An American English Verb Template, by Sorena Linton, M.Ed., M.S. English Verbs are simplistically categorized in the following manner: There are active, linking, and helping/auxiliary (including modals—see list); some verbs can fall in more than one category,

depending on how they are used in a sentence. Auxiliary verbs exist to give additional information about the main verb by creating tense, aspect, and/or mood in the sentence. There are three tenses

(past, present, and future—not exactly the same as time) and four aspects (simple, perfect, perfect progressive, and progressive) which create 12 overall verb forms (often also called tenses) in the

indicative. English also has several moods (i.e.: conditional, imperative, indicative, subjunctive, interrogative, exclamatory), a modal system (different from its system of moods), and two

grammatical polarities (affirmative and negative). This chart hopefully shows a sample of each form in a complete sentence. Two of the most significant moods are the indicative and the subjunctive,

because (simplistically put) the indicative deals with real or factual situations and the subjunctive deals with unreal or non-factual situations or statements. Pages 1 & 2 deal display indicatives; pages

3 & 4 display subjunctives; 5 & 6, modals; 7 & 8, conditionals; 9 display additional aspects; 10 & 11 catenatives; 12-16 give a parts of speech overview. The regular verb walk (intransitive, used with

an object) is used in many of the templates; 3rd person singular is also used extensively to highlight changes in that person & number.

Principle Parts: Walk (DLI verb 1), walking, walked (DLI verb 2), walked (DLI verb 3) [see participle chart, pg 9] Infinitives:

Active Voice Passive Voice

Bare Infinitive, Base, Or Dictionary Form I advise that he walk daily.

-------------------------

Infinitive It is enjoyable to walk in the meadow.

To be walked daily is important for the dog‟s health.

Everyone needs to get dressed in the morning. (get-passive)

Present Progressive/Cont. Infinitive It is nice to be walking again after surgery.

-----------------------

Present Perfect Infinitive It was invigorating to have walked in the morning.

To have been walked daily was healthy for the dog.

To have gotten dressed all by himself was encouraging. (get-passive)

Present Perfect progressive/Continuous Infinitive To have been walking in the rain was inconvenient.

-----------------------

Future Infinitive (to be + infinitive) He is to walk the dog each day.

The dog is to be walked daily. She is to get dressed now. (get-passive)

Imperative Mood (Command) Always 2nd

person, with the subject “you” implied. No questions here.

Active: Walk! Or: Don’t Walk! (neg) Emphatic Do/ Intensive: Do walk! Passive: Be gone! Don’t be gone! (neg) Get Dressed! (get-passive)

Indicative and Interrogative (?) Moods, with Affirmative and Negative Polarities The Indicative typically deals with factual or real situations. See modal chart and last page for alternative indicative forms (intensive, habitual, future in the past, get-passive). The Indicative Af: Affirmative; Neg:

negative; Int: interrogative or question; Neg Int: Negative interrogative; Prog/Cont: Progressive/continuous; Perf: Perfect. Never, nothing and nobody also create negative sentences.

Past Tense (not the same as time) Present Tense (not the same as time) Future Tense (not same as time; uses will)*

Simple Aspect An action that ended at a point in the past. An action that exists, is usual, or is repeated. A plan for future action.

Active

Voice

(AV)

Af: He walked (the dog).

Neg: He didn’t walk (the dog). He never walked the

dog.

?/Int: (Why) Did he walk (the dog)?

Neg Int: (Why) Didn’t he walk (the dog)?

Af: He walks (the dog).

Neg: He doesn’t walk (the dog). He never walks the dog.

?/Int: (Why) Does he walk (the dog)?

Neg Int: (Why) Doesn’t he walk (the dog)? Note: Do is used in the other persons and numbers here.

Af: He will walk (the dog).

Neg: He won’t walk (the dog).

?/Int: (Why) Will he walk (the dog)?

Neg Int: (Why) Won’t he walk (the dog)?

Passive Voice (PV)

be + main verb

(m.v.) + ed

Af/Neg: The dog was(n’t) walked (by him).

Int/Neg Int: (Why) Was(n’t) the dog walked (by him)? Note: Were is used in the other persons and numbers here.

Af/Neg: The dog is(n’t) walked (by him).

Int/NegInt: (Why) Is(n’t) the dog walked (by him)? Note: Am and are are used in the other persons and numbers here.

Af/Neg: The dog will/won’t be walked later.

Int/Neg Int: (Why) Will/won’t the dog be

walked later?

Some

time

Clues

Yesterday, before, last year/month/etc., for five

weeks/days/etc., one year/ month ago yesterday, the

last/first time, a week ago, earlier, today/this week

every morning/day, always, usually, frequently, sometimes, on Mondays,

weekends, often, generally, occasionally, once in a while, rarely, seldom, hardly

ever, never

Tomorrow, tonight, next, week/month/etc.

soon, in the future, the next time, in a few

days/ ten minutes

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Past Tense (not the same as time) Present Tense (not the same as time) Future Tense (not same as time; uses will)*

Prog/Cont

Aspect

An action was happening (Past Prog) when another

action happened (simple past).

An action that is happening now. An action that will be happen over time, in the

future, when something else happens.

AV

be + m.v.+ing

Af/Neg: He was(n’t) walking (the dog).

Int/Neg Int: (Why) Was(n’t) he walking (the dog)? Note: Were is used in the other persons and numbers here.

Af/Neg: He is(n’t) walking (the dog).

Int/ Neg Int: (Why) Is(n’t) he walking (the dog)? Note: Am and are are used in the other persons and numbers here.

Af/Neg: He will/won’t be walking (the dog).

Int/Neg Int: (Why) Will/won’t he be walking

(the dog)?

PV

be + being +

m.v. + ed

Af/Neg: The dog was(n’t) being walked (by him).

Int/Neg Int: (Why) Was(n’t) the dog being walked (by

him)? Were is used in the other persons and numbers here.

Af/Neg: Right now, the dog is(n’t) being walked (by him).

Int/Neg Int: Right now, (why) is(n’t) the dog being walked (by him)? Note: Am and are are used in the other persons and numbers here.

(Use Pres Prog Pass instead. Forms of “are

going to be being washed” are awkward and

unused.)

Some time

clues

While, when, during Now, right now, this week/minute/, at this/for the moment, currently, at the

present, temporarily, today

When, after, as soon as, before

Simple

Perf Aspect

An action that ended before another action or time in

the past.

An action that happened at an unspecified time in the past. An action that will end before another action

or time in the future.

AV

have +

m.v. + ed

Af/Neg: He had(n’t) walked (the dog).

Int/Neg Int: (Why) Had(n’t) he walked (the dog)?

Af/Neg: He has(n’t) walked (the dog).

Int/Neg Int: (Why) Has(n’t) he walked (the dog)? Note: Have is used in the other persons and numbers here.

Af/Neg: He will/won’t have walked (the dog).

Int/Neg Int: (Why) Will/won’t he have walked

(the dog)?

PV

Have + been +

m.v. + ed

Af/Neg: The dog had(n’t) been walked (by him).

Int/Neg Int: (Why) Had(n’t) the dog been walked (by

him)?

Af/Neg: The dog has(n’t) been walked (by him).

Int/Neg Int: (Why) Has(n’t) the dog been walked (by him)? Note: Have is used in the other persons and numbers here.

Af/Neg: The dog will/won’t have been walked

(by him) before 10 PM.

Int/Neg Int: (Why) Will/won’t the dog have

been walked (by him) before 10 PM?

Some time

clues

Before, already, after, by the time, until then/last

week/etc.

until now, ever, never, many times, for three hours/ minutes, since

yesterday/1983, in the last/past month, year, up to now, so far, lately, recently,

already (quests/affirm), in a long time (neg), yet (neg), how long (quests), ever

(quest.)

by the time you go (somewhere), by the time

you do (something) already

Perf Prog/

Cont Aspect

An action that happened over time, in the past, before

another time or action in the past.

An action occurring over time that started in the past and continues into the

present.

An action occurring over time, in the future,

before another action or time in the future.

AV have + been +

m.v. + ing

Af/Neg: He had(n’t) been walking (the dog). Int/Neg

Int: (Why) Had(n’t) he been walking (the dog)?

Af/Neg: He has(n’t) been walking (the dog).

Int/Neg Int: (Why) Has(n’t) he been walking (the dog)? Note: Have is used in the other persons and numbers here.

Af/Neg: He will/won’t have been walking (the

dog). Int/Neg Int: (Why) Will/won’t he have

been walking (the dog)?

