finalreport.pdf desertificaton

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FacultyofBusinessAdministration&Economics

InstituteforCooperationinDevelopingCountries

(InstitutfrKooperationinEntwicklungslndern)

AmPlan2,D35037Marburg,Germany

FinalReport

IDEntifyingandAnalysingNewIssuesinDesertification:

ResearchTrendsandResearchNeedS

IDEASProject1November200931December2010

AlexanderBisaro,MichaelKirk,

WilliZimmermann,PandiZdruli

Marburg2011

Fundedby

BMBF

GermanFederalMinistryofEducationandResearch

(Bundesministerium frBildungundForschung)

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Pleasecitethisreportasfollows:

Bisaro,A.,Kirk,M.,Zimmermann,W.,andZdruli,P.,2011.Analysingnewissuesindesertification:

research trends and research needs. Final report of the IDEAS project to the German Federal

Ministryof

Education

and

Research

(BMBF),

Institute

for

Co

operation

in

Developing

Countries,

Marburg,Germany.

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ListofAbbreviations

ACSAD ArabCenterforAridZonesandDryLands

ADB AsianDevelopmentBank

ADMnet ArabDesertificationMonitoringandAssessmentNetwork

BMBF Bundesministerium frBildungundForschung

BMZ Bundesministerium frwirtschaftlicheZusammenarbeitundEntwicklung

CACILM CentralAsianCountriesInitiativeforLandManagement

CDM CleanDevelopmentMechanism

CGIAR ConsultativeGrouponInternationalAgriculturalResearch

CSR CorporateSocialResponsibility

CST CommitteeonScienceandTechnology

CWANA CentralandWestAsiaandNorthAfrica

DDP DrylandsDevelopmentParadigm

DIE/GDI DeutschesInstitutfrEntwicklungspolitik/

GermanDevelopmentInstitute

DLDD Desertification,LandDegradationandDrought

DPSIR DriverPressureStateImpactResponse

DRCH DrylandResearchCentreHamburg

ESCWA EconomicandSocialCommissionforWesternAsia

EU EuropeanUnion

FAO

Food

and

Agriculture

Organization

of

the

United

Nations

FDI ForeignDirectInvestment

GCC GulfCooperationCouncil

GDP GrossDomesticProduct

EF GlobalEnvironmentFacility

GIS GeographicInformationSystem

GLASOD GlobalAssessmentofSoilDeterioration

GLOWA GlobalChangeandtheHydrologicalCycle

GM GlobalMechanism

GTZ GesellschaftfrtechnischeZusammenarbeitICARDA InternationalCenterforAgriculturalResearchintheDryAreas

IDEAS IdentifyingandAnalysingNewIssuesinDesertification: ResearchTrendsand

ResearchNeeds

IEA InternationalEnvironmentalAgreements

IFAD InternationalFundforAgriculturalDevelopment

IFPRI InternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute

InWent InternationaleWeiterbildungundEntwicklunggGmbH

IPCC IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange

KAZA KavangoZambeziTransfrontierConservationArea

KfW KreditanstaltfrWiederaufbau

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LADA LandDegradationAssessmentinDrylands

LAPs LocalActionPlans

LCA LifeCycleAnalysis

LDC LeastDevelopedCountries

LGAF LandGovernanceAssessmentFramework

MEA MilleniumEcosystemAssessment

MDG MillenniumDevelopmentGoals

MENA MiddleEastandNorthAfricacountries

NAP NationalActionPlans

NARS NationalAgriculturalResearchSystems

NGO NonGovernmentalOrganisation

NPP NetPrimaryProductivity

NVDI NormalisedVegetationDifferentiationIndex

OECD OrganisationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment

OSS ObservatoireduSaheletSahara

PCAD PlantoCombatAdvancingDesertification

PES PaymentforEcosystemServices

PIK PotsdamInstitutfrKlimafolgenforschung/

PotsdamInstituteforClimateImpactResearch

REDD ReducingEmissionsfromDeforestationandDegradation

REWS RegionalEarlyWarningSystemforcombatingDesertification

RSSC RegionalScienceServicesCentres

SLM

Sustainable

Land

Management

SOC SoilOrganicCarbon

SWC SoilandWaterConservation

UNCCD UnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertification

UNDP UnitedNationsDrylandsProgram

UNECE UnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforEurope

UNEP UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme

UNESCO UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganisation

WASCAL WestAfricanScienceServiceCenteronClimateandAdaptedLandUse

WB WorldBankWOCAT WorldOverviewofConservationApproachesandTechnologies

WRI WorldResourceInstitute

ZEF ZentrumfrEntwicklungsforschung/Center forDevelopmentResearch

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Contents:

Part1:Problemsetting..................................................................................................6

1. ProblemStatement:DLDDindrylands...............................................................6

2. IDEASproject......................................................................................................7

3. Rationalefordrylandsinvestments....................................................................8

4. Structureofthispaper........................................................................................8

Part2:Researchtrendsandresearchneeds...................................................................9

1. Changing(global)frame conditions........................................................................9

1. Risingfoodandenergyprices...................................................................9

2. Carbonmarkets...........................................................................................10

3. Complexityinglobalinterconnections........................................................11

4. Climatechange............................................................................................11

2. AgriculturaldevelopmentandSLM.....................................................................13

1. subsistencevs.marketforces............................................................................13

2. SLMandDLDD:technologies.............................................................................14

3. SLMandDLDD:adoption..................................................................................15

4. SLM: summaryandconclusions.......................................................................16

5. Biofuels.............................................................................................................17

1. Jatropha......................................................................................................17

6. Future

of

farming

systems

in

drylands

..........................................................18

3. Alternativelivelihoods.........................................................................................20

1. PaymentforEcosystemServices:Carbonsequestration.............................20

2. Ecotourism...................................................................................................21

3. Solarenergy...............................................................................................22

4. Landandwaterinteractions.......................................................................22

4. CostsofDLDD ....................................................................................................23

1. Productivity................................................................................................232. Foodemergencies......................................................................................24

3. Restoration.................................................................................................24

5. MonitoringandassessingDLDD:indicators...........................................................25

Part3:RegionalAssessments......................................................................................27

1. Arabregion............................................................................................................27

2. Crosscuttingissues...........................................................................................31

1. Landgovernance..............................................................................................31

2. Scalingofresearch...........................................................................................32

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3. Knowledgemanagement................................................................................32

4. Capacitybuilding.............................................................................................33

Part4:Products..........................................................................................................34

Part5:

German

scientific

capacities............................................................................35

References..................................................................................................................36

Annex1:Furtherreading

Stateoftheartonnaturalsciencefindingsandgapsinlanddegradation,desertification,

sustainablelandmanagementresearchandmonitoring

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1.ProblemSetting

1.1ProblemStatement:Desertification,landdegradationanddrought

Desertificationhasbeenarecognisedenvironmentalcumdevelopmentproblemfordecades,with

theissuefirstattractingglobalattentionwiththeSaheldroughtsandattendantfoodcrisesofthe

1970s.Initialpoliticalandinstitutionalresponses,e.g.UNEPguidedPlantoCombatAdvancing

Desertification(PCAD),werebasedonthenarrow,yetwidelyreproduced,imageofrapidly

advancingdesertsindrylandsdrivenbylocalhumanactivities.Globalconcernwiththeissue

resultedintheUNConventiontoCombatDesertification(UNCCD)in1992.Yetdevelopment

interventionsaddresstheimpactsofthisglobalphenomenonareseentohavelargelyfailed.

Populationslivingindrylandsremainamongthemostvulnerableintheworld,whileglobalscale

forces,suchasglobalisationandchangingmarketconditions,havenotreduced,andpossibly

contributedto,increasesinthisvulnerability.

SubsequentresearchhasshowntheparticularinstanceofdesertadvanceintheSaheltonotonly

bereversible(greeningoftheSahel),butalsotodependonamyriadoffactors,includingrainfall

variation.Desertificationisnotsimplytheadvancingmarchofsanddunesacrosspreviously

productiveareas,butrelatestoamoregeneralphenomenonofenvironmentaldegradationandits

interactionwithhumanpopulations.Desertificationhassincebeendefinedaslanddegradationin

arid,semiaridanddrysubhumidareasresultingfromvariousfactors,includingclimaticvariations

andhumanactivities(UNCCD),wherelanddegradationisdefined,followingtheMillenium

EcosystemAssessmentreport(Adeeletal.,2005),asthelossofbiologicaloreconomic

productivity.

Such

a

definition

is

based

on

the

framework

of

ecosystems

services,

and

takes

as

an

essentialcomponenttheimpactsoflanddegradationonthewelfareofaffectedpopulations,

highlightingtheintegratednatureofsocialandecologicalsystemsindrylands.

Desertificationhashowevernotinthepastbeenseenasaproblemoflinkedsocialecological

systems.Intheeightiesandearlyninetiesofthepastcentury,itwasalmostsolelythepreferred

domainofsoilscientists.Themajorachievementofthatperiodwasthepublicationin1991ofthe

statusofhumaninducedsoildegradation(GLASOD,Oldemanetal.,1991),whichfoundthat17%

ofvegetatedlandgloballywasdegraded,largelybyerosion,and1in6hectarescouldnolongerbe

cultivated.Themaincausesofthisenvironmentaldisasterweredeforestationandadversefarmingpracticessuchasovergrazing. Indrylands,thesituationwasmuchworse.Drylands,thatisarid,

semiaridanddrysubhumidareas,covernearly41%oftheearth'ssurface,andarehometo2

billionpeople,adisproportionatelygreateramountofwhomliveinpoverty.Morethan1billionha

indrylandswereestimatedtobedegraded:467millionbywatererosion,432millionbywind

erosion,100millionhabychemicaldeteriorationand35millionhabyphysicaldeterioration.

Itwasonlyafterthemidninetiesandthedawnofthenewmillenniumthatsoildegradation

startedtobeincreasinglyseenalsoasasocioeconomicproblem.However,thishasnotleadina

straightforwardmannertoacommonlyagreedsetofindicatorsformonitoringandassessingthe

stateofdesertification. Despitestudiesonthisissuesince2001,theCommitteeonScienceand

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Technology(CST)oftheUnitedNationsConventiontoCombatDesertification(UNCCD)failedfor

thebetterpartofadecadetoarriveatanagreeduponsetofindicatorsasguidancefornational

governments.Thechallengesofmonitoring,assessingandrespondingtolanddegradationin

drylandsarenotonlyofascientificnature,butalsoincludepoliticaleconomyconcernswhichhave

presentedbarrierstosuccessfulimplementationoftheUNCCD. Indrylandcountries,rural

populationsoftendonothaveaccesstoextensionservicesanddecisionmakingwhichcanaffect

theirlivelihoods.Thisisparticularlythecaseinregardtopotentialdrylanddevelopmentssuchas

biofuelprojects,whenundertakenincommonlands(seeSection2.2.5).

