal education.

7.3 The implementing of Green Diploma Project is an important guarantee of

farmers’ competence improvement. Item Project aims to enlarge farmers’ income,

yet Green Diploma Project emphasizes on farmers ’ competence improvement.

Though this project needs enormous labour force and material resources, it has a

great impact on the improvement of rural labours ’ competence and that of labour 105


productivity.

7.4 Education in environmental protection is the content that needs more attention

to in rural non-formal education. The advocation of it meets the social need to

protect environment and to enhance farmers’ sense of environmental protection. As

people become to realize the harm caused by air pollution, water pollution and noises

in the urban areas, few people think of the pollution in rural areas such as too much

land exploitation and arbitrarily lumbering. It is really an urgent task to enhance

farmers’ sense of environmental protection through non-formal education.

VIII . Conclusion

In the process of developing rural non-formal education, Rugao County has

insisted on the policy of serving farmers, the rural society and economy. Based on

the local situation, it has made effective exploration to implement certain measures,

resulting in good economic effects as well as social effects. However, there are some

weaknesses.

8.1 First, the relationship between the operation units (ie. adult education

centers and agricultural stations) is not so harmonious. This causes great waste of

labor, funds and material resources, thus weakening the global effects of rural non-

formal education.

8.2 Second, the corresponding policy to rural non-formal education is not

perfect. Besides, the guidance, regulation and supervision of the government is not

so efficient.

8.3 Third, some items are undertaken without thorough consideration. Most

of them are abandoned in the midway.

8.4 In addition to that, some short-term classes are for show. The teaching

quality is too bad, which dampens the enthusiasm of the farmers.

So long as the above problems are solved, much more achievements will be

made by Rugao’s rural non-formal education.

106


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Secretariant . Paris. 1997

11. Venezky, Richard L, Definitions of Literacy, 1996

12. Wagner, Daniel, Literacy Perspectives (Chinese Version), UNESCO. 1991

13. Wagner, Daniel A, Rationales, Debates and New Directions in Literacy.

International Literacy Institute, 1999

14. Xie Guodong Literacy Education in China Northeast China ’ s Forestry

University Press, 1998

15. Zhang Ying. Review and Perspective of APPEAL, Rural Education &

Development, vol. 4.1998

Y

107


NAMELIST OF TRAINEES

Ms. Gertrude Kauna Ekandjo Community Development Officer

Ministry of Regional Local Government and Housing

Namibia

Permanent address: 2730 Hanover, Ongwediva, Oshana Region

Tel: 65 - 230836(H) 65 - 220432(O)

Fax: 65 - 220432

Ms. Julia Thadeu Hoza Programme Officer

UNESCO National Commision in Tanzania

Tanzania

Permanent address: P. 0. Box 70564, DAR ES Salaam Tanzania

Tel:255 - 51-410138(H) 255 - 51- 152635/152410(O)

Fax:255 - 51- 152635

Mr. Oppong Manu Principal Co - operative Officer

Department of Co - operatives -

Ghana

Permanent address: A2, Low Cost, Goaso, BAR. Ghana

Tel: 061- 379, Sunyani - Ghana

Mr. Kebede Sima Head of Curriculum Development

and Education Research

Ministry of Education

Ethiopia

Permanent address

Tel: 20 - 13 - 59 108

__-_ --- .._. -.-- ~.. . _.. _ .- --.. _-. .__.. ..~___ -.


Fax: 20-13-58

Mr. Ndawambi Daka Head of Research Department

Cooperative College

Ministry of Agriculture

Zambia

Permanent address: Cooperative College, P. 0. Box 50208, Leopards Hill Road,

Lusaka. House No. 48 Zambia

Tel : 260 - 1 - 264374 ( 0)

Fax: 260 - 1 - 264374

Mr. Patrick Kaaria Kiugu Inspector of Primary Schools

Teachers Service Commision

Kenya

Permanent address: Box 51, Githongo MERU-Kenya

Tel: 229053 -4(O)

Fax: 254 - 2 - 213025

Ms. Yu Niya Deputy Director of Basic Education Division

Guangxi Education Commision

Guangxi Province

China

Mr. Wang Li Director of UNESCO INRULED

Baoding, China

Mr. Zhao Zhiqiang Programme Officer of UNESCO INRULED

China


Mr. Wang Qiang Expert for Rural Education

Science and Education Institute

Ningxia,

China

Mr. Liu Yibing Associate Professor of

Research and Training Centre for Literacy Education

Southwest Nomal University

Chongqing,

China

Mr. Qi Zhiyong

Chief of International Cooperation and Exchange Office

Science and Education Institute

Gansu Province

China

Mr. He Jun Director of Education Commission in

Cangxi County

Sichun Province

China

110

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+. 5. Pleasant participants and a shy kindergarten child.

6. Mr. Kiugu from Kenya is sharing ideas with participants in lecture. Next is Ms. J. T. Hoza. 8

7. Participants are visiting the experiment farm of Dayu Primary School. 8

8. Participants in snow-white honorable Hada are sharing experiences with local pupils’ parents. $

9. Participants and experts are having a group discussion. $

. Basic education for all: the passport to equality

. Basic education: basic human rights

Priority Groups:

Unreached a

* Disadvantaged

Females i?

Basic education: meet the challenges of the present and of the future

in creating a harmonious and productive world society; which respects

human values and the concept of sustainable development

first advanced training workshop an theory and...

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