PV Permutations of “has been being written” are cumbersome and unused.

Some time clues Before, since, for one week/hour/etc. for the past year/ month, for the last 2 months/ weeks, up to now, since, for

6weeks/hours

by the time, by, for ten days/weeks/etc.

all day long, since yesterday, how long

*Some grammarians say there is no true future tense in English, because the verb itself does not have a change. The future is formed with “will” plus the bare infinitive (which looks like the subjunctive form in the 3rd person

singular, for example—but it is not the subjunctive form). “Shall” is an older way to form the future tense (see modal page for “shall”).

To create most information questions, add an interrogative adverb to the beginning of a yes/no interrogative sentence: what, where, when, how long, etc + helping verb + (not) + subject + rest of verb inc. MV + rest of the sentence. Example: How long does he walk the dog? Why does he walk the dog? (Who creates a different structure, because it is an interrogative pronoun, not an adverb. Ex: Who walks the dog?)

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The Subjunctive Mood, with Interrogative Mood & Af., & Neg. Polarities A controversial mood is the subjunctive mood, indicating a hypothetical state, non-factual, or unreal state. The subjunctive is used to express wishes, certain commands, emotion,

imaginary possibility, judgment, opinion, necessity, or statements that are contrary to fact at present; the subjunctive exists especially to express the belief or point of view of the speaker, as opposed to

a real or factual statement that can be observed and accepted by both speaker and listener.

Modern speakers tend to use the modal system (not a mood) to indicate unreal statements, instead of the subjunctive mood; the subjunctive is gradually disappearing from English (and is not

discussed often because it does not differ very much in form from the indicative in most forms). Because the subjunctive mood deals with unreal issues or non-factual statements, the subjunctive

appears in the conditional mood when discussing a hypothetical or contrary-to-fact situations. The Subjunctive also expresses itself in sentences formed by modals, specifically when those sentences

discuss unreal things.

The terms present subjunctive and past subjunctive can be confusing, because they describe forms and not meanings. The past and present subjunctives have these names because they look

like past and present indicatives, but the difference between them is in mode, not time. For example, in "I asked that it be done yesterday," be done (a present subjunctive) has no present-tense sense.

Likewise, in "If that were true, I would know it," were (a past subjunctive) has no past-tense sense and instead describes a counterfactual condition.

When used in such counterfactual sentences with "if," the past subjunctive form is usually called the "present conditional" or "conditional 2," though some use these terms only with “would”

the second clause of the sentence. To give another example, "It's about time (that) we sold this house." Although sold appears to be the past tense of the verb to sell, the house has not been sold yet, so

the “past” subjunctive expresses a wish or a suggestion.

VERB FORM Past indicative Past subjunctive Present indicative Present subjunctive Future indicative Future subjunctive

to walk (regular verb)

I/s/he/it/we/you/they walked I/s/he/it/we/you/they

walked

s/he/it walks

I/we/you/they walk

s/he/it walk

I/we/you/they walk

s/he/it will walk

I/we/you/they will/shall walk s/he/it/I/we/you/they were to walk

to be I/she/he/it was

we/you/they were I/s/he/it/we/you/they were

I am s/he/it is

we/you/they are

I/she/he/it/we/you/they be s/he/it will be

I/we/you/they will/shall be s/he/it/I/we/you/they were to be

As shown in the above table, the form of the subjunctive is different from the indicative in four instances: 1) the 3rd person singular present tense; 2) the 1st & 3rd persons singular past tense

of "to be" 3) all forms of the present tense of "to be" 4) all verbs in the future and 5) all of the verbs in the present negative.

Some adjectives with subjunctive: advisable, bad, best, better, compulsory, critical, crucial, desirable, essential, good, imperative, important, mandatory, necessary, recommended,

required, urgent, vital.

Some verbs with subjunctive: advise, ask, beg, command, decide, decree, demand, direct, desire, dictate, insist, intend, move, order, prefer, petition, propose, recommend, request, require,

resolve, stipulate, suggest, urge, and vote.

The present subjunctive form is the same as the bare infinitive form and the imperative form; however, most grammarians do not consider them to all have the same function. The bare

infinitive (looking like a subjunctive) shows up in future forms of the indicative (i.e.: will + be), in sentences using modals and similar words and phrases, as well as conditionals, provided that the

sentences discuss real things. Throughout this chart, the indicative modal + bare infinitive or the subjunctive forms of the verbs have been highlighted for your attention, because people must learn

and use them—regardless of what they are called.

A Sampling of the

Jussive Subjunctive

(command-like,

formulaic statements)

...Need only..., Albeit (a synthesis of all be it, i.e. although it be), Be that as it may. Come Monday (Tuesday, etc.), Come what may. Far be it from (or for) me,

God bless America, God keep our land glorious and free, God rest ye merry gentlemen, etc., God save our gracious Queen, Heaven forefend/forbidden, If need

be, as it were, if I were you; were I you, (God) bless you!, Let (may) it be known, Let that peasant eat cake. Let them eat cake. Long live the king, May the best

man win, Peace be with you, Rest in peace, Rue the day, So be it. Suffice it to say…. Truth be told, Until death do us part, Woe betide, Would that it were,

3

The Subjunctive Sentence has a dependent and an independent clause/complete sentence. The Subjunctive is often found in a subordinate clause. Form:

Subject + linking verb + “subjunctive adjective” + (that) + independent clause/complete sentence with verb in the subjunctive form. OR

Subject + “subjunctive verb” + (that) + independent clause/complete sentence with verb in the subjunctive form.

The verb in the dependent can clause can be in different tenses (is important/was important), just as the verb in the independent clause.

These sentences could be rewritten as canonical ones, rather than extraposed ones: “That he walked the dog is important.” ONE NEGATIVE PER SENTENCE, PLEASE.

Past Tense Subjunctive

(not a real past tense, save for the Perfect Active or Pluperfect)

Present Tense Subjunctive

(No future subjunctive, except in conditional use and with “should” + the bare infinitive/base form)

Simple

Active Voice

Af: It is(n’t) important (that) he walked the dog.

Int: Is(n’t) it important (that) the child walked the dog?

(neg. awkward)

Af/Neg: She doesn’t ask/She asks/It is(n’t) important (that) he (not) walk the dog. Int/Neg Int: Didn’t she ask/Is(n’t) it important (that) he (not) walk the dog?

Simple

Passive Voice

(There is no “he were walked” here, or it is rare.)

Conditionals may use some of these forms.

Af/Neg: She doesn’t ask/She asks /It is(n’t) important (that) the dog (not) be walked before bed.

Int/Neg Int: Did(n’t) she ask/Is(n’t) it important (that) the dog (not) be walked before bed?

Prog/Cont

Active, Passive Voices

(The active “he were working” or passive “he were being walked” here are really rare.)

Af/neg: She doesn’t ask/She asks /It is(n’t) important (that) the child (not) be walking the dog. Int/NegInt: Did(n’t) she ask/Is(n’t) it important (that) the child (not) be walking the dog?

(no passive “be being walked” here)

Perfect

Active

Voice

Af/neg: It is(n’t) important (that) he had (not) walked the dog.

Int/NegInt: Is(n’t) it important (that) he had (not) walked the dog?

Pluperfect expresses past time

Af/neg: It is(n’t) important (that) he have (not) walked the dog.

Int/NegInt: Is(n’t) it important (that) he have (not) walked the dog?

(most people would use “had” in speech)

Perfect

Passive Voice

(“He had been worked” is rare or unused.) Af/neg: It is(n’t) important (that) the dog have (not) been walked. Int/NegInt: Is(n’t) it important (that) the dog have (not) been walked?

(most people would use “had” in speech)

Perf Prog/Cont

Active Voice

Af/neg: It is(n’t) important (that) the child had (not) been walking the dog. Int/NegInt: Is(n’t) it important (that) the child had (not) been walking the dog?

Af/neg: It is(n’t) important (that) the child have (not) been walking the dog. Int/NegInt: Is(n’t) it important (that) the child have (not) been walking the dog?

(most people would use “had” in speech)

Perf Pro/Cont (“He had been being worked” is unused.) (There is no passive “have been being walked” here.)