Recentinsightsfromresilience,vulnerability,povertyandcommunitybaseddevelopmentresearch

haveinformedtheDrylandDevelopmentParadigm(DDP)(Reynoldsetal.2007),whichpointsto5

factorswhichdefinedrylandareas:highclimatevariability,lowfertility,sparsepopulation,

remoteness,distantvoice.TheDPPfocusesondynamiccoupledhumanenvironmentsystems,

wheretheimportanceofslowvariables,thresholds,nestedandscaledmultilevelgovernance,and

localecologicalknowledgeisemphasised.Drylandsecosystemsarenotseenasunidirectional,

evolvingtowardsapeakecologicalstate,rathertheyaredynamicalsystemspossiblyswitching

betweenalternativestates(Holling,1973).Further,contextualityisimportantinassessingDLDD,as

indicatorsfordegradationinonesettingmightnotbeappropriatewhenseenintheframeworkof

localecosystemserviceprovisioninanothersetting.TheDPPhasbeenlargelyembracedbythe

researchcommunity,representingashiftawayfromsingledisciplineperspectiveofsoil

degradation,towardsacceptanceofmultipleinteractingcauses(GeistandLambin,2004),non

linearity,andtheimportanceadaptiveresponsesoflocalpopulationsinthefaceofrapidglobal

changes

(Mortimore,

2005b).

Thesefindingspointtoexistingdisciplinaryimbalancesinresearch,anlackofattentionofapplied

science to the urgent needs for practical change and livelihood improvements, an incomplete

understand of political economy concerns affecting knowledge, an undervaluation of

stakeholders and insufficient interagency coordination. This Scoping Paper contributes to

narrowingexistinggapsbyformulatingperspectivesforrenewedresearchprioritiestogetherwith

a new understanding of the requirements expressed for research from the scientific and

practitionercommunities,civilsocietyandpolicymakers.

1.2 TheIDEASProject:IdentifyingandAnalysingNewIssuesinDesertification:ResearchTrends

andResearchNeeds

TheBMBFhasaskedthePhilippsUniversittMarburginGermanytocoordinateandpreparea

ScopingPaperthatshould1)analysethepresentstateofresearchindesertification/sustainable

landmanagementrelatedissuesand;2)provideinputsfornewtrendsandresearchneedsfor

additionalimprovements. TheintentionsoftheBMBFaretolinktheoutcomes withitsongoing

activitiesonsustainablelandmanagementandrelatedfieldsofresearchandpolicyformulation

(e.g.Biodiversity)possiblytoprovidefundingforaninternationalcollaborativeresearchand

cooperationproject/programme totackleDLDDandSLMfromvariousperspectives.

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This Scoping Paper presents research based on two core activities: 1. interdisciplinary desk

researchwhichhasfocusedonanalyzingthestateoftheartandidentifyinggapsinrecentresearch

ondesertification, landdegradationanddroughts.2.Feedbackmechanisms including interviews

withdecisionmakers,highrankingbureaucratsand implementersatanationaland international

levelregardingtheresultsofourdeskworkstudy.Focusgroupdiscussionandinterviewswiththe

expertscientificcommunityand implementingagenciesregardingourgapanalysisresults.These

are BMZ, its implementing agencies (GTZ, KfW, InWent), national and international centres of

applied research, suchasGDI,CGIAR centres, IFPRIand internationalorganizationsand regimes

(e.g.FAO,OECD,WorldBank,UNEP,UNDPDrylandsProgram,GEF,DesertnetInternational).

1.3Rationalefordrylandsinvestment

Thereareseveralcompellingrationalesforinvestmentindrylands.Drylandsarehometolarge

populationslivingatlowlevelsofpoverty.Thesepopulationsaresovastthataddressingtheir

povertyisakeytoachievingtheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals.Second,theircapacityto

contributetofoodsecurity,bothatlocalandatnationallevels,isconsideredbymanytobeunder

threat(Mortimore,2005a),increasingthedangerthataffectedruralpopulationswillbecome

permanentlydependentonsocialtransfers.Thesevastareasofferalargenegativepotentialfor

environmentaldegradation,withsevereimpactsontheprovisioningoftheglobalcommons,e.g.

throughthelossofcarbonstorageinsoilandvegetation.Further,manydevelopmentinvestments

haveuptonowfailedtoreversetheseobservedtrends.Consideringthechangesinkeyframe

conditionsatthegloballevelinrecentyears,suchasrisingfoodprices,emergingcarbonmarkets,

climate

changes,

and

new

land

market

dynamics,

this

creates

an

urgent

need

for

policy

to

find

new

approaches.Risingglobalfoodpriceshaveincreasedthisurgency,asvariousstudiesconcludethat

ruralpovertywouldgenerallyincreaseintheshortruniffoodpricesweretorisesubstantially,.

Thustherecentfoodcrisisoffersopportunitiestoaddresstheimbalanceswithintheglobal

agriculturalsystemrelatedtodrylandsthathavebeenexposedincludingalackofinvestmentand

agriculturalaid.

1.4Thestructureofthispaper

Thispaperpresentstheresultsofaliteraturereview,expertinterviewsandfeedbackmechanismswith the community of expert scientists and practitioners in desertification and drylands

management. We base our analyses on the new concept of Desertification, Land Degradation,

DesertificationandDrought(DLDD).Wefirst identifyseveral changes inframeconditionsatthe

global level,effecting landusedecisionsatnationalandsubnational levels. Wediscusseachof

thesechangingframeconditionsandtheirimpactonDLDDresearchneedsacrossdifferentsectors

(Part2).AregionalanalysisofDLDDispresentedfocusingontheArabregionandCentralAsia(Part

3).Next,wediscuss theproducts thatcanbeexpected fromnewprojects inDLDD (Part4).We

concludewithadiscussionofGermandrylands researchcapacity (Part5). Finally,wenote that

thispaperisacondensedversionofourresearchresults.Werefertheinterestedreadertothisfull

version(Bisaroetal.,2010)formoreindepthdiscussionoftheissuespresentedhere.

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Part2:Researchtrendsandresearchneeds

2.1Changing(global)frameconditions

Therecentriseandincreasedvolatilityofworldfood(andenergy)prices,theemergenceofcarbon

marketsandanincreaseincomplexityofglobalinterconnections, suchastheimpactof

differentiatedandchangingconsumerpreferencesinindustrialisedanddevelopingnationsand

subsidies,aredirectlyrelevanttoeffortstocombatlanddegradationindrylands.Additionally,on

thebiophysicalside,climatechangewillcauseincreasingtemperaturesandwaterscarcity,

introducingnewuncertaintiesandpotentiallyworseninglanddegradationissues.Thissection

explorestheimpactsofthesechangesinframeconditions,fordecisionmakersatdifferentlevels,

andwhattheymeanforresearchprioritiesonlanddegradationindrylands.

2.1.1Foodandenergyprices

Foodandenergy,especiallyoil,pricesrosedramaticallyoverthecourseof20072008leadingto

foodemergenciesinmanydevelopingcountries.Volatilityinthesepriceshasalsoincreased. These

changesareimportantinregardstodesertification(landdegradationindrylands)forseveral

reasons:

drylandcountriesgenerallyhavehighlevelsofpovertyandthepoorspendahigher

proportionoftheirincomeonfoodconsumption;

manydrylandcountriesarenetfoodimporters;

higherfoodpricesprovideincentivesforagriculturalexpansionintolandsinappropriateto

farming;

risingenergypriceshavecausedagriculturalinputs,suchasinorganicfertilizer,torise

relativetofoodprices,potentiallymakingsustainablelandmanagementandconservation

agriculturepracticesmoreprofitable;

subsistencefarmingisstillimportantespeciallyinsubSaharanAfrica(seeSection2.1).

Regardinglanddegradation,increasedfood(andenergy)pricescanmeanincreasedprofitability

foragricultureandSLMinsubsaharanAfrica(Pender2009).Thisissobecausethepriceoffarming

inputs,suchasinorganicfertilizer,haverisenmorethanthepriceofcorn,wheatandcassava,

makingsustainablelandandfarmingpracticesmoreprofitablerelativetoconventionalmethods.Similarly,increasingfoodpriceshavemadesoilandwaterconservationpracticesmoreprofitable,

althoughtheeffectisambiguouswhencomparedwithprofitabilityofnonconservationpractices.

Higherfoodpricesincreasetheimportanceofsoilandwaterconservation(SWC)approachesin

drylandsbecausetheycreatestrongerincentivesforfarmerstopracticeSWCcomparedtonon

drylands(seeSection2.2).

Despitetheabovementionedresultstherehavebeenrelativelyfewstudiesdirectlyinvestigating

theimpactoffoodpricesonadoptionofSLMtechniques.Thereissimilarlylimitedbutconsistent

evidenceforrisingfoodpricescontributingtoagriculturalexpansionanddeforestation(Pender

2009).Thesedynamicsclearlypointtotherelevanceofchangingfoodpricestolanddegradationin

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drylands,boththroughdirectimpactsonthelivelihoodsofdrylandpopulationsandthrough

changedincentivesinlandmanagementpractices.Theresearchprioritiesthatthispresentswillbe

addressedindetailbelowinsectionsonSLMadoptioninagriculture,landtenureandtheregional

assessment(Section3.1).Risingfood(andenergy)pricespresentnewresearchneedsindrylands,

whileofferingopportunitiestoaddressthefundamentalimbalanceswithintheglobalagricultural

systemthathavebeenexposedincludingalackofinvestmentandagriculturalaidandover

relianceonthereservesystemsofmajorproducers.

2.1.2Carbonmarkets

Astheimpactsofclimatechangebecomeapparent,urgencyforactiononmitigatingitseffectsis

increasing.Emissionsfromlandusechangeareestimatedtomakeup20%ofatmosphericcarbon

dioxidethroughlossofbiomassandsoilorganicmatter(Smithetal.,2007).Althoughdrylands

storemuchlesscarbonperhectarethanhumidregions,thevastsurfaceareaofglobaldrylands

(nearly40%ofgloballandcover)makesthemahighlysignificantglobalcarbonsink(Lal,2009).

Somearguethatthepotentialforstoringcarbonindrylandsoilsmayinfactbecomparableona

perhectarebasistothatofhumidareasbecause,asopposedtosoilinhumidareas,drylandsoils

havesufferedpreviouslossofsoilorganiccarbon(SOC)fromdegradation(Farageetal.2007).

Restoringdegradedsoilsthushasasignificantpotentialasatmosphericcarbonsink. TheIPCC

indicatesthatimprovedgrazingandcropmanagementwithcurrentlyavailabletechnologiesoffers

thebestoptionforatmosphericcarbonreductions(Smithetal.2007).Pastoralismisimportantin

this

regard,

as

where

rangelands

are

converted

to

cropland

up

to

95%

of

the

carbon

in

biomass

and

50%ofsoilcarbonislost(Lipperetal.,2010).Inthesamevein,convertingmarginalagricultural

areasbacktorangelandrestoresthecarbonlevelsto80percentofthenaturalsavannahcarbon

levelsoverthelongterm(Lal,2009).ConservationagriculturealsoplaysaroleasstudiesfromEast

AfricahaveshownthatincreasingfallowperiodsresultinincreasedSOCcontent(FAO,2004).