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Modal System & Similar Words/Phrases, with Int. with Af. & Neg. Polarities Like the subjunctive mood, the modal system often reflects the belief or point of view of the speaker. This page shows conjugation patterns for do (primary auxiliary); many of the following modal

auxiliaries: may, might, shall, should, will, would, can, could, must, need, ought to; semi-/quasi-modal auxiliaries: want (to), had better, have to, be able to, be about to, be bound to, be going to, be

supposed to, be to, have got to (lists from Peter Collins). They also cover some additional modal-like verbs & idioms: used to, dare, would rather. There are less common words, phrases and idioms, which

also fall in this category: had best, would sooner/(just) as soon, may/might, (just) as well, be obliged to, be apt to, to, be due to, be likely to, be meant to. The red, italicized words are in the subjunctive

form when the sentence expresses uncertainly; the red, italicized words are in indicative mood, using the bare infinitive form when they express certainly. Not all auxiliaries, modals, quasi-modals, etc.

can be conjugated in all of these forms. Can/could/be able to; must/have (got) to/had to; will/would; may/might; shall/should/be supposed to; be to are considered sets of conjugations. Modals are

considered “defective verbs”: they cannot stand alone, nor do they have infinitive, gerund, or imperative forms, for example. Primary auxiliaries (do, be, have) are conjugated; do and have can be action

verbs and be can be a linking verb. Modals are not conjugated (except the “be” of terms like be due to). These verbs connect with the main verbs and color their meaning.

Using base form Using past participle (Past P), see page 9 Using present participle (Pres P), see page 9

Modal/modal like verb +

base form = ought to walk

Modal/modal like verb + be/have + Past P= ought to be/have walked

Modal/modal like verb + have + been + Past P= ought to have been walked

(The Continuous “______ have been being walked” is rare or unused.)

Modal/modal like verb + be + Pres P = ought to be walking

Modal/modal like verb + have + been + Pres P= ought to have been walking

Past Tense Present/Future Tense

Simple

Active Voice

Af/Neg: He could(n’t) walk the dog.

Int/NegInt: Could(n’t) he walk the dog? Intensive/Emphatic Do: He did(n’t) walk the dog.

Habitual: He used to/would always walk the dog.

Future in the Past: He was going to/about to walk the dog. I knew he would walk the dog.

Af/Neg: He can(‘t) walk the dog.

Int/NegInt: Can(’t) she walk the dog? Intensive/Emphatic Do: He does(n’t) walk the dog.

Passive Voice Af/Neg: The dog should(n’t) be walked (by Sam).

Int/NegInt: Should(n’t) the dog be walked (by Sam)?

Habitual: The dog used to be walked/would always be walked (by Sam). Future in the Past: She knew the dog would be walked (by Sam) by 5:00 PM.

Get-Passive, Af/Neg: The dog got/didn’t get walked (by Sam).

Get-Passive, Int/NegInt: Did(n’t) the dog get walked (by Sam)?

(Present) Intensive (Passive)/Emphatic Do: The dog does get walked (by Sam).

Get-Passive, Af/Neg: The dog gets/doesn’t get walked (by Sam).

Get-Passive, Int/NegInt: Does(n’t) the dog get walked (by Sam)?

Prog/Cont

Active Voice Af/Neg: He could(n’t) be walking the dog now. Int/NegInt: Could(n’t) he be walking the dog now?

Af/Neg: She can(’t) be walking the dog now. Int/NegInt: Can(’t) she be walking the dog now?

Passive Voice Af/Neg: The dog should (not) be being walked (by Sam). RARE

Int/NegInt: Should(n’t) the dog be being walked (by Sam)?

Get-Passive, Af/Neg: The dog was(n’t) getting walked (by Sam).

Get-Passive, Int/NegInt: Int/Neg Int: Was(n’t) the dog getting walked (by Sam)?

Get-Passive, Af/Neg: The dog is(n’t) getting walked (by Sam).

Get-Passive, Int/NegInt: Is(n’t) the dog getting walked (by Sam)?

Simple Perf Active Voice

Af/Neg: He could (not) have walked the dog.

Int/NegInt: Could(n’t) he have walked the dog?

Af/Neg: She can(‘t) have walked the dog.

Int/NegInt: Can(’t) she have walked the dog?

Passive Voice Af/Neg: The dog should(n’t) have been walked (by Sam).

Int/NegInt: Should(n’t) the dog have been walked (by Sam)? Get-Passive, Af/Neg: The dog had(n’t) gotten walked (by Sam).

Get-Passive, Int/NegInt: Had(n’t) the dog gotten walked (by Sam)?

Get-Passive, Af/Neg: The dog has(n’t) gotten walked (by Sam).

Get-Passive, Int/NegInt: Has(n’t) the dog gotten walked (by Sam)?

Perf Prog/Cont Active Voice Af/Neg: He could (not) have been walking the dog.

Int/NegInt: Could(n’t) he have been walking the dog?

Af/Neg: He can(‘t) have been walking the dog.

Int/NegInt: Can(’t) she have been walking the dog?

Passive Voice Af/Neg: The dog should have been being walked but nobody was there. No Int or Neg Int in this form. RARE

5

HOW DO YOU SAY??? Modals, continued: A Sampling of Commonly used Sentences with Modals and Similar Verbs

Here are samples of sentences with various modals/modal auxiliaries in sentence, according to the function of the sentence. The red, italicized words are in the subjunctive form when the

sentence expresses uncertainly; the red, italicized words are in the indicative mood and with a bare infinitive form when they express certainly. Note the frequency of the present perfect subjunctive

(“that he have done”) here, which is often used in descriptions of requirements. Passive samples are on the previous page; however, many are awkward in the passive form.

Certainty (see modal sample page) Ability/Possibility/Impossibility

(see modal sample page)

Suggestion (see samples)

Past (often

uses the

perfect

verb)

Aff/Neg: He might (not)/may (not)/could have been at the store. (50%)

Int/NegInt: Could(n’t) she have been at the store?

Aff/Neg: She ought to have done/should(n’t) have done well on the exam. (90%)

Int/NegInt: Should(n’t) she have done well on the exam?

Aff/Neg: Mary must (not) have been at the store. (95%)

Aff: He was bound/apt to do well on the test. He was about to go to the store. (was going to happen)

Aff: He could run fast when he was a

child, but now he can't.

Neg: That couldn't have been true. (95%)

Aff/Neg: He was(n’t) able to help you.

Neg: That couldn’t be! Could be…

(idiomatic)

Aff/neg: He could(n’t) have talked to

his teacher.

Aff/neg: He should(n’t) have gone for

help.

Present/

future

― Where's John? Aff/Neg: He may/might (not) be at the store. He could be at the store. (50%)

Int/NegInt: Might(n’t) he be at home?

Aff/Neg: He should(n’t)/ought to do well on the test. (future only, not present, 90%)

Int/NegInt: Should(n’t) you do well on the test?

― Mary isn't at work.

Aff/Neg: She must(n’t) be sick. (95% present only)

Aff/Neg: He will/won’t be/is(n’t) going to be here at 6:00. (future only)

Aff: He is bound to succeed.

Aff/Neg: She can(’t) run fast.

Aff/Neg: She is/will/won’t be able to

help you.

Neg/NegInt: Can(‘t) she run fast?

Aff/Neg: She may (not) win the race.

Neg: That can’t be!

― I need help in math.

Aff: She could talk to her professor.

Int/NegInt: Shall he (not) open the

garage door? Aff/neg: He should(n’t)

go for help. Aff: She had better/ best

go for help. Neg: She dare not go.

Plan/intention/willingness/refusal

(see modal sample page)

Necessity/prohibition/

forbidden

Want/Preference/Expectation Advisability

(see sample page)

Past (often

uses the

perfect verb

form)

Aff/Neg: She was(n’t) going to/about to

paint her bedroom, but she didn't have time.

(future in the past)

Int/NegInt: Was(n’t) she going to/ about to

paint your room?

Neg: He would(n’t) clean his room. (refusal)

Aff/Neg: She was obliged had/didn’t have to go to

class yesterday. Int/NegInt: Did(n’t) she have to go to

class yesterday? Neg: She may not go outside.

Aff/Neg: He would rather (not) have

gone to the park.

Aff: She would have liked a cookie, but

there were none in the house.

Aff/Neg: Class was(n’t) supposed to

begin at 10:00, but….

Int/NegInt: Was(n’t) the class supposed

to…. Neg: She didn’t want it.

Aff/Neg: He ought to have/should(n’t)

have studied last night, but he didn't.

Present/

future

Aff/Neg: He shall/will/won’t arrive at nine.

Int/NegInt: Will/won’t he arrive at nine?

Aff/Neg: He is (not) going to/about to paint

my bedroom. (future only)

Int/NegInt: Is(n’t) he going to/about to

paint your bedroom?