Therearefurtherbenefitstoincreasedcarbonsequestrationinsoils,ascropbiomassandseed

productionhavebeenfoundtobesignificantlycorrelatedwiththeSOCconcentrationindegraded

soilsinChina.Thesedevelopmentsarecomplementaryascarbonsequestrationcanbeachievedby

reducinglanddegradationandrehabilitatingdegradedlands,thusincreasingbiological

productivitythroughincreasedsoilorganiccarbon.

Emergingcarbonmarketsarethuspotentiallyanopportunitytoimproverangelandqualityand

productivityaswellasforincreasedruralincomesandpastoralistmarketparticipation. The

expansionofcarbonmarketstoincludesoilcarbonsinksthroughtheUNFCCCCleanDevelopment

Mechanism(CDM)ortheBioCarbonFundpromotetheuseofterrestrialcarbonsinkswhile

providingextraincomeforlocalfarmersandlivestockkeepers(BioCarbonFund2009).

Despitetheseadvantages,uncertaintyremainsastohowthesemarketswilldevelop,as

methodologiesfortheattributionofcarbonsequestrationoverlongertimesscalesarenotyet

widelyagreedupon.Makingcarbontradingoperationalwithrespecttosoilsequestrationrequires

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agreedmethodologiesforassessingdegradedlandinrelationtocarbon.Tounderstandthe

possibleimplicationsofanationalpolicytopromotethedevelopmentoflandthatisdegraded

fromacarbonstandpointwillrequiredistinguishingbetweentermsthatrefertophysicalstatus

andcarboncontent,andthosethatrefertosociolegalstatus.Identifyingacceptabledegraded

areasforrestorationwillfurthermorerequirethatpolicymakersdevelopaparticipatorydecision

makingprocessinformedbyaccurateanduptodatespatialdatathataddressesenvironmental,

economic,social,andlegalconsiderations(Section2.6).

2.1.3Globalinterconnections:increasingcomplexity

Marketsandvaluechainshavebecomemoreinterconnectedacrossregionsandlevelsinthepast

decade.Astradeliberalisationandforeigndirectinvestmenthaveincreased,thecomplexityof

interconnectionsisincreasingwithimportantimplicationsfordrylands.Ingeneral,subsistence

farmingplaysgreaterroleinDLDDthanmarkets,however,sincetheturnofthecenturydrylands

havewitnessedstrongerimpactsofchanginginternationalconsumptionpatternsandlifestyles.

Themassivedemandforbiofuels,drivenlargelybytheclimatechangeissue,hasalreadyledtoa

lossofpasturesanddeforestation.Atthesametime,standardizedcropping,inpartstemmingfrom

largescalebiofuelprojects,reducesthepresenceanduseoflocaladaptedcropsandendangers

biodiversity.Whileencouragementofforeigndirectinvestment(FDI)canpotentiallygenerate

economicgrowthandincome,drylandcountriesoftendonothave(yet)policiesinplacenorthe

capacitytoincludeenvironmentalimpactassessmentsintheseprojects.Similarly,largescale

developmentstakenplaceoncommonlandswithnoformaltitling,riskdisplacinglocal,customary

use

and

access

rights

for

traditional

livelihoods.

Initial

evidence

points

to

the

dangers

of

large

scale

projectsforthewelfareoflocalpopulations,althoughoutgrowerschemesundertakeninan

appropriateinstitutionalenvironmentshowmorepositivepotential(seeSection2.2.7).

Despiteincreasinglyfreetradeinmanysectorsglobally,NorthSouthrelationsarealsoverymuch

shapedbysubsidiesforagricultureintheUSAandEU.Drylandsproducerscannotaccesscertain

internationalmarkets,whiletheymayalsonotbeabletocompetewithgoodsproducedwiththe

helpofsubsidies.Atthesametime,countriesoftheglobalNorthwhicharemovingtowards

greeneconomiesexportenvironmentalimpactsoftheirproduction.Thisisseenbythevirtual

waterconceptwhichdemonstratesthattotalwaterconsumptionmaynotbeaccountedforwithinacountriesborder,butincludestheirrigationinvolvedinproducingfoodimports.

2.1.4Climatechange

Drylandsarethemselvesvulnerabletotheimpactsofclimatechange.TheIPCChasdetected

changesindrylandsovertheperiod19002005,withrainfallhasdeclininginsouthernAfrica,parts

ofIndiaandMexicoandintheSahel. Theimpactsofclimatechangeintheseareasmayleadto

furthercarbonemissions,whilenyfurtherfailureofplantgrowthduetoincreasedtemperatures

wouldfurtherreducecarboninputstothesoil,acceleratingitsdegradation.Evenpartiallossof

vegetationintegritycouldmakesoilsmorevulnerabletodegradationthrough grazingand

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cultivation(Smithetal.2007).

Climatechangewillproducebothdirectandindirectimpacts,withdirectimpactsresultingfrom

increasedfrequencyofextremeevents,andincreasedvariabilityandshiftsintemperatureand

precipitationpatterns.Thesechangesresultinincreasingfloodsanddroughts,spreadofdisease

incidence,suchasmalaria,infrastructuredestructionindrylands,shorteningofthegrowing

season. Indirecteffectsaretheresultofpoliciesaimedatmitigatingclimatechange,asincreases

inagriculturalproductiondevotedtobiofuelswilleffectfoodpricesandcarbonmarketswill

increasethevalueoftropicalforestland.Increasedrisksfromclimatechangedecreaseincentives

forfarmerstoinvestinlandandlabour,possiblycreatingmoreextensivepastoralsystems.

Stillsignificantknowledgegapsremain.Ononehand,thefeedbacksbetweenglobalclimate,

vegetation,precipitationandcarboncyclepresentseriouschallengesformodelling (Andersenet

al.2009).Thereisarelativelackofprecise,downscaledanduserfriendlymodellingofdriversfor

respectiveimpactsofclimatevariabilityanddrought.Additionally,whilethereiswidespread

agreementthatclimatechangewilllikelyincreasetemperaturesindrylands,forvariabilitythe

impactsarelessclear.1Ontheotherhand,thetimeseriesonrecordfordrylandsof3050year

timeseriesforassessingroleofclimatevariationandchangeinlanddegradationisnotsufficient,

astheexperienceofthegreeningoftheSahelshows.Thereisaneedforlongertermchange

researchontheroleofclimateinlanddegradation.

Howeverunderstandingandsupportinglocalpopulationscapacitytoadaptremainsan

interdisciplinary

challenge

which

cannot

be

addressed

with

improved

biophysical

information

alone(Hinkeletal.,2009). Whilebothmodellingandlongtimeseriesapproachesareimportant,

thesemustbecomplementedwithgroundtruthinglocalinputsinaparticipatoryapproach.This

impliesintensifiedinterchangebetweentherespectiveclimateanddesertificationresearch

communities,includingparticipatorymodellingexercisingtoalignregionalclimatescenarioswith

localcopingandadaptationstrategies.

Thesegapsareinpartaresultofpoorcommunicationbetweentheclimateanddesertification

communities.TheMEAcarriedoutscenarioanalysisonlanddegradation,buttheissuewasonly

brieflyaddressedinboththeIPCCandSternReport.Occurringandfutureimpactsofclimatechangeindrylandsdemonstratetheurgencyofaddressingthesegapsthroughanintensified

interchangebetweentherespectivescientificcommunities.Theclimatechangeissuehasopened

upnewopportunitiesfordrylandstoaccessinternationaldonorfunds,yetinordertotake

advantageofthisbetterinformationisneededontheimpactoflandusechangesand

desertificationoncarbonsequestrationandthecostbenefitratioofsoilimprovementandcarbon

sequestrationpracticesforsmalllandholdersandsubsistencefarmersindrylandecosystems

(Adeeletal.,2005).

1 For example, differentmodelresultsforprecipitationinWestAfricaarenotinagreement(Andersenetal.

2009).

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Implicationsfordrylandsresearch:

Foodandenergyprices:

landscapeandtargetgroupspecificapproachesneededtoassessimpactondesertification

optionsfor,andlimitsof,agriculturalintensificationandencroachment tobeexplored;

localversusregionalincentivesmayfavourdualgovernanceapproaches,

assessinglandusetradeoffsandmappingproductivelands,linktoSustainableLand

Managementwork(BMBF)

Carbonmarkets:

methodsdemonstratinglandmanagementleadingtolongtermsoilsequestration;

improvingmodellingasexistingapproacheslacklocalverification;

lowcostlocallevelparticipatorymonitoringwithstakeholders;

potentialof

restoration

to

increase

productivity

and

PES

interdisciplinaryresearchissueofstructuringdiversitybetweenregions

Globalinterconnections:

marketandnonmarketincentivesneeded

policyframeworkstoregulateimpactsofFDIontheenvironmentandlocallivelihood

interdisciplinaryresearchembeddedinexistingglobalintiatives(FAO,IFAD,WB)

Climatechange:

improvedmodelling

and

long

time

scale

data

needed

intensifiedinterchangebetweenclimateanddesertificationresearchcommunities

participatorymodellingtoalignregionalclimatescenarioswithlocalcopingand

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2.2AgriculturaldevelopmentandSLM2.2.1Marketorientedvs.subsistenceproduction

Fordrylandcountries,withthehighestratesofpovertyandinfantmortalityintheworld,

agricultureisparticularlyimportant.The2008WorldDevelopmentReportestimatesthatGDP

growthoriginatinginagricultureisaboutfourtimesmoreeffectiveinraisingincomesofextremely

poorpeoplethanGDPgrowthfromothersources(WorldBank,2008). Thisisthecasebecause

drylandsoftensupporttraditionallivelihoodsbasedonsmallholderfarmingandpastoralism,

whereforexample,onefindsthat70%ofthelaborforceinsubsaharanAfricaisstillengagedin

theagriculturalsector.Ontheotherhand,recentevidencefromsubsaharanAfricarevealsthat

althoughthereisarelationshipbetweenlanddegradationandpoverty,strategieswhichrelyon

agriculturalmodernisationandintensificationalonemayreducepoverty,butcanhavenegative

orambiguousenvironmentalimpacts(Nkonyaetal.2008).Inotherwords,povertyreduction

pursuedthroughagriculturalinvestmentsmustbecomplementedbyeffortstoincreaseadoption

ofsustainablelandmanagementpracticesalsoinlessfavouredregions.Certainstrategies,suchas

soilandwaterconservationoragroforestry,arewinwininthisrespect,contributingtothe

reductionofbothpovertyandlanddegradation,whileothersencouragingofffarmincomedonot

implytradeoffs.Finally,someinvestments,suchasthoseassociatedwithagricultural

intensification,mayinvolvetradeoffsbetweenenvironmentalanddevelopmentgoals.

Aninsightfromrecentresearchisthattheimpactofincentives,suchasinputsubsidies,ishighly

contextdependent.Agriculturalproductioninmanydrylandareasismixedbetweensubsistence

and

market

orientation.

As

discussed,

the

impacts

of

rising

food

prices

and

increasing

environmentalriskscanpotentiallyincreaseincentivesforwaterandsoilconservationagricultural

practices,whileatthesametimeprovidingarationalefortheexpansionofagricultureintomore

marginalandfragileareaswithnegativeimpactsonlanddegradation. Scientificandpolicyinputs

intothesedevelopmentpathwaysmusttakeintoaccountthatdrylandfarmerscanberesponsive

toeithermarketandsubsistenceneeds.

2.2.2SLMandDLDD:technologies

SustainableLandManagement(SLM)offerstremendousopportunitiesandbenefitsfordrylands.TheWorldOverviewofConservationApproachesandTechnologies(WOCAT)project hasclearly

identifiedmanyofthem.AfirstconclusionisthatinvestmentsinSLMandoverallinrural

developmentpayoffinbothagriculturalproductionandenvironmentalquality. However,

SustainableLandManagementisdefinedinanarrowmannerwithintheUNCCDincontrasttoFAO

(landtenureservice)andotherprofessionalbodies.Thesociolegalandsocioeconomicaspectsof

land(landtenuresecurity,accesstoland,landeconomy,landpolicy)requiremuchmoreattention

andshouldbeanintegralcomponentofSLM.

ThebenefitsofSustainableLandManagementaresummarisedasfollows:

Reversenegativetrendsofresourcebasedegradationanddecliningagricultural

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Contributetomitigationandadaptationtoclimatechange

Improvelocallivelihoodsbyreducingpovertyandimprovingfoodsecurity

Safeguardandprovidestewardshipfornaturalresources

Preserveandenhanceecosystemservicesandfunctionality

Provideimportantenvironmentalbenefitsatlocal,regionalandgloballevels

TheMillenniumEcosystemAssessmentdescribestheecosystemgoodsandservicesandincludes

themintofourcategoriesidentifiedas:Supportingservices(soil,nutrientsupply,cropgrowth),

Provisioningservices(food,water,wood,fishing,hunting,geneticresources,etc),Regulating

services(carbonsequestration,airquality,climate,floods,diseases),andCulturalservices

(aesthetic,spiritual,religious,educational,andrecreation).SLMhasdirectimpactsonthese

servicesinanumberofdifferentways.Inrelationtoprovisioningservices,SLMcanincrease

productivityparticularlybyimprovingwateruseefficiencyandoptimisingnutrientandbiomass

cycles,whilealsoincreasingfoodsecurity,primarilyforthesmallholderfarmersindeveloping

countries.Inaddition,itcanprovidelocalenergysourcesaswellasbuildingmaterialsandfodder,

aswellasprovidinglocalfreshandcleandrinkingwater. Regardingregulatingandsupporting

services,SLMcanenhancevegetationcover;enhancesoildevelopmentandhelpincreasesoil

organicmattercontent;enhancenutrientcyclingandimprovesoilfertility;preservebiodiversity;

enhancecarbonsequestrationanddecreaseCO2releaseintheatmosphere;increasewater

infiltrationandreduceevaporationandrunoff;regulateriver,lakeandgroundwaterlevels;

regulatewaterdischargefromhighlandstolowlandareas;reducefloodinganddryingupofrivers.

In

relation

to

cultural

and

social

services,

SLM

can

keep

alive

cultural

and

natural

landscapes;

protectculturalheritage;protectandpromoteindigenousknowledge;supportsustainable

productiontechnologies;enhanceecotourismbyofferingneweconomicopportunities.

NumerousstudieshaveshownthatSLMhasthepotentialtoincreaseyieldsby30170percent,

increasesoilorganiccarbonupto1percentindegradedsoilsandupto23percentinhealthy

soils,andincreasewateruseefficiencybyupto100percent.SLMshouldbebasedprimarilyonsoil

andwatermanagement(terracing,contourplanting,living barriers,lowtillage,mulches,cover

cropsincludingbiological nitrogenfixinglegumes,grazingcorridors,water harvesting),andsoil

fertilitymanagement (manure,compost,biomasstransfer,agro forestryandnitrogenfixingtreesonfarms,integratedsoilfertility management).Further,approachestointroducingconservation

agriculturetechniques(notillage,bedandfurrowtechnologies,residuemanagement,etc.)in

drylands,includingirrigateddrylands,arepromisingastheyprovidealowcostentrypointforlong

termsustainability(seeFullReportformoredetails).

2.2.3SLMandDLDD:adoption

TheapplicationofthesetechnologiesaredemonstratedinsuccessstoriesfromsubsaharanAfrica

showingthatsoilandwaterconservationandagroforestryinterventionsandotherland

managementpracticescanhaveimmediateproductivitybenefitswhilecontributingtoreduced

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landdegradation(Penderetal.,2006,Nkonya,2004).Stillknowledgegapsremainregardingthe

adoptionofSLMtechnologiesandpracticesbylocalfarmersandconditionsforsuccessful

upscalingofSLM.Nkonyaetal.(2008)investigatetherelationshipbetweenprofitabilityand

adoptionofsustainablelandmanagementtechnologies,andfindthatprofitabilityisanecessary,

butnotsufficientconditionforadoption.Otherfactorswhichappearimportantareawarenessof

thelanddegradationproblem,securityoflandtenure,accesstomarkets,education,accessto

creditandagriculturaltechnicalassistance.However,theliteraturerarelyarrivesatunambiguous

conclusionsaboutthelinksbetweenanyoneofthesefactorsandlanddegradation.Takingaccess

tomarketsasoneexample,thishasbeenpositivelycorrelatedwithuptakeofsomeSLM

technologies,howeverremainshighlydependentoncontextualfactorssuchasthevalueofthe

cropgrown,creditavailabilityandruralinfrastructure.Attentiontothesevariouscontextualfactors

intermsoftheirprofitabilityandtherisktheyimplyforfarmersisakeyissueforfutureresearchto

bothunderstanddecisionmakingregardingSLM,andtodesignpoliciestosupportSLMadoption.

Adoptionissuesalsoraisekeyimplementationgaps,astheimportanceknowledgemanagement

andinstitutionalcontextscometothefore.Inthecaseofconservationtillage,formationof

communication,planningandmanagementplatformsappeartobeessentialforhighadoption

rates.Whileforpastoralism,akeyforproductivityandlowenvironmentalimpactsisaccessto

goodinformationformobilityandhealthandmarketaccess.

2.2.4SLM:Summaryandconclusions

RecentresearchshowsthemostpromisingapproachesforSLMconservationtechnologiesare

zero

tillage,

crop

residue

management,

drip

irrigation,

sprinkle

irrigation,

laser

leveling

of

fields

digitalmapping,satelliteimageryforinformationsharingaboutlandtypes.Furtheropportunities

doexistforresearchonconventionaltechnology,e.g.adaptedgermplasms.Howeverthereisalso

criticismofthetechnologicalapproachtosustainablelandmanagement.Conventionalscience

investsinincreasingthesalinitytoleranceofcrops,howeverthesecropscanincreasethesalinityin

soilsbeyondthebiologicalpotentialtobeproductive,sothatwaterremianslthelimitingfactor.

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ResearchprioritiesforSLM:1. Evaluatehowchangesinlanduseandlandmanagementaffectbiophysical

propertiesanddisturbanceregimesofterrestrialecosystems;

2. DefinebettertheroleoflandwithintheecosystemcomponentsandestablishtheimpactsofSLMintherecoveryofdegradedlands;

3. DefinesynergiesinSLMbenefitsnotonlyforlandconservationandlandstewardshipbutalsointermsofbiodiversityconservationandclimatechangemitigation;

4. Developmentandapplicationofframeworkstobetterintegratetechnicalandsocial

research;

5. Demonstratetheimportanceofbestmanagementpracticesaswellasdevelopmentofpolicyoptions,managementstrategies,andguidelinesforfuturesustained

interventionsinthedrylandsandbettervalorisetheirbiophysicalpotential;

6. Includelandvalueandecosystemservicesintothenationalfinancialaccounting

systems.

7. Definestrategiesandmethodsformatchingsustainablelanduseoptionsandsecureland

Thusliteratureandexpertconsultationshaveidentifiedknowledgegapsrelatingtopolicyand

institutionalenvironmentsforSLM.Thereisaneedtomovefromtechnologytransferto

researchtransferapproachesinwhichresearchersworkwithlocalscienceonlocalneeds;thisis

alsomorecosteffective.TheadoptionofSLMtechnologiesinpartdependsoncostandbenefits,

whichinturndependsonthefreedomoflanduserstoinnovateandtheirresources.Thereis

limitedknowledgeonthesecostsandbenefits,inpart,becausetheyarenottypicallyrecognized

bytechnologytransferthinking.Asanconceptualandanalyticalframeworkwhichaddressesand

integratesthetechnicaldimensionofresourceunitsandresourcesystemsaswellastheinterests

oftheirusersandresultinggovernancestructures,theSocioEcologicalSystemframeworkofE.

Ostrom(2009)mighthelptofocusproblemsandpinpointstrategiesandinstrumentsforfuture

SLM.Furtherthishighlights theneedtorevitalizeembeddednessoftechnologydebate,inwhich

technologyisseeninthecontextofitsimpactsonsocietaldevelopment.

2.2.5Biofuels

Biofuelshaveseenarashofinvestmentinbothdevelopinganddevelopedcountriessince2005,

drivenbyfuelblendtargetssetinmanycountries,includingtheUSAandtheEU.Around80%of

bioethanolproducedworldwideisgrownintheUSAandBrazil,whilebiodieselfromrapeseedis

producedinGermanyandtheEU.InAfricaandAsia,recentmajorlandacquisitionshavebeen

aimedatproducingbiodieselfromJatrophaandpalmoil.

Biofuelshavebeenpromotedindrylandsasembodyingasynergybetweenincreasedagricultural

investmentandproductivityandreductionsofglobalgreenhousegasemissionsthroughcarbon

storage

in

the

plant

biomass.

However,

the

initial

optimism

which

led

to

high

biofuel

targets

has

beenmitigatedbyconcernswiththecarbonfootprintofbiofuelswhentheentireproductionand

tradecyclearetakenintoaccount.Further,differentgroups,includingNGOs,haveraisedconcerns

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abouttheroleofmultinationalcorporationsinbiofueldevelopmentinthedevelopingworld.

Risingfoodpriceshaveincreasedreturnstotheproductionpartoffoodprovisionvaluechains.

Thishasincreasedtheincentivesoflargescaleagribusinessestobecomeinvolvedinproduction

throughlargescalelandacquisitions.

Largescaleagribusinessisevidentlyhowevernottheonlybusinessmodelassociatedinfood

production. Whilelargescalelandacquisitionscanhavepositivemacroleveleffectsintermsof

increasedGDPgrowthandrevenuesforthenationalgovernment,alternativemodelssuchas

outgrowerschemesarepotentiallymorebeneficialforlocalsmallholders.Inadditiontoresearch

organisations,socalledfarmertofarmerorganisations,supportedbyNGOshavebeen

promotingtheuseofalternativebusinessmodelsinbiofueldevelopment..

2.2.5.1Biofuels:Jatrophaindrylands2

Jatrophahasbeenseenasapotentiallyvaluableboosttodrylandproductivitybecauseofits

heraldedabilitytogrowinmoremarginallandsandunderwaterscarceconditions.However,there

remainsahighdegreeofuncertainty,andevendoubt,aboutitsclaimedadvantages,withrespect

tobiophysicalcharacteristicsoftheplant(itstoxicityandinputresponsiveness)andthesocio

economicimpactsofbiofuelsinvestmentbothbymultinationalcorporationsandlocalfarmers.