― The doorbell is ringing.

Aff/Neg: She'll get it. She won’t get it.

(refusal)

Aff/Neg: She must(n’t) go/ (doesn’t) have to go to

class today. Aff/Neg: He doesn’t have to go/ has got to

go to class today. Aff/Neg: He need(n’t) do it. Aff:

She has got/is obliged to do the dishes. Aff: I’ve got

to (“gotta”) go to the store. (idiomatic)

Aff: She would rather/like to go to the

park than stay home. He would like to

have a car.

Aff/Neg: He is(n’t) supposed to work at

10:00. Aff: It would be just as well to

stay home tonight.

Aff/Neg: He should(n’t)/ ought to study

tonight.

Aff/Neg : She had better (not) be on

time, or we will leave without him. Aff:

She has got to (“gotta”) do the dishes.

Repeated past situation/ habitual (past only) Request/ permission (present only)

Aff: When he was a child, he would always/used to visit my aunts every weekend.

Aff: He used to live in Belgium. Now he lives in Greece.

(opposite of habitual is never)

Int: May/might she borrow your book? (polite)

Int/Neg Int: Would/won’t she pass the pepper?

Int/NegInt: Could(n’t)/can(’t) he borrow it?

Int/Neg Int: Could/would(n’t) he help Grandma?

Aff/Neg: He may/can(n’t) leave the job. (May is for permission; can is for ability.)

6

The Conditional Mood: Factual/Real Conditional Sentences

The Conditional Mood is used to discuss a hypothetical state of affairs, or an uncertain event that is contingent on another set of circumstances. The terms if, as if, or as though do

not always signal the need for a subjunctive verb form. Again, this distinction is dependent on whether or not the condition that is real/factual or unreal. The subjunctive is used in

2nd and 3rd Conditionals, dealing with the unreal. The conditional mood is created by using subordinating conjunctions of condition, many of which are listed on page 13.

USING THE ZERO CONDITIONAL CONDITIONAL SENTENCES USING THE FIRST CONDITIONAL

To Express A General Fact Or

A Habitual Action

Condition/If Clause Main/Result

Clause Same tense (past or pres) same tense

Examples:

If a puppy matures, it becomes a dog. (fact)

Whenever Dad worked late, I worked late, too.

(habitual)

I worked late whenever Dad worked late.*

Note: When and whenever are often used

instead of if to express a habitual action.

To Express A Future Possibility Or Make A Prediction (Something is true or likely, but unverified.) Condition/If Clause Main/Result Clause

Present or Pres Prog or Pres Perfect tense will (most common), can, should, could, may, might, is going to

(often uses present modals) + base form

Prediction Examples:

If the earth does not conserve its resources, it will regret it later. The earth will regret it later if it does not conserve its

resources.*

If she is calling me right now, she will hear a busy signal. She will hear a busy signal if she is calling me right now. *

Note: A conditional sentence with the modal will expresses the strongest possibility, a prediction. The other modals indicate a

lesser degree of possibility.

Possibility Examples:

If Rina has not bought her ticket, she may not get a seat. Rina may not get a seat if she has not bought her ticket.*

If Robert is not attending school regularly, he could fail this semester. Robert could fail this semester if he is not attending

college.*

If the parcel has not come by now, it might not arrive at all. The parcel might not arrive at all if it has not come by now.

TO MAKE AN INFERENCE

Condition/If Clause Main/Result Clause Present tense must or should + base form (bare infinitive, if certain; subj. if uncertain)

Past tense must have + past participle

Examples:

If the library is already open, it must be later than she thought.

If Joan really did lose her purse instead of misplacing it, she must have felt very nervous. Joan must have felt very nervous if she

really did lose her purse.*

If she should go, will he feed the hens? If she should fall, who will carry the torch in her place?

TO GIVE A COMMAND, ADVICE, OR INSTRUCTIONS

Condition/If Clause Main/Result Clause Present or Past or Present Perfect tense imperative/base form

Examples:

If you miss the test, go to see the professor. Go see the professor if you miss the test.*

If you missed the test, go to see the professor. Go see the professor if you missed the test.*

If you have missed the test, go to see the professor. Go see the professor if you have missed the test.*

*An if-clause and a main clause can often change places.

Please note that there are other words that can be used instead of if: when, should, unless, provided that, supposing that, in the event that, in case that (see subordinating

conjunctions).

The negatives and passives can occur in both clauses. The interrogative can occur in the main clause; these clauses cannot be flipped.

Mixed conditionals are conditional sentences in which the time of the if clause differs from the time of the result clause. These sentences are common in the conditional mood.

7

The Conditional Mood: Non-Factual/Irrealis/Unreal Conditional Sentences The conditional mood is created by using subordinating conjunctions of condition, many of which are listed on page 13.

Conditional Sentences Using The Second Conditional Or

“Past” Subjunctive

Conditional Sentences Using The Conditional Three/Past Conditional

Pluperfect/Past Perfect Subjunctive

To Express A Present Or Future Hypothetical (Unlikely) Or

Contrary-To-Fact Situation (Impossible)

Note: In the condition clause, when the simple past form or the past progressive form is used, were is

used for all forms of be.

Condition/If Clause Main/Result Clause Simple Past or Past Prog form would, could, might + base form

would, could, might + base form + ing

Could, would + base form would, could, might + base form

Examples:

If I were you, I would save more money. I would save more money if I were you.

If Perry lived at home instead of in the barracks, he would have a private place to nap.

If Thomas cleaned up his room every week, he would not always be complaining about how messy it is.

If Rosie were not working in the dining hall, she could not afford the tuition.

If Michelle could find her library card, she would start her research.

In the example sentences above, were to + a preposition may be used for the simple past form of the

verb, as in “if Perry were to live at home…” or “if Thomas were to clean his apartment every week…”

This is the subjunctive form of the verb, which is used to deal with unreal or non-factual situations.

To Express A Hypothetical Situation In The Past/Untrue In The Past

(Impossible)

Condition/If Clause Main/Result Clause Past Perf or Past Perf Prog form would, could, might + have + past participle

would, could, might + have + been +

base form + ing

Examples:

If Maria had turned her essay in on time, she would have received the full

credit for it.

If Spike had not refused to lend Ralph his car, Ralph could have been driving

to the beach right now.

Gavin might have enjoyed the movie if he had not been focusing so hard on

what they were saying.

If Jerry had been paying attention in the lecture, he would not have been asking

her friends for their notes.

Some grammarians only use "would" in the second clause of the sentence in

the Conditional Three form.

TO MAKE AN INFERENCE

Condition/If Clause Main/Result Clause Present tense must or should + base form (bare infinitive, if certain;

subj. if uncertain)

Past tense must have + past participle

Examples:

If the library is already open, it must be later than she thought.

If Joan really did lose her purse instead of misplacing it, she must have felt very nervous. Joan must have

felt very nervous if she really did lose her purse.*

Construction by inversion: Where the subjunctive is used after "if" in a counterfactual condition, one

may omit the “if” and invert the verb and subject positions. If I were the President... / Were I the

President… The condition clause must then come first.

Construction by inversion: Where "if" is used in the conditional-clause of a

Third Conditional sentence, one may omit the “if" and inverting the verb and

subject positions, just like one does in interrogatives/questions. If he had

known then... / Had he known then... The condition clause must then come

first.

*Note: Please note that, sometimes, an if-clause and a main clause can often change places. All the sentences on this page have clauses that can be switched.

Please note that there are other words that can be used instead of if: when, whenever, should, unless, provided that, supposing that, in the event that, in case that (see subordinating

conjunctions). The negative and passives can occur in both clauses. The interrogative can occur in the main clause; these clauses cannot be flipped.

If a result clause is in a past tense, then the condition clause cannot be in the past subjunctive, though it might be in the pluperfect subjunctive; however, if the result clause is in a present

tense, then a condition clause might be in either the past subjunctive or pluperfect subjunctive, depending on the meaning.

Mixed conditionals are conditional sentences in which the time of the if clause differs from the time of the result clause. These sentences are common in the conditional mood.