Ingeneral,theliteratureiscautionaryregardingJatropha,pointingtoeconomic,environmental

andsocietalrisks.RecentenergypricevolatilitymeansthatthereisnoguaranteethatJatropha

production

for

biodiesel

is

profitable;

though

when

income

from

by

products

such

as

soap

are

includedresultslookbetter(BrittaineandLutaladio,2010).Environmentalrisksincludelossof

biodiversityduetomonocropping,withmoreresearchneededonthetoxicityimpactsofusing

seedcakefertilizeronlargescales.Forsociety,landacquisitionindevelopingcountriesthreatens

rurallivelihoodsparticularlywheretenureiscustomaryandoftenbasedoncommunalsystems.

LargescaleJatrophaplantationsoftenlackmechanismstoincludetheruralpoorandtakethe

mostproductivelandwiththebestaccesstowaterandinfrastructure.

Jatrophainvestmentshaveoftennotdemonstratedbenefitstoruralpopulationsthroughtax

revenuesforgovernmentsandimprovedemploymentopportunities.Outgrowerschemesbasedon

overlyoptimisticyieldpredictionshavenotfulfilledpromises,andcanleadtolossofinterestbyfarmersinJatrophagrowing.Further,localfarmershaveweakbargainingpositionsinrelationto

multinationalcorporationsincompensationschemesrelatedtolargescalelandacquisitions,so

thatcommonlandsandunclearlandtenurerelationsincreasetheriskthatruralpopulationswill

bedisplacedfromlandsimportanttotheirlivelihoods(WorldBank2010).

Ontheotherhand,Jatrophaoffersseveraladvantagestopoorfarmersindrylands.Itprovidesa

waytodiversifyincome,whileitswoodybyproductsarecombustibleandreducepressureon

forests.Itcanbeplantedasfenceonconservationareasbecauseitisnotpalatabletograzing

animalsand,itcanbeusedasacontourtostopsoilerosion.Recentfindingspointtowardsapro

2 See Full Length Version Scoping Paper for more details

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poordevelopmentpathwayifincreasedJatrophaplantingissupportedthroughlocalfarmers.

Grownatlowerintensitiesithasahigherpotentialtoreducecarbonemissions.However,fullLife

CycleAnalysis(LCA)ofthecarbonimpactandevaluationofitssoilandwaterconservation

propertiesareneverthelessareneededtomakesounddecisions.

Biofuels

in

drylands:

research

priorities

Biophysical:

biofuelproductionshouldbebasedonlongtermassessments,andlifecycle

analysis,ofthecarbonandwaterimpacts

developmoreproductivestrainsofJatrophatoensureprofitability

moreresearchisneededonthetoxicityimpactsofusingseedcakefertilizerfrom

Jatrophaonalargescale

Institutions

and

policy:

needforidentfyingequitablebusinessmodels;whichmodelsworkinwhich

contexts,andwhycertainarrangementshaveemergedinthesecontexts

capacitybuildingtoaddressinformationassymmetriesandthelackofadequate

policyframeworksandparticipatorygovernancemechanisms

knowledgemanagementsystemstotakeintoaccountlocalinterests,aswellas

environmentalimpacts

2.2.6

Future

of

farming

systems

in

drylands

Themostpromisingapproachesfordrylandsfarmingaddressingdevelopmentandenvironmental

goalsincludesustainablecommercialagricultureandintegratedfarming.Methodswhichinclude

localknowledgearehoweverneededtoidentifyareaswithpotentialforintensificationandto

excludeareasofhighvalueforbiodiversityandwaterregeneration.Becausedrylandsareoften

locatedoffmaintradingroutesitisimportanttofocusonhighvaluecrops.Inthiscontext,spatial

planningandrenewedlanduseconceptsareneededwhichwouldincludelandusetradeoffsand

aclearanalysisoflimitingfactorwhichisnotalwayswater,evenindrylands.

Theassessmentofintegratedfarmingsystemsvisavislandusedundermonocultureisan

importantaspectoffutureresearch:integratedanddiversifiedfarmingsystemsbasedonextensiveanimalhusbandryandcropproductionwouldproducenotonlymanureforcrops,butwouldalso

diversifyincomeopportunitiesincaseofshiftingmarketorientationsanddrought.Integrated

farmingsystemsisnotcurrentlyanindicatorforDLDD.Further,organicallyproducedfood,

especiallythroughbiodynamicagriculture,holds promiseforenhancingbiodiversityand

promotingintegratedfarmingsystems.Thiscanalsoapplytocashcropslikecottonasexperiences

withorganiccottoninthedrylandsoftheSahelactuallyshow(BurkinaFaso,Mali).

Arenewedfocusonsustainablegrowthofagriculturalproductionisachievablethroughbio

dynamic,organicfood/products. Evidencefrommodellingandcasestudiesshowthatorganic

agricultureratherthanincreasingfoodsecurityproblems,presentssolutionsintermsofincreased

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productivityandimprovedaccesstofood(Halberg,etal.,2006).Further,duetomoreintensive

labourprocessesthisleadstohigherlevelsofemploymentreducingoutmigrationrisks,aswellas

increasingenvironmentalbenefits.Investmentsinorganicfarminghavethepotentialindirect

effectsofbetterschoolingandinfrastructure,whilesubsidizingandfacilitatingecosystemservice

provision.

Uptonow,therehavebeenaninsufficientamountofstudiesonlandgrabbingandland

conversionstemmingfromtherushintobiofuels(Section2.2.5)(Themostcomprehensiveare

WorldBank2010andClavetal.2010).Thebenefitsofalternativetenuresystemsinfragile

naturalenvironments,inparticularcommonlands,havebeendemonstrated,yetgovernments

generallycontinuetosupportprivatization,nowadaysverymuchdrivenbyFDIinland.Thisleads

topotentialresourceconflicts,whilealsopresentingopportunitiesintheformofnewemployment

andmarketparticipation.Atthesametime,supportforthedecentralised,locallydrivenand

participatorybiofuelandagricultureproductionasacounterweighttoFDIisbeingprovidedby

organisationsassociatedwiththesuperficiallyappealing,thoughcontestedfoodsovereignty

concept,e.g.byCampesinoaCampesinofoundedinLatinAmericaandotherNGOs.

ThelinksforDLDDtoagriculturalandruraldevelopmentresearchareevident.Assuch,thereisa

needtorelatetoongoingresearchinpubliclyfinancedInternationalAgriculturalResearchcentres

oftheCGIARsystem.Naturalandappliedsciencesshouldaddressrestorationtechniques,while

thesocialsciencesshouldcomplementthiswithattentiontoglobaldrivers,suchaschanging

preferencesinthedevelopedworldandthepushtowardsorganicproductionandquality

standards

(labelling),

in

the

form

of

research

on

value

add

chains

which

link

local

and

international

scales.Positiveeffectsofthesestronglydependoneffectivegovernancestructureswhichcannot

easilybeimplementedatlowerlevelsinremoteandneglectedregions.Suchanalysisshould

includepathwaysandscenarioanalysisofidealisedfutureproductionpatterns,takingaccountof

theparallelexistenceofcommercialised,marketintegrated,agribusinessfocuseddevelopment

alongsidepeasantsubsistencedrivenagriculture.Thisagainpointstotheimportanceof

revitalisingfarmingsystemapproaches,withspecialattentiontothespatiallandscapedimension

withrespecttolanduseplanning.

Crosscuttingresearchissuesinfutureofdrylandfarming:

Integratedresearchissue:needforlandscapeapproachandfarmingsystem

approach movingbeyondmicro/macroscales

Methodstoidentifyandmaphighproductiveandecologicallyvaluableareas,

whichincludelocalknowledge

participatoryapproaches:alternativebusinessmodels outgrowerschemes,food

sovereigntyapproach

Biodynamic,organicfarming:assessmentofintegratedfarmingsystemsvisavis

landusedundermonoculturetosupportPES

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2.3Alternativelivelihoods

TraditionalthinkingaboutdrylandsdevelopmentfallsintowhatSafrielandAdeel(2008)callthe

"desertificationparadigm",wherebyrisingpopulationdensitiesputpressureonresourceusersto

extractmorefromaninherentlylowproductivityland,leadingtofurtherlanddegradation.

Alternatively,the"counterparadigm"arguesthat,facingscarcityofbiologicalproductivity,

resourceuserswillfindinnovativesolutions(inducedtechnicalandinstitutionalinnovationsinthe

traditionoftheHayamiRuttanModelandEsterBoserup)andadapttothesituation;thisthinking

appliestobothtraditionallivelihoodsadaptedtohighvariabilityofdrylands,butalsotoinnovative

strategiesforalternativelivelihoods.Recentresearchinsightsalsoputemphasisconsideringthe

multifunctionalityofdrylandstoattractinvestmentsintheformofpaymentsforecosystem

servicesinordertoreverseandpreventdegradation(ThomasandTurkelboom,2008).

Whileitisagreedthatalternativelivelihoodscanplayanimportantroleinvulnerabilityreduction,

andpreventionoflanddegradation,theydonotgouncriticised.Somearguethatalternative

incomestrategiesoftenareeitheroflittleimpacttothelocaleconomyorresultinnegative

impactsonpastoralistsandotherlanduserswithsecondarypropertyrights. Thissuggestsa

thoroughanalysisofwhethertheconceptofalternativeincomestrategieshasbeenbeneficialto

theecologyandeconomyoflocalsystems,asarelativelysmallliteraturebaseindrylandsexistsin

thisregard(Hazell2001). Certainly,thepotentialforecotourismandrenewableenergygeneration

asasourceofincomeandincomediversificationexists,howeverknowledgegapsexistaswellas

regardingtheecologicallimits,andfullcostsandbenefitsofsuchapproaches.Thisisinadditionto

the

institutional

and

political

context

questions

regarding

successful

implementation.

2.3.1 PaymentforEcosystemServices(PES):Carbonsequestration

Recentmodellingstudieshaveshownthatcarbonsequestrationinsoilscanprovideasignificant

offsetforgreenhousegasemissions3.Soilerosionleadstolossofthepotentialtogrowbiomass

andincreasinghumuscontent.Indeed,severalscholarsarguethegreatestpotentialfor

sequestrationexistsinsoilsthathavealreadybeencarbondepleted,asindrylandsoils.However,

thisisgenerallynotwellunderstoodandtheUNFCCCprocesshaspaidlittleattentiontothe

potentialforcarbonsequestrationinsoils.Infact,certainstudiesclaimthatsoilerosionisnot

contributingtoatmosphericcarbonlevelsbecauseerodedsoilisredepositedinotherlocations,anditdoesnotmineralise.However,thistypeofconclusionwhilevalidforspecificstudysites

demonstratestheneedforlandscapescaleapproachestoassesstheentireprocess.Further

researchisthusneededonthepotentialforcarbonsequestrationinsoilsthroughSLMpractices.

Althoughmodellingstudieshavebeencarriedout,improvedmethodsareneededformeasuring

sequesteredcarbonandensuringthatitremainsinthesoilinthelongerterm,inorderforsoil

carboncreditstobeincorporatedintomarketmechanisms.

3 Farageetal.(2007)thatestimatethatagriculturalsoilscouldsequesteratleast2030Pgofcarbonoverthe

next50100years,possiblyrisingto100Pg.AtmosphericCO2concentrationisrisingatjustover3Pgyear(IPCC,

2001),

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KnowledgegapsalsoremainregardingtheimpactsofcarbonPESschemesonlocallivelihoods.The

priceofcarboniscurrentlytoolowtomakepaymentsforsoilcarbonsequestrationa

comprehensivealternativetotraditionallivelihoods,howeveritcanplayaroleinsupplementing

anddiversifyingrurallivelihoods.BecauseofthesynergiesbetweenSLMpracticesandcarbon

sequestration,theanalysisofadoptionofSLMtechnologiesapplies(seeSection2.2.4)..

Finally,thereisfurtherpotentialfornewtechnologiestocontributetosoilcarbonsequestration.

Lal(2009)arguesthereareseveralpromisinginnovativestrategiesofenhancingsoilorganic

matter.Nanotechnologyenhancedmaterialscanbeappliedtoimprovesoilqualityanduse

efficiencyofinput.Useofnanoenhancedmaterialcanalsoincreasesoilrestorationandbringnew

landunderproduction.Nanofertilizershaveapotentialtoenhanceuseefficiencyanddecrease

soillosses.Biotechnologyalsohascarbonsequestrationapplicationsinaridclimates4

2.3.2Ecotourism

Tourismtonaturalattractionsinremoteruralareasrepresentsanopportunitytoincreaseincomes

anddiversifylivelihoodsindrylands.InsubSaharanAfricaithasbeenoneofthelargestgrowth

areasintherecentdecade.Opportunitiesfordiversificationofthe(local)economyexiststhrough

creatingincomeopportunitiesfromecotourismandhandicraftproduction,forexample,asin

UNESCOprojectsinTunisia,JordanandEgyptwhichhaveyieldedgoodresults,whileecotourismis

analreadybeingimplementedtoinNamibia. Thepotentialforecotourismtosignificantlyreduce

povertyandenvironmentaldegradationindrylandshasbeendiscussedforyears,butremains

relatively

unexplored.

The

limits

of

this

development

option

must

however

be

considered

with

regardtowaterconsumption.ConservancymodelsinSouthernAfricahaveshownthatecotourism

canalsobeencouragedincommunallandsbasedonsharedinvestmentsandbenefitsof

communities,however,itspotentialshouldnotbeoverestimatedforthedrylands.Large,

transnationalprojectshavingthepotentialforecotourismareunderplanning,suchastheKAZA

transboundarynationalparkprojectinthesameregion.Additionally,tourismandwildlife

opportunitiesneedsignificantinvestmentandasafesocialandpoliticalenvironment.

Growingfinancialopportunitiesfromtourism,institutionalchallengesrelatingtothecontrolof

naturalresources,andvariablelocalcapacityformanagingecotourismventuresareillustrateboththepotentialofandthechallengestocommunitybasedecotourism.Recentresearchhighlights

thefactthatgoodgovernanceiscriticaltoachievingconservationandruraldevelopment

objectives.

4 GrowinggeneticallymodifiedplantscanimprovetheSOCpoolthroughimprovementofroot/shootratio,

harvestindex,andincorporationofsomerecalcitrantcompoundsinplanttissues(especiallyroots)thatdecreasethe

rateofdecompositionofbiomassreturnedtothesoil(Lal,2009).

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2.3.3Solarenergy

Thepotentialofsolarfarmsindrylandshasbeendiscussedforyears,butremainsrelatively

unexplored.Energygenerationthroughwindandsolarcouldbringdevelopmenttodrylandsbased

onindividualorgrouprightsandmanagement.Therearerecentinitiativeswhichhavebegunto

addressthisopportunityby,forexample,investigatingthepoliticalrisksassociatedwithasocalled

SuperSmartGridwhichsupplyEuropeanelectricitydemandwithdecentralisedproductionin

NorthAfrica(Battaglinietal.2009).Suchdevelopmentsrequiresignificantinvestmentandsecurity

andstabilityinsocialandpoliticalenvironment.However,thetechnologicaloptionswiththe

potentialfordecentraliseddevelopment,andlowerinvestmentcosts,aregenerallythoughttobe

morebeneficialtolocalpopulations.Decentralisedsolarenergyproductionisaresearchdirection

withpotentialbenefitstopoordrylandpopulations,althoughtechnicalandorganizational

knowledgegapsexist.

2.3.4Landandwaterinteractions

Landandwaterinteractionshavegenerallybeenneglectedinpolicydebates,aswater

managementinthedrylandshasbeenreceivingfarmoreattentionofrecentyears.However,ithas

becomeclearinthecontextofDLDD,thatintegratedlandandwaterapproachesarerequiredto

assessclimatechange,landuseplanning,vegetationcover,PES,waterandcarboncredits. A

furtherdevelopmentofirrigationschemesandwateruseefficiency(dripirrigation)indrylands

alsorequirenewmethodswhichbetterintegratelandandwater.Thereisaneedtodevelop

interactiveknowledgemanagementsystemsforasyetverydispersedinformationcomponents

Fromaninstitutionalperspective,thereisclearlythepotentialfororganizationaldevelopment

researchtoeliminateinstitutionalbarriersaslandandwaterareoftenaffiliatedtodifferent

governmentstructures.Thisimpliesprovidinginstitutionalsupporttofacilitatewaterspecialists

cooperatingwithlandresearchersandpolicymakers,aswellasotherstakeholders.Such

approachesneedtotakeintoaccountthepreviousworkandotherinitatives,suchasGlobal

ChangeandtheHydrologicalCycle(GLOWA),theRegionalScienceServicesCentres(RSSC)West

AfricanScienceServiceCenteronClimateandAdaptedLandUse (WASCAL)approaches.

Fromatechnicalperspective,thereexiststhepotentialtoidentifyanddevelopoptionsfortechnicalprojectfocuswithclearbenefitsrelatedtoDLDD.Forexample,AUNESCOfundedproject

inEgyptasdevelopedtechniquesfordesalinationofwaterusingsolarenergyinsteadoffossilfuel.

Landandwaterinteractionsarerelevantatvariouslevels:i)landandwaterpolicy,(Linkingland

andwatergovernanceIFAD);ii)landtenureandwaterrights(LandandWater:therightsinterface;

FAOlegislativestudy84);iii)landuseplanningandwatershedmanagement.

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Researchneeds,alternativelivelihoods:

CarbonsequestrationandlinkbetweenPESandSLM:biophysicalgapsregardingC

storage,andimplementationgapsregardingtechnology

Thoroughanalysis

of

whether

the

concept

of

alternative

income

strategies

has

beenbeneficialtotheecologyandeconomyoflocalsystems

Analysisofpotentialforecotourismandrenewableenergygenerationregardingthe

ecologicallimits,andfullcostsandbenefits

Methodsforintegrationoflandandwaterinlanduseplanningandirrigation

development

2.4CostsofDLDD

2.4.1Productivity

Estimatingthecostsoflanddegradationatarangeofscalesisapotentiallyusefultoolfordecision

makers,bothraisingtheprofileoflanddegradationissuesandprovidingthebasisforlanduse

decisionmakinginacostbenefitframework.Assuchthishasbeenontheresearchagendaofthe

UNCCDandassociatedinstitutions,e.g.theGlobalMechanism,forsometime. Someestimatesof

globalcostsat40billionUSDperyear(LADA,2008).However,studieswhicharenationalorglobal

inscopearebothfew,andsufferfrommethodologicalanddatarelatedweaknesses.

Inthepast,costestimatesandcostbenefitanalysesofDLDDhavebeencarriedouteitherthrough

scalingupmicrostudiesbyestimatingthecostsperhectare,orbyaggregatingmicrostudiesasa

functionofpopulationsandspatialdata,i.e.landuses.Limitsanddifficultiesexistwithrespectto

dataavailabilityforbothapproaches. Forexample,landuseschangeoverthecourseoftheyear

limitingtheaccuracyofavailabledata. Berryetal.(2003),incasesstudiesfromChina,sub

SaharanAfricaandSouthAmerica,findthatlanddegradationdecreasesagriculturalproductivity

by3%to7%,howeverciteproblemswithcomparabilityofdataacrossregions.Becauseof

incompletenessandinconsistencyinthebasicdataoncostsoflanddegradation,thereisneedfor

amorecomprehensiveapproachtothetopic.Withrespecttomodelling,gapsexistintermsoflinkingstudiestoempiricalmethodsofdemonstratingincreasedproductivityoverthemediumto

longterm.

Overallthereisalimitedamountofreliable,widelyacceptedestimatesforthecostsofland

degradationduetoproductivitylossesatalllevels.Further,theLandDegradationAssessmentin

Drylands(LADA)arguesthatfullcostestimatesoflanddegradationmustincludesocialcosts,such

asthoseassociatedwithoutmigration.Improvedmethodsanddatacollectionarenecessaryfor

progressinthisarea.

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2.4.2FoodEmergencies

Fromadevelopmentviewpoint,neglectofdrylandspopulationstakesacostlytollthroughthe

frequentreliefeffortsthatarerequiredtorespondtofoodemergenciesresultingfromdrought

andsubsequentlossofharvestsandlivestock.Thesecostsareactuallylargelymetbythe

internationalcommunitiesincaseswherecountriesarenotabletorespondontheirown.Recent

researchfromIndia,whichcurrentlyrespondstofoodemergencieswithouttheaidofthe

internationalcommunity,revealedthatthecountriescombinedlossesandresponseexpenses

fromthedroughtof200304weremorethanallgovernmentyearlyspendingcombined,and

amountedtohalfthegovernmentsinvestmentsinagricultureandruraldevelopmentovera5year

period(Ryden,2010).Inadditiontothecoststothestate,therewereveryconsiderablecoststo

theruralcommunityintheformofforcedlabourmigration,lossesduetodistresssalesofcattle

andjewelleryandthesocialcostsofindebtednessanddistress.

Whileclearlythesecostsaresignificantandusefulforpolicymakers,theliteraturebaseinthis

areagloballyissmall.DLDDhasundertakennothingcomparabletotheSternReportintheclimate

changecommunity,whichdrewsubstantialglobalattentionbyattributingcoststowhatwas

previouslyseenasmainlymerelyanenvironmentalissue.Expertconsultationshavepointedtoa

needforincreasedscientificevidenceforbenefitsofdrylandsinvestment,whencomparedwith

thecostlyemergencyaidwhichcannotbeavoidedoncethereisafailedcroporseverelossof

livestockduetodroughts.

2.4.3Restoration

A

global

assessment

of

the

costs

and

benefits

of

land

restoration

relies

on

the

development

of

methodsforassessingbothlocalandglobalbenefitsofecosystemservice(seeSection2.1.2).