8

Linking Verb/Copula samples with Inter. Moods, with Aff. and Neg. Polarities Linking verbs do not express action, are intransitive/do not take objects and are part of the larger group of stative verbs. They link a word (adjective) in the predicate to the subject and sentences are

formed differently with them. Be can act as a helping verb; some of these verbs can behave like active verbs. Linking verbs: All forms of “to be,” including those with modals, plus: appear, grow,

seem, stay, become, look, smell, taste, keep, feel, remain, sound, turn, get, fall, run. Never, nothing and nobody create negative sentences. A linking verb/copula and an action verb usually can be

differentiated by substituting the verb with a form of "to seem" or "to be." Action Verb: Dan looks at cabbage. Dan seems at cabbage? Dan is at cabbage? The latter two don't make sense, so "looks" in

this case is being used as an action verb. Linking verb/Copula: Dan looks happy. Dan seems happy? Dan is happy? The latter two make sense; "looks" is used as a linking verb/copula in this case.

Note that this approach does not work with the verb "to appear". In the sentence "Dan appears to be happy", "appears" is a copula. Yet, "seems" but not "is" can be substituted: "Dan is to be happy"

means something else. Dr. Dowty does not believe that there can be imperatives or progressives with stative verbs, although there are examples here which are used in American speech here.

Present: am/is/are; Gerund form: being; Past: was/were; Past Participle: been; Future: will; Infinitive: “to be.” Commands with “to be”: Be happy! Do be safe! Don’t be late!

Past Tense Present Tense Future Tense (uses will)*

Simple

Aspect

Af/Neg: Dinner was(n’t) good. Dinner smelled/didn’t smell good.

Int/Neg Int: Was(n’t) dinner good? Did(n’t) the dinner smell good? Infor Int: How high was the mountain?

Af/Neg: The dog is(n’t) brown. Dinner tastes/doesn’t taste good!

Int/Neg Int: Is(n’t) the dog brown? Does(n’t) the dinner taste good? Infor Int with “be”: How high is the mountain?

(int adv + LV + predicate/uses inversion without modal)

Infor Int: How does the dinner taste?

Af/Neg: The dog will/won’t be brown.

Int/Neg Int: Will/Won’t the dog be brown? Infor Int: How high will the mountain be?

Prog/Cont Perf/prog awk

Af/Neg: He was(n’t) being good. Int/Neg Int: Was(n’t) he being good?

Af/Neg: He is(n’t) being good. Dinner is(n’t) smelling good! Int/ Neg Int: Is(n’t) he being good? Neg follows pattern

awkward

Simple Perf Aspect

Af/Neg: He had(n’t) been good. Int/Neg Int: Had(n’t) he been good?

Af/Neg: He has(n’t) been good. The dinner has(n’t) smelled good. Int/Neg Int: Has(n’t) he been good? Have is used in the other persons and numbers here.

Af/Neg: He will/won’t have been good. Int/Neg Int: Will/won’t he have been good?

FUTURE IN THE PAST:

I knew Grandma would make the dress and hat. VOLUNTARY ACTION

They were going to bring their father with them, but they came alone. PLAN

I had a feeling that the home was going to be lovely. PREDICTION

He promised he would send a gift from Japan. PROMISE

In London, he met the woman that he would one day love.

He left 5 minutes early, unaware that the extra few minutes would save him.

ACTIVE vs PASSIVE:

I knew Pete would finish the painting by 8:00 PM. ACTIVE

I knew the painting would be finished by 8:00 PM. PASSIVE

I thought Sherri was going to make a lovely wedding. ACTIVE

I thought a lovely wedding was going to be made by Sherri. PASSIVE

Some Verbs that Take the “Get-Passive”

The word get is sometimes used instead of be in the passive form. It marks a

change in status or condition: “I got sick after eating red meat.”

Some other verbs that can be used in the “get-passive” construction are:

accepted, asked out, awoken, bathed, beaten, behind, better, bitten, broken,

built, called, cancelled, canned, cared for, caught, chosen, commissioned,

confused, damaged, destroyed, divorced, done, dressed, driven, drunk, elected,

engaged, evacuated, fed, fired, get through (phrasal verb), (be) going to, hired,

hit, hurt, infected, injured, interrupted, introduced, invited, killed, left out,

lost, married, mixed up, paid, promoted, rear-ended, reassigned, rejected,

released, repaired, rotated, scratched, selected, sent, shaken, stepped on,

stopped, stuck, stung, swept, taken, told, traded, up, upset, washed, written.

Participles and Gerunds:

The “present participle” is used in the progressive/continuous aspect:

Jane was sleeping. It is used as an adjective: Let sleeping dogs lie. It is

used as an adjective: Let sleeping dogs lie. It is also used as an adverb: Generally speaking, the medicine is effective. The present participle in English has the same form as the

GERUND, but the gerund acts as a noun—not a verb or a modifier. Swimming is(n’t) enjoyable. Is(n’t) swimming enjoyable? The past participle may be used in both active and

passive voices of the indicative verb, forming the perfect aspect: The cow has eaten; forming the passive voice: The cow was eaten. The past participle can be an adjective, with

active sense: our fallen heroes or with passive sense: the attached pictures; It can also behave like an adverb, with passive sense: Seen from this angle, the problem is very easy.

Past participles usually precede the noun (like other adjectives), but sometimes can or must follow it: Please bring all the documents required at the time of the interview. The

difficulties encountered were not impossible to overcome.

PARTICIPLES Past Participle Present Participle

Active Having walked (verb 3) Walking (present, active, imperfect, or progressive participle; also gerund form)

Pasive Being walked Been walked (past, passive, or perfect participle)

9

CATENATIVES AND OTHER

VERBS THAT “CHAIN.”

Catenatives are verbs that can be

followed by an infinitive or present

participle/gerund form, creating a verb

chain. We promised to agree to try

practicing playing football. Phrasal

verbs can be catenatives and are often

followed by gerunds.

Catenative verbs are similar to

modal and semi-modal verbs in

meaning (often dealing with irrealis),

form, and function, but unlike modals

and semi-modals, the verb head in a

catenative is at the beginning of the

verb phrase. Verbs that follow a

catenative are verb phrase

complements; the verbs that follow

modals are the verb head/main verb.

Catenative verbs also have more

conjugations than modals do, express

verb tenses, aspects, and even passive

constructions.

In a broad sense, most verbs chain or

are made of multiple-word strings, be it

through the use of helping verbs to

create tense or aspect, modals, phrasal

verbs, or get-passive verbs. Simple

present and past in the active voice are

two of the few instances in which verbs

are not made of multiple words.

Catenatives that are directly

followed by an infinitive or

gerund/participle are called simple

catenatives; ones that have a noun

phrase between them are called

complex catenatives (analogous to

separable phrasal verbs). Some

catenatives are simple, some complex,

and some are both.

Although this is a reasonably

complete list of catenative head verbs,

they can take many different infinitives

and/or gerunds. This list is not

exhaustive; it is for awareness and

example. This author is unaware of a

rule governing why a verb will take an

infinitive, gerund, both, or neither; it

seems determined through usage and

these combinations should be

memorized as new verbs are learned.

Some of these examples are not

complete sentences. Add a subject

where needed.

SIMPLE CATENATIVES: ACTIVE

VOICE VERBS PLUS TO

INFINITIVE

Aspire to create

Contrive to be

Decline to attend

Design to create

Determine to be

Disdain to eat

Endeavor to fix

Forget to buy

Get to try

Go on to become

Grow to be

Hasten to stop

Hate to eat Know to take (medicine)

Live to be

Look to start

Omit to do

Plot to kidnap

Presume to be

Regret to inform

Remember to bring/take

Resolve to change

Seek to attain

Serve to be

Stand to try

Strain to see Survive to become a parent

Think to try it

Try to become

Venture to explore

Volunteer to help

Vow to be

accustomed to go to school

be able to go (similar to can; can also

show difference between general

ability in a particular situation. Ask

John. He will be able to help you.

Normally I can do these problems, but

I am not able to solve this one.

condescend to see us.

consented to pay for the dinner.

decided to buy the pink one.

demand to be given

deserve to be treated that way.

hesitate Don’t hesitate to ask. (idiom)

learn to speak a language

managed to finish

need I need to do my homework.

offered to carry it.

pretend to be asleep.

proceeded to apply the ointment

refuse to take those pills.

strives to teach thoroughly.

struggle to finish the homework

swear I swear to tell the truth.

undertook to finish the course today.

wait I can’t wait to see him again!

want I want to play water polo.

wish to complain to management.

would like to drink some water.

“RAISED SUBJECT”

Appear to have forgotten

Come to be

Fail I fail to understand your logic.

Happens to fall

Have to go to work. (“hafta”)

Have got to go to work (have “gotta”)

Look to accomplish

Prove to be a good choice

Seem to be happy today.

Tend It tends to rain regularly.

Threatened to call the police.