Whilethereisinterestinthisarea,largeknowledgegapsremain.Further,suchassessmentsshould

addressthequestionsofwhatrestorationtechniquesworkandinwhichecological,institutional

andsocialcontexts,aswellasthereasonsfortheirsuccess.

Thereisaneedforresearchandmethodsforaddressingthereconciliationofshorttermgoals,

involvingfastregenerationandincreasedproductivitywiththelongtermgoalsofecosystem

restoration,includingcostestimationoftherecoveryofdegradationland.Methodsexistwith

regardtoprotectedareasandbiospherereserves,wherebyreferenceareasforpotentialnaturalvegetationandbiotopesinotherwisedegradeddrylands areas canbeusedasapristineland

benchmark,thereisaneedforimprovementandwideracceptance.

ResearchneedsforcostsofDLDD:

needforempiricallybasedstudiesoflanddegradationcostsfor

supportingcostbenefitdecisionframeworkatmultiplescales

costsofrespondingtofoodemergencies

improvedmethodsforrestorationcostestimatesrecognisingtension

betweenshorttermandlongtermgoals2.5

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MonitoringandassessingDLDD:indicatorsAsubstantialamountofeffortandresourceshavegoneintothedevelopmentofindicatorsfor

DLDDoverthepastdecades.Despitetheseeffortsglobalassessmentsdiffersignificantlyinthe

percentageoflandwhichisclassifiedasdegraded,rangingfrom4%to74%(Safriel,2007).The

mostprominentglobalassessmentistheGLASODassessment(UNEP,1990),whichassessedsoil

degradation,andwasnotwithoutcritics.Becausesoilmodellingexhibitschaoticfeatures,much

modelcalibrationandindicatorselectionintheGLASODassessmentwasdonethroughsubjective

judgementofexperts.Theseexpertjudgementswerefoundtobetobesometimesinconsistent;

thesamecharacteristicsindifferentplacesproduceddifferentclassifications(SonneveldandDent,

2009).

Amorerecent,ambitiousattempttotackletheissueofmonitoringandassessmentistheLand

AssessmentDegradationAssessmentinDrylands(LADA)project.Inthisapproach,NetPrimary

Productivity(NPP)andNormalisedVegetationDifferentiationIndex(NVDI)areusedastheprimary

indicatorsoflanddegradationattheglobal,regionalandnationalscale.Thoughsoilcharacteristics

havealsobeenusedinthepast,thispresentsdifficultiesforbothintermsofmethodsfortheuse

ofGISandsatellites,andintermsofcosts(PonceHernandezandKoohafkan,2010).Atthesub

nationalscale,biophysicalindicatorsoflanddegradationareseparatedintotheirphysical,

biologicalandchemicalcomponents. TheLADAmethodologyappliestheDriverPressureState

ImpactResponse(DPSIR)framework.Thedifferentphysical,biologicalandchemicaldegradation

indicatorsarethenlinkedtosocioeconomicpressuresanddriversthroughexpertjudgement5.

TheDPSIRhasenjoyedwidespreaduseforindicatorselectioninenvironmentalproblems.

However,Svarstadetal.(2008)arguetheDPSIRframeworkismostconducivetoaconservation

approachwhichignorestheneedsoflocalpopulations,asitemphasisesecologicalimpactstothe

neglectofeconomicandsocialconsiderations.Withtherecentemphasisonecosystemservices

andrecognitionthatlanddegradationisdrivenbymultiplesocialandecologicalfactors(Geistand

Lambin,2004),akeyresearchissueisarrivingataminimumsetofindicatorsfromlinkedsocial

ecologicalsystems(e.g.Ostrom,2007,2009).

TheDrylandsDevelopmentParadigm(DDP)(Reynoldsetal.2007,seeSection1.1)hasfurtheremphasisedthelinkedsocialecologicalsystemsindrylands,pointingtotherelevanceofslow

variablesandthresholdsasnewdirectionsfordrylandsmanagement.Researchcanplayamajor

roleinestablishingearlywarningsystemsdevelopedwithaviewtomonitoringslowvariables.The

majorknowledgeneedsforsuchsystemsincludebiophysicalandspatiotemporalvariationsof

DLDDrisks,andlimitsandthresholdsofservicesinagroecosystems.

Further,casestudiesfromsouthernAfricahaveunderlinedtheneedtobetterintegrateknowledge

withinandbetweenscientificandlocalknowledgebases.Empiricalresultsshowthatboth

scientificandlocalknowledgehavetheirlimitationssothatneutralverificationisnecessaryto

5 Theselasttwomethodsrelylargelyon eitheradhocdesignedforms orusing(bayesian)computermodels.

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broadenreductionistscienceapproachesaswellastoputlocalspecificitiesintoageneralizing

context(Stringer&Reed,2007).Reedetal.(2006)proposeaframeworkforindicatorselection

whichincludesstakeholdersatalllevels,providingfortheincorporationoflocalknowledge.This

combinestopdownandbottomupapproachestoM&Aandallowsforcomparabilitybetween

siteswiththeminimumsetindicatorsandsitespecificitywithlocallydevelopedindicators.

However,suchproposalshavenotencounteredsmoothsailingwithintheUNCCDprocesswhere

currentindicatoruserequiresPartiestocollectandshareinformationonlyonlandcoverstatus

andthepercentageofpopulationsinaffectedareaslivingabovethepovertyline.Amore

comprehensivesetofindicatorslimitedbybothinstitutionalconstraintsrelatedtotheUNCCD

(Grainger,2009b)andcapacityconstraintsrelatedtothechallengeofachievingconsistencyand

standardisationbetweencountriesandacrossadministrativelevels.Thus,indicatorresearch

shouldbedirectedtowardsthebarriersto,andavenuesfor,expandingsuchaminimumsetby

improvingtheacceptanceofindicatorsystemsinpolicydecisionmaking.

Becauseoftheseconstraintstogetherwiththewealthofpastworkonindicators,theresultsofour

studypointtoresearchprioritiesidentifyingandimplementingcosteffectiveusesofexisting

indicatorsystems.(Thenotableexceptiontothisbeingthedevelopmentofslowchangeindicators

tosupportfoodemergencyearlywarningsystemsindrylands).Thisrequiresastocktakingand

evaluationofexistingindicatorsetandmonitoringprocesseswithrespecttothecriteriaof

practicabilityinuseforpolicymakersandotherstakeholdersatdifferentscales,withaviewto

bettercombiningbiophysicalandsocioeconomicindicators.Further,thereisaneedforclarityin

depicting

present

status,

trends

and

reversible

processes

of

land

degradation,

with

the

possibility

oflinkingstatesofdegradationtochangesineconomicevaluationofdesertification. Expert

consultationalsopointedtotheneedforscenarioanalyseslinkingclimate,population&land

coverchangewithpotentialvulnerabilityoftargetgroupstoDLDD.

ResearchneedsformonitoringandassessmentofDLDD:

researchoncosteffectiveuseofexistingindicators&monitoring

multilevelnestedframeworksforlinkingsocialecologicalsystems;inclusionoflocal

knowledge

Earlywarningsystemdevelopment:slowvariablesandthresholdsinagro

ecosystems

identifycostandpoliticallimitstocombiningbiophysicalandsocioeconomicand

selectingminimumset

linkstatesofdegradationtochangesineconomicevaluationofdesertification

Improvingacceptanceofindicatorsystemsinpolicydecisionmaking

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RegionalAssessment1;TheArabWorld6,

PuttingtheUNCCDimplementationincontext

Arabcountries,whoseareaamountstoabout14.3millionkm2andextendthroughtheAridand

Semiaridzonesissufferingfromthephenomenonofdesertificationinvariousformsandvarying

degrees.ThecomplexityoftheissuesconfrontingtheimplementationoftheUNCCDconvention

requiresaglobal,regional,nationalaswellasalocalevidencebasedandknowledgebased

approach.Governance,climatechange,poverty,foodsecurity,accesstolandandwater,political

conflictsinthefaceofdesertificationandlanddegradationarealllinkedintheArabregionand

demandaclearandpragmaticfocus.Forbetterunderstandingthecomplexityandcontextinthe

Arabworld,someofthemostrelevantlinkagesarediscussed.

ImpactofClimateChangeonAgricultureandCostsofAdaptation

IFPRI2009MiddleEastandNorthAfrica7

Thecropmodellingresultsindicatethatclimatechangewillhaveanegativeeffectoncropyieldsin

theMiddleEastandNorthAfricain2050.Theregionwillfaceyielddeclinesofupto30percentfor

rice,about47percentformaizeand20percentforwheat.

Withoutclimatechange,calorieavailabilityisexpectedtoincreaseintheMiddleEastandNorth

Africabetween2000and2050,from2,846to3,119dailycaloriesperperson.Withclimatechange,

however,calorieavailabilityintheregionin2050willbeabout2,500,orupto500calorieslessper

personperday,comparedtoanoclimatechangescenario.

Inanoclimatechangescenario,NorthAfricaandtheMiddleEastwillseedramaticimprovements

inthenumberofmalnourishedchildrenbetween2000and2050,decliningfrom3.5milliontojust

over1million.Climatechangewillcounteractmuchofthisprogress,resultinginover2million

malnourishedchildrenin2050,1millionmorethaninanoclimatechangescenario.Tocounteract

theeffectsofclimatechangeonnutrition,NorthAfricaandtheMiddleEastrequireadditional

6 Arab world or Arab countries or League of Arab states or Middle East and North Africa countries (MENA)7 http://www.ifpri.org/publication/climate-change-impact-agriculture-and-costs-adaptation

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annualinvestmentsof241271millionUSD.Themajorityofinvestmentexpendituresshouldbein

agriculturalresearch.

HumanRightsandDesertification.8

Itisnowwidelyacceptedthatpovertyshouldnotbeseenonlyasalackofincome,butalsoasa

deprivationofhumanrights(undernutritionandhungerareconstitutiveofpoverty).Itisequally

recognizedthatunlesstheproblemsofpovertyareaddressed,environmentalissueswillnotbe

resolved.Inthiscontext,ahumanrightsapproachtopovertyreductionprovidesaconceptual

frameworkforcombatingdesertificationandlanddegradationintheArabregion.

Forexample,farmersandherdersneedfirmrightstothesoils,grazing,woodlandsandwater

sourcesonwhichtheirlivelihooddepend.Governmentsneedtorecogniselocalrightswhichare

vitalforpromotingfarmerinvestment.