Turn out to be

Used to eat

PASSIVE VOICE + TO

INFINITIVE

allowed to wear sandals there.

forbid You are forbidden to smoke.

permit You are permitted to smoke.

Volunteer to give blood

FOLLOWED BY BARE

INFINITIVE

go Go clean up. Go watch that kid.

Modals also take a bare

infinitive complement, according

to Huddleston; however this

author sees modals as part of the

separate Modal system.

ACTIVE VOICE PLUS GERUND

admit He admitted taking the package.

allow We allow smoking in the car.

avoid touching the china.

completed cleaning the living room.

1. Defer trying that method

delay We delayed travelling.

deny taking the bribe.

detest working on evenings.

escaped being run over

finish painting the wall

forbids smoking here.

gave up drinking ten years ago.

implies buying another part.

mention going to the store

permit Do they permit smoking here?

postpone buying a car for a year.

practice playing piano daily.(US)

Quit I could quit biting my nails.

Report seeing the prisoner

Resist eating those muffins?

Resume discussing this tomorrow.

Stand She can’t stand swimming.

Suggests asking the principal.

Want (means require or need in UK).

That door wants repairing.

Come singing to the party

Discontinue selling cake

End up eating fast food

Escape going to susie’s house

Evade getting arrested

Go swimming in the evening

Go on (continue) buying groceries

Repent committing a sin

Resist doing the wrong thing

TO INFINITIVE OR GERUND:

no difference in meaning Attempted to climb/attempt climbing

Bear I can’t bear to hear/hearing him

Begin It began to rain/raining.

Bother to request/requesting help

Cease to bother/bothering

Commence to go/going

Continue It continued to rain/raining.

Hate to keep/hate keeping

Love I love to swim/swimming here.

Neglect neglected to paint/painting it.

Scorns to go/going

PLUS TO INFINITIVE OR

GERUND: difference in meaning

forgot to go home (meant to do it but

didn‟t) I forget going home. (I cannot

remember going.)

like to go (habit)/like going

(enjoyment)

mean meant to tell her(intended). It

means moving. (to signify or imply)

propose I propose to open a cafe.

(intention) I propose going to that

hotel. (to suggest)

try I tried to open it, but couldn’t.

(attempted & failed) I tried opening a

door and then a window. (Experiment,

without success or failure.)

COMPLEX CATENATIVES:

ACTIVE VOICE VERBS PLUS TO

INFINITIVE Accustom the dog to go outside

Aided the woman to walk

Appointed the senator to lead

Asked him to visit

Assisted the children to learn

Authorized the people to travel

Backed the president to create a law

Badgered the parent to give a toy

Beckoned the others to come over

Begged us to help

Beseeched the kidnapper to release

Blackmailed the cheater to pay

Bribed the manger to sell

Bring you to see the doctor

Bring up the children to speak well

Brought the children to visit

Cause him to fall

Cautioned the drivers to drive slowly

Challenged the kids to try broccoli

Coaxed the animal to come inside

Commanded the troops to advance

Commissioned the group to write

Compelled him to march

Condemned the man to die

Constrained the men to sit down

Convinced him to try

Defied them to march in the parade

Design it to fit everyone

Direct them to go to the library

Discipline him to stop yelling

Drive him to get help

Empower them to support each other

Encourage me to go

Entice them to eat vegetables

Entitles her to teach in public schools

Entreat her to come to the party

Equip him to climb the mountain

Exhort her to do her homework

Expect you to come

Fit you to look nice

Forbid him to walk

Force him to study

Hire him to trim

Implore her to stay

Incite them to riot

Induce them to sleep

Inspire them to act

Instruct them to go

Invite them to stay

Lead them to success

Leave them to eat alone

Make him to go to bed

Nag them to get an ice cream

Need her to help

Nominate them to receive an award

Oblige us to visit

Ordered her to come

Permit her to go

Persuade them to visit

Pester her to give an ice cream

Press us to give a donation

Pressure us to give money

10

prod them to complete their work

Program it to accept new data

Prompts us to save money

Provoke us to fight

Push us to dislike

Remind us to see Niagara Falls

School us to learn manners

Second the motion to be passed

Select us to travel

Sentence us to serve a life sentence

Spur on the team to win

Stimulate the economy to grow

Stir the batter to become smooth

Summon us to speak to the president

Teach us to speak Arabic

Tell us to go to the beach

Tempt us to eat candy

Thank him to do the errand

Trouble her to get me a napkin

Trust her to follow through

Urge him to go to a doctor

Warn them to study hard

Will them to become strong

“RAISED SUBJECT”

These usually follow the form:

verb + noun phrase + to be. “I

assumed there to be an error.”

This sentence could be better

written as: “I assumed there was a

problem” or “I assume there is a

problem.”

Accept, affirm, allege, allow,

announce, argue, ascertain, assert,

assume, attest, believe, cause, certify,

concede, conceive, conclude,

conjecture, consider, declare, deduce,

deem, demonstrate, discern, disclose,

discover, enable, establish, estimate,

fear, find, gather, grant, guarantee,

guess, hold, imagine, intuit, judge,

know, let, make, note, order, permit,

presume, presuppose, proclaim,

pronounce, prove, recognize,

represent, repute, reveal, rule, rumor,

say, show, state, stipulate, suppose,

surmise, suspect, take, think, tip,

understand, verify

OTHER COMPLEX

CATENATIVES

Appeal to her for being merciful

Bank on him going to work

Catch her trying

Count on him coming on time

Depend on her helping us

Depict us needing food

Discovered him driving too fast

Envy us seeing Paris

Excuse us walking here

Feel them staring at us

Find him sleeping at his desk

Forgive me bumping into you

Hear him singing

Keep at him cleaning his room

Notice him walking by the pond

Observe them running

Overhear him yelling

Pardon us sitting here

Picture him riding a horse

Portray him being responsible

Preclude him playing football

Prevent him from going

Prohibit him from singing

Rely on him coming over

See him traveling through the USA

Set him sailing down the river

Smell him cooking

Start it running/start learning/to

learn Watch it showing the movie

SIMPLE & COMPLEX CATEN.

WITH INFINITIVES

(Sometimes a difference in meaning)

1. Ache (me) to see

agree She agreed(by contract) to work

2. aim We aim to please. …aim it to

shoot the target.

3. Apply (oneself) to go to grad school

arrange (with you) to put you here

asked (him) to leave; were asked

to leave

4. Be dying (for him) to go

beg I beg to differ with you.(set

phrase)

5. Burst the bubble to reduce its size

afford can afford the money to buy it.

care to choose another one

choose I will go when I choose to go;

chose the shoes to wear.

6. claim to know everything;

7. claim the doctor knows all

8. Clamor (up the path) to find

considered (him) working here

dare (him) to climb the tree. He dare

not climb the tree. He didn’t dare (to)

climb the tree.

Desire them to come visit

Elect him to lead the nation

expect I expect (him) to receive it.

1. Get to (Africa) to go backpacking

2. Have (Sally) to go to the store

help I helped (to) pack her bags.

hope to see her

9. Itch for her to go swimming

keep trying for him to go outside

3. Keep on working

4. Know what to do

Long to go to Africa. (want, desire) Motion for him to come over

Move to see better/us to study here

10. Need to do/need him to do

11. Opt for him to go

Pay for her to see the movie

Petition for her to get hired

12. Pine for him to come home

Pledge for her to study in the USA

Pray for her to be well

5. Prepare to help the needy/to go home

Profess (to them) to help

Promised (him) to go/to go

Reckon (them) to be late

2. Regret (them) leaving Regret is

normally followed by a gerund, except

with tell, say, and inform. I regret

inviting him. I regret to tell you that….

Request him to come in/request to see

Signal him to go

6. Think to help/think he will help

Train him to perform

13. Wait for him to finish

Want you to complete

Wish to complain/wish him to be well

14. Yearn for him to return

WITH GERUND OR INFINITIVE

(Sometimes a difference in meaning) Acknowledge (him) to be an expert

Advise leaving/him to go

Can’t bear (him) leaving/to leave

Can’t stand (her) to go/going

Confess taking/confess to be

Encourage getting ready/me to go

intend I intend to finish/finishing this.

Like finishing/to finish/them to finish

Loathe to go/(him) going

love him to hug me/to

swim/swimming

mean (for him) to go, means going/

plan playing/(for him) to play rugby

prefer working/(him) to work late.

Proved (it) to be wrong/proved going

was a bad idea

Recommend to wash/washing with

remembered to lock up. (did not

forget) I remember (him) locking the

house. (I can remember that I locked

it.) Note: The imperative takes the to

infinitive: Remember to lock the

house.

Require singing/(him) to arrive

Stop I stopped (it) running/to run

WITH GERUND ONLY

often a difference in meaning

3. Abhor (him) going

1. Advocate (him) seeing a specialist

4. Anticipate (him) having a good time

5. Appreciate (him) giving help

6. Begrudge (him) trying to win

7. Can(’t) help (him from ) talking

8. Celebrate (her) going away to college

9. Chance (of him) going

10. Contemplate (her) trying karate

11. Delay (him) going

2. Deplore her going out alone at night

12. Describe him running away

13. Detest (him) working nights

3. Discourage her going to college

14. Discuss (him) opening

15. dislike (her) working on Sundays.

16. Dread (him) going alone

17. Endure (her) speaking

18. Enjoy (her) going to visit mom

19. Envisage (him) being an actor

4. Facilitate (him) going to college

20. Fancy (her) driving to Dallas

21. Fear him driving/fear driving

22. Foresee (him) becoming a pilot

23. Imagine (her) going to Antarctica

5. Include (him) coming to the party

6. Involve (her) singing

7. Justify (him) going on leave

24. Mind (Susie) staying over?

misses (Joe) playing soccer

8. Necessitate (him) stopping

9. Oppose (him) running for president

25. Put off (her) seeking election

26. Recall (them) meeting last year

27. Recollect (him) seeing

28. Relish (it) being here

Resent it happening; resent seeing the

mobster happy.

29. Risk him being hurt; risk tripping

10. Save (him from) going to the doctor

11. Support (him) going to college

30. Tolerate (him) singing

12. Understand (her) thinking that

way….

31. Welcome (them) leaving

11

English Parts of Speech This is a table of the 8 basic parts of speech (there may be 9 or 10). (These sheets are function-based.)

part of speech function or "job" example words example sentences

Verb action or state (to) run [active], appear

[link], do [helping]

I do like cookies. They look

lovely.

Noun person, place, thing, or idea pen, music, town, John1,

teacher, swimming2

This is my dog. He lives in my

house. We live in London.

Adjective (inc.

3 articles)

modifies/ describes a noun

or pronoun

a/an, the, 29, Jon’s3, red,

Thai4, my

5, better

6, best

7 The dog is big. Jon’s car is

better. Thai food is best.

Adverb8 modifies/ describes a verb,

adjective or adverb

quickly, well, better6, best

7,

very, really, no, not, never

My dog eats quickly. When he is

very hungry, he eats very quickly.

Pronoun replaces a noun I, you, he, she, some, who Tamara is Canadian. She is pretty.

Preposition determines relationship

between words

to, at, after, on, but We went to school on Monday.

Conjunction joins clauses, sentences or

words

and, but, when, or I like dogs and I like cats. He likes

cats, but not dogs.

Interjection short exclamation,

sometimes in a sentence

Sick! Tight! Groovy!

ouch!, hi!, well, thanks

Ouch! That hurts! Hi! How are

you? Well, I don't know.

1. prop. noun 2. gerund 3. poss. nouns behave as adj. 4. proper adj. 5. poss. adj. 6. comparative 7. superlative

Pronouns Please compare personal pronouns with possessive adjectives.

number person gender*

PRONOUNS

ADJECTIVES (possessive)

subject object Possessive

PRONOUNS

Reflexive/

intensive

singular

1st M/F I me mine myself my

2nd M/F you you yours yourself your

3rd

M He him his himself his

F She her hers herself her

N It it -------none------- itself its

plural

1st M/F We us ours ourselves our

2nd M/F you you yours yourselves your

3rd M/F/N they them theirs themselves their

* m=male f=female n=neuter

Pronoun

examples

Subject She likes homework.

Predicate Nominative The singer is she. PN’s complete the meaning of linking verbs and identifies

or refers to the subject of the sentence.

Object The professor gave me an assignment.

Possessive/genitive This assignment is yours.

Reflexive Jeff did the assignment himself.

Intensive He himself cleaned the stove.

Possessive adjective examples The professor corrected our assignment.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS A demonstrative pronoun refers to a noun or pronoun. There are four demonstrative pronouns. They can also be used as adjectives, depending on how they are used in the sentence. NEAR FAR

Singular this that Plural these those

eg. You may take those on the table. Note: This apple is red. (adj.) This is red. (pronoun)

8 Adverbs answer the questions: When? Where? How? Why? Under what conditions? To what degree/extent? How often? How long?

How much? The question words what, where, when, how, why can be adv.; who is a pronoun.

12

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS A reciprocal pronoun helps to refer to the individual parts of a plural referent. There are two reciprocal pronouns, and they have genitives (indicating a relationship of ownership, possession, or association between one thing and another).

Reciprocal pronouns each other one another Genitive forms each other's one another's

eg. The partners trusted each other fully. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS An interrogative pronoun introduces a question. One set of the interrogative pronouns, who, whom and whose, has distinctions in the Subjective, Objective, Genitive case:

Subjective case Objective case Genitive case

Personal Who, which Whom, which Whose Non-personal What, which What, which

Which can be either personal or non-personal: e.g. Which do you prefer? Which did this?

What is normally only non-personal: e.g. What do you want for breakfast?

We use who and whom when we refer to persons: eg. Who is your favorite rock singer? To whom should we speak?

RELATIVE PRONOUNS A relative pronoun is used to connect a phrase or clause to another phrase or clause. It also has distinctions in gender and case.

Subjective case Objective case Genitive case

Personal who/whoever (that) whom/whomever (that) whose

Non-personal which/whichever what/whatever/that

which/whichever what/whatever/that

whose

eg.

He is the teacher who / that taught me English. (Who is a better choice that that is.)

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS An indefinite pronoun is a word referring to an identifiable, but unspecified person or thing. The most common indefinite pronouns are: Positive Negative Singular Another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, enough,

everybody, everyone, everything, less, little, much, one, other, somebody, someone, something, you (editorial you)

Neither, no one, nobody, nothing

Plural Both, few, fewer, many, others, several, they (editorial) ------------------------ Singular or plural (depends on usage)

All, any (in ?’s), more, most, none, some, such Any (in statements), none

Eg. Many have replied to the advertisement and several have been interviewed.

THE THREE KINDS OF CONJUNCTIONS: 1) COORDINATING F A N B O Y S And joins 2 similar ideas. But shows how two ideas are different. Or shows a choice between 2 ideas.

When using a conjunction to join 2 sentences, use a comma before the conjunction. Do not begin a

sentence with a coordinating conjunction. It is acceptable to begin a sentence with subordinating

conjunctions (see examples). or and nor but or yet so

. 2) SOME CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

both...and not only...but also Not…but Either...or neither...nor As…as whether...or

Correlative conjunctions work in pairs and join similar items. When joining singular and plural subjects with or or nor, the

subject closest to the verb determines whether the verb is singular or plural.

CONJUNCTIONS WHAT IS LINKED SAMPLE SENTENCE

both...and Subject + subject Both my sister and my brother play the piano.

either...or Noun + noun Tonight's program is either Mozart or Beethoven.

Either…or Verb + verb You may either walk or bike to school.

One negative word per sentence, please! Barely, hardly, neither, never, no, no one, nobody, none, not (n’t), nothing, nowhere, scarcely, seldom, rarely

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3) SOME SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

Subordinating conj., (subordinators) are most important in creating subordinating/dependent clauses. These adverbs that function like

conj. are placed at the front of the clause. Relative pronouns also introduce dependent clauses.

Subordinating Conjunctions (Some of the below came be in more than one column/category.)

Time Reason/Cause/

Purp./Result

Con-

cession

Place Condition/Degree

(Creates COND MOOD)

Manner Contrast/

Opposition

after once

before

since when

whenever

while until

as as . . . as

because since

so (…) that

such (…) that

in order that

why as so

now that for

although

though

even

though

while

even if

where

wherever

if lest unless

only if in case (that) when

provided that than assuming that

in case even if until

inasmuch as whether insofar as

to the extent that on the condition that

as if

as

though

how

just as

as

even

though

while

whereas

than

THE SYNTAX OF COMPLEX SENTENCES, WHICH CONTAIN SUBORDINATE/DEPENDENT CLAUSES All or part of

main clause HEAD

WORD6 SUB-

JECT

VERB of clause

+ rest of adj. cl.