TheESCWAregionsuffersfromaviciouscycleofpoliticaltension,conflictanddedevelopmentin

whichpoliticaltensions,conflict,collapseofStateinstitutions,extremeideologicaldiscourse,and

negativedetrimentalsocialandeconomicrepercussionsreinforceoneanother.9

GovernanceandAntiCorruptionPerformanceintheArabregion10

Avarietyoffactorshavebeenhighlightedtoexplainthegovernancegapandrelativelypoor

governanceandanticorruptionperformanceofMENAcountries.Thesefactorsarefullydeveloped

anddocumentedintheWorldBankreportonBetterGovernanceaswellasinInstitutionalised

Corruption:aninstrumentofgovernanceintheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica?11

Desertification

and

Land

Governance

12

RegionalAssessmentfortheFAOVoluntaryGuidelinesonResponsibleGovernanceofTenureof

LandandOtherNaturalResourcesMiddleEastandNorthAfrica(MENA),Amman,Jordan,May

201013

Rightsofaccesstotheseresourcesandtheassociatedsecurityoftenureareincreasinglyaffected

byoccupation,neoliberaleconomicpolicies,populationgrowth,urbanization,climatechange,

naturaldisasters,violentconflicts,andgrowingdemandsforlandforfoodproductionandfornew

energysourcessuchasbioenergy.Weakgovernanceoftenureisafactorinmanytenurerelated

problems,andfailingtoaddresstheseproblemshindersreformefforts.Incontrast,responsiblegovernanceoftenurecanhelptoreducehungerandpoverty,supportsocialandeconomic

development,reformpublicadministration,andcontributetopeacebuilding. Intheregion,two

particularchallengeswerehighlighted:thelinkagesbetweenlandandwatergovernanceaswellas

theimpactofwar,occupationandconflictonlandrelatedissues.

8 http://www.unccd.int/publicinfo/docs/HumanRightsandDesertification.pdf

9 www.unescwa.org

10 Overview of Corruption in the MENA Countries 2007; www.u4.no

11 http://www.cipe.org/pdf/publications/fs/rachami.pdf12 FAO 2010, Regional Assessment for the FAO Voluntary Guidelines on Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land and OtherNatural Resources Middle East and North Africa (forthcoming)

13 W. Zimmermann, 2010: Land tenure development in the Arab region, in FAO Land reform bulletin 2010 (forthcoming)

30
http://www.unccd.int/publicinfo/docs/HumanRightsandDesertification.pdfhttp://www.unccd.int/publicinfo/docs/HumanRightsandDesertification.pdfhttp://www.cipe.org/pdf/publications/fs/rachami.pdfhttp://www.cipe.org/pdf/publications/fs/rachami.pdfhttp://www.cipe.org/pdf/publications/fs/rachami.pdfhttp://www.unccd.int/publicinfo/docs/HumanRightsandDesertification.pdf


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ResearchPartnersintheArabRegion

TheroleandfunctionofACSADfortheArabregion(TheArabCenterforAridZonesand

DryLands14

)

ACSADwasappointedbytheleagueofArabStatestobetheAraborganization,whichis

responsiblefordesertificationstudiesandmonitoringintheArabworld,aswellasfollowingupthe

activitiesofUnitedNationsconventiontocombatdesertification(UNCCD).

TheArabCenterfortheStudiesofAridZonesandDryLandswasestablishedinDamascus,Syriain

1968.ACSADisaspecializedAraborganizationworkingwithintheframeworkoftheLeagueof

ArabStateswiththeobjectiveofunifyingtheArabeffortswhichaimtodevelopthescientific

agriculturalresearchinthearidandsemiaridareas,helpintheexchangeofinformationand

experiencesandmakeuseofthescientificprogressandthemodernagriculturaltechniquesin

ordertoincreasetheagriculturalproduction.

ACSAD/GTZPartnershipforCombatingDesertificationintheArabregion15

In1993,ACSADGermanpartnershipthroughGTZforcombatingdesertificationwaslaunchedto

establishfavourableinstitutionalstructuresandensureadequatenationalconditionsforthe

implementationoftheUnitedNationsConventionforCombatingDesertificationUNCCD.(still

ongoing).

TheroleandfunctionofICARDAfortheARABRegion

(InternationalCenterforAgriculturalResearchintheDryAreas)16

ICARDAservesthenontropicaldryareasfortheimprovementofonfarmwateruseefficiency,

rangeland

and

small

ruminant

production.

In

the

Central

and

West

Asia

and

North

Africa

(CWANA)

region,ICARDAcontributestotheimprovementofwheats,kabulichickpea,pastureandforage

legumesandassociatedfarmingsystems.Italsoworksonimprovedlandmanagement,

diversificationofproductionsystems,andvalueaddedcropandlivestockproducts.Social,

economicandpolicyresearchisanintegralcomponentofICARDA'sresearchtobettertarget

povertyandtoenhancetheuptakeandmaximizeimpactoftheresearchoutputs.

ResearchLessonsintheArabRegion:

Therearesuccessstoriesinthefieldsofsoilandwaterconservation,waterresourcemanagement,

integrationofconservationagriculture,livestockandrangemanagement,conservationagriculture,communitybasednaturalresourceandriskmanagement,mainstreamingDLDDinspatialplanning

(Tunisia,Morocco),research(ICARDA,ACSAD),monitoringanddecisionsupportsystemsandlocal

institutionbuilding,securingpastoralsresourcerights(Mauretania),GIStechnologyfortrend

analysisandearlywarning(ACSAD).Indicatorsofsuccessincludelongtermincreasesin

productivity;increaseddroughtresilienceofruralproductionsystemsandincreaseincapacities.

14 http://www.acsad.org/

15 http://www.acsad.org/gtz/gtz.pdf

16 www.icarda.org

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ScienceGaps

Althoughthecountriesintheregionareextremelydiverseintermsofsurfacearea,populationand

oilandgasreserves,theidentificationanddiscussionofasetofScienceGapsfromanArab

regionalperspectiveisproposed:

12.Withfewexceptions,thepoliticaleconomyinArabcountriesincludenarrow,sectoral,

centralized,authoritarian,andtechnocraticapproaches;lackofaccessoraffordabilityof

requiredinputs;lackofcongruencewithand/orsupportfromgovernmentpriorities,policies,

andincentives;insufficientinfrastructureandinstitutions;lackoftrust;lackoflocalcommunity

involvementandcommitment;.Howcansciencecontributetobetterunderstandthe

extremelydiversepoliticalandadministrativesystemsintheArabregionandtosupportan

enablingpolicyandadministrativeenvironmentforimplementingtheUNCCD?

13.MoreresearchisrequiredforanalysingthespecificinterdependenciesintheArabregion

betweentheprocessofdesertification,governanceinArabcountries,securityaspects,climate

change,waterscarcity,migration/urbanisation,foodsecurity,andpovertyeradicationfor

policyorientationandcoherentmeasures.

14.Increasingtheunderstandingofdrylandagriculturalandnaturalecosystemsandthe

degreetowhichcarryingcapacitycanbesustainablyenhancedthroughintegratedcroptree

livestocksystems,conservationagriculture,increasedsoilfertility,improvedwater

managementandSLM

15.Insteadoffixedtechnologies,themainresearchoutcomesareknowledge,expertise,

strategies,methods,modelsandapproaches.Portfoliosofoptionsshouldbedevelopedrather

thanrecipelikesolutions.Closerpartnershipswithnongovernmentalorganizations,

cooperatives,

and

other

development

agents

can

magnify

the

leverage

of

research

and

developmentinstitutionsinwaysthatmakemasscustomizationpractical.Optionsof

promisingParticipatoryDevelopmentMethodsshouldbestudiedandidentified.

16.ResultsofpastresearchprojectsintheArabregionhavenotbyitselfsupportedthescaling

upofgoodresults,lessonslearnedandtheinstitutionalisingofknowhow.Harvestingexisting

researchresultsandaddingvaluebycreatingsynergies,integrationintothebroaderpicture,

integratingintoongoingdesignofprojectsandprograms,usingasastartingpointfor

complementaryareasofsciencecouldbeapromisingresearchcomponent.

17.Arabcountrieshavemadeonlymodesteffortstotransferknowledgetothegeneralpublic

ortotransfereitherlocallyproducedknowledgeorimportedknowledgetotheproductivesector.Themechanismsofknowledgetransferremainverylimited.Whatistheroleofscience

indevelopingalternativemechanismforimprovedknowledgemanagementandtransferto

allstakeholdersinvolvedintheimplementationofUNCCD?

18.Arabcountriesingeneralhaveneitherupdatedtheirlandpolicyorientationnorreformed

theirnormativeframeworkforimprovingtenuresecurityoflandandnaturalresourceandfor

rulebasedaccesstolandandwater.Sustainablelandmanagementisdefinedinanarrow

mannerwithintheUNCCD.Thesociolegalandsocioeconomicaspectsofland(landtenure

security,landrights,accesstoland,landeconomics,landpolicy)requiremuchmoreattention

andshouldbeanintegralcomponentofSLM.MuchmoreresearchisrequiredintheArab

regionforassessingthelandtenurearrangementforrangelandmanagement,thelandtenure/

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19.Thereisanenormousinefficiencyinwaterconsumptioninagriculture,industryandurban

areasintheregion.Sincethereisnopricingpolicy(protectionmoney),thereisnoincentivefor

farmersforinvestinginmodernandconsumptionefficientirrigationtechniques.Howcan

sciencecontributeforimprovingpoliciesandmeasuresforanincreasedwaterconsumption

efficiencyintheregion?

Regionalassessment2:CentralAsia

PleaseseetheFullVersionoftheScopingPaper.

4.2Crosscuttingissues

4.2.1.LandGovernance

TheUNCCDcallsforgoodgovernanceasindispensableconditionformeasurestocombat

desertification.However,thereisawideknowledgeandpolicygapbetweenrhetoricandthe

realitiesontheground. OperationalisingdefinedgovernanceprinciplesforSLMindrylandsand

theUNCCDimplementationandimprovingcompliancewiththeseremainsanopenquestion.

Currentgovernanceresearchappliestheconceptualmodelsofthesocialecologicalsystem

(Ostrom2007,2009)andmultilevelgovernancementionedabove.Theseconceptsbringafocus

ontotherespectiverolesandfunctionsofdifferentactors,e.g.government,civilsocietyorprivate

sectoractors,indifferentinstitutionalsettings.Governancescholarsaddressthequestionsofco

operationbetweenstateandcivilsocietyindifferentpoliticalsystems;policycoherence;

decentralisationdynamics;compliancetoconvention;leadership/ownership; democratic

decisionmaking,participation; controlofcorruption,transparency,accountability;local

empowerment.Iinviewofthelargegovernancechallengesfacedbyasignificantnumberof

drylandstates,thereisanidentifiedneedforresearchonDLDDimpactsinweakgovernedstates,

onpreventionofconflictandonmigration.

Thepasttwodecadesofresearchinnaturalresourcemanagement,asbeenasortofrenaissance

forcommonlandsandcustomarytenure,asmanystudieshaveshownthatinagivencontext

communaltenureisbothsecureandmoreproductivethanprivatetenureorlandtitling.These

findingsshouldnotbemisinterpretedtomeanthatcustomarytenureissuperiorinallinstances,

justaspriorprejudicesabouttheTragedyoftheCommonswereequallyfalse.Adifferentiated,

andcontextualisedapproachtolandtenurestillleavesthequestion,inthecontextofmitigating

DLDD,whichmechanismscanhelptoovercomelandgovernanceproblems?Theremanyoptions,

asdiscussedwithrespecttobiofuelsinSection2.6.Theseincludetherecognitionofcustomary

landrightsorcodepastoral,localuseragreements,comanagementmodelslanddispute

resolution,gender

responsive

tenure,

corporate

social

responsibility

(CSR),

certification

(FDI),

publiclandreform(public/privat

finalreport.pdf desertificaton

Documents