Rest of

main clause

ADJECTIVE (RELATIVE) CLAUSE1—

restrictive subject

The man

The woman

A tuna

A fish

who

(who)7

that7

that

----

----

saw us

(is) wearing red

weighs7 200 lbs

weighing 200 lbs

is there.

is my teacher.

was caught.

was caught.

restrictive object relative clause The man (whom)2, 7 I Saw is there.

restrictive indirect object relative clause The girl to whom2 we gave the candy is there.

restrictive object of the preposition The people at whom2 he is looking are tall.

restrictive possessive relative clause

The lady

The paper whose

which

brother

he

works at DLI

wrote

is here.

was fantastic.

restrictive comparative clause The girl (that) Susan ran faster than is here.

restrictive adjective clauses introduced by other

adverbs

This is the house where I am living.

That is the reason (why) he didn’t come.

Can you tell me when we can meet?

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE: Three NON-REFERENTIAL IT (“dummy” it, anticipatory it) constructions4

1. Cleft Sentences (has a relative clause) It was my son who --- turned 8.

2. Extraposed (SUBJUNCTIVE here & complement clause) It is important (that) we be on time.

3. Raised Subject It seems (that) Liz convinced them.

ADVERB CLAUSES3 Subordinating

“conjunctions” are adverbs that create

dependent clauses and complex sentences.

I ate my breakfast while I was on hold.

I love Picasso’s art because he uses color so boldly.

CONDITIONALS SENTENCES (see p.7-8) Water boils if it reaches 100 C.

The main clauses below are in affirmative sentence order, but are not generally independent, stand-alone sentences.

NOUN CLAUSE5 “wh” sample (info?)

Noun clause (with adverb head) as subject

“embedded question,” “if/whether” yes/no

reported speech example >>>> (info ?)

reported speech, yes/no ? >>>>

He wondered

----------------

Can you tell me

He asked

She asked

who

What

if/whether

who

if

she

you

he

----- they

was.

are saying

is here?

would go to dinner.

would come home.

is kind.

“that” type

reported speech example>>>>

I think/believe/doubt

Scientists said (that)

(that)

she

earth

called.

is round.

Infinitive nouns clause4

Reported speech infinitive

It is foolish

He asked me --------- ------- to follow her advice.

to use color.

Gerund noun clause as a subject5

Infinitive noun clause as subject

Following her advice

To follow her advice

is foolish.

is foolish.

1 Adjective clauses replace adjectives, but usually follow the nouns they modify. Relative clauses have the same basic structure: Head word + (usually) subject + verb.

2. Used in formal speech and writing/“old-fashioned.” 3.Adverb clauses “glue” sentences together and are headed by adverbs; they are like adverbs in that they tell why, how when, etc. 4. Can be rewritten as canonical: My son turned 8. That we be on time is important. Liz seems to have convinced them. 5. Noun clauses replace

nouns, often do not have head words or finite verbs, can be interchangeable, and can be in various parts in a sentence. 6. Often adverb, many options here…. 7. These

sentences can be reduced in some cases. Also, relative clauses can be “stacked” or strung together: The folks who read the paper that we don’t like live over there.

1 Non-restrictive: My brother, who lives in Maine, loves to fish. There is more than one brother and the person listening knows the one who loves to fish.

Restrictive: My brother who lives in Maine loves to fish. There may only be one brother and the person listening is just learning that the brother loves to fish. That cannot be used to in nonrestrictive relative clauses.

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Conjunctive Adverbs (presented for comparison) accordingly, additionally, again, also, anyway, as a result, at the same time, besides, certainly, comparatively, consequently, contrarily, conversely,

elsewhere, equally, finally, further, furthermore, hence, henceforth, however, identically, in addition, in comparison, in contrast, in fact,

incidentally, indeed, instead, just as, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, namely, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, notably, now, on the contrary, on the

other hand, otherwise, rather, similarly, so, still, subsequently, that is, then, thereafter, thereafter, therefore, thus, undoubtedly, uniquely, yet

Conjunctive adverbs are used to connect sentences. Example: I prefer to eat my breakfast at the dining room table; however, I often eat in front of the television. (This

example shows two sentences/independent clauses connected by a conjunctive adverb.)

SEQUENCING ADVERBS: after, after that, afterwards, again, alphabetically, before, chronologically, consequently, eventually, finally,

first, first of all, firstly, to start off with, initially, for another thing, for one thing, fourthly, in the end, eventually, lastly, in the first place, last,

lastly, lexicographically, next, ninthly, on the one hand, on the other hand, second, secondly, serially, suddenly, unexpectedly, tenthly, then,

after that, next, as soon as / when (+ full clause), ... but then, immediately, third, thirdly, while / as (+ full clause), during + noun (noun

clause)

COMMON PREPOSITIONS (list from Lindstromberg) aboard

about

above

according to

across

across from

after

against

along

Alongside

Along with

amid

amidst

among

amongst

around

as

as far as

as for

as to

astride

at

atop

bar

barring

before

behind

below

beneath

beside

besides

between

betwixt

beyond

but

by

circa

close to

concerning

considering

despite

down

during

except

except far

excepting

excluding

failing

for

from

in

for

from

in

in between

inside

into

like

minus

near

next to

notwithstanding

of

off

on

onto

opposite

out

out of

outside

over

past

pending

per

plus

regarding

round

sans

save

since

sub-

than

Through

Throughout

til

To

toward

towards

under

underneath

unlike

until

Up

Up agaainst

upon

up to

versus

via

vis-à-vis

-ward

When

While

with

within

without

worth

(Do not say “inside of” or “outside of”—just “inside” and “outside”)

Prepositions make up perhaps the most difficult part of speech for and English Learner to use naturally. One may listen to native speech, use books on tape, and study

collocations to acquire a native way of using prepositions. Another piece of the puzzle that may help to use prepositions properly is from Dr. Lindstromberg on prototypal

semantics. He believes that there are general abstract concepts that are covered by prepositions. Generally, prepositions that express identical concepts are interchangeable. His classes are discussed below:

Accompany/accessory together/with

Walking together/with someone.

Activity/event at, in, on

At five PM…. At the Great Wall…., In doing that…. While doing that….

On/when walking to school….

Accompaniment/addition (no neg.) On top of/with/along with/together with the snow storm and other bad news…

Agent/cause/means by, from ...written by Mr. Smith….

…come by plane… …encouragement from the evidence…

Allotment/mapping for, to …for Mr. Smith….

…to each his own… (set phrase) …A corresponds to B….

Basis/foundation on …on the basis…on the table….

…depends/relies/founded on….

Belong/possessing at moment

Of, on, to, with …with blonde hair…

This is part of the car; it belongs to the car.

I have no money on me. (informal)

Cause/reason/agent/circumstance

By, from, of, out of, over, with …by rote…by car…made money from it…

…die of pneumonia….do it out of concern…

…fight over the cake…tremble with love….

Circumstance/situation/manner

By, with, under ...under construction…

By accident…with arms wide open…

Ingredient/part from, of, out of, with

…from milk…of wood…

…out gold…with natural flavors…

Physical Contact/impact against, on(to) …stand against corruption…

…hold a grudge against somewhat…

…talk on something….keep an eye on it…

…we got onto the topic of…

Continuation/repetition/resume

along, away, over …walk along with us…

Ask away! (set phrase) …go on…sing on…get on with someone…

I had to do it over. Can I have a do-over? (informal)

Ear-marking/allocation for …for Bob…bound for Glory…

Evidence/logical grounds/reason from, off

From the evidence, we see that…

You can’t conclude that off his statement.

Focus of attention/target/topic About, at, in/into, on, over, to, toward

…fight about…wild about…good at…look at

…interested in religion….look into it… …keep an eye on it…think over…look to

someone for support…attitude toward work…

Function/purpose/reason for

The couch is for sleeping on.

Image of …picture of…understanding of….

Physical impact/contact Against, into, on(to)

…ran into the streetlamp… …hit one’s elbow against/on the desk…

Link events in time/circumstance At, by, in, on

…at that, he laughed…by day…in/on learning of his

lay-off…rely on…on arrival…

Manner/way/instrument At, in, with …being at speed…at pace… They lived in/with

style. …with scissors…with flair…with all this

snow…

Method/instrument By, through, with …by broiling it…by car/design…by cutting it…

…through hard work…trim it with hedge clippers…

Purpose/reason/function/target For, to

…went for a walk…went to buy groceries…

Recipient To Please give it to Bob.

State/circumstance At, on, in, under

…at ease…at sea…on guard/display…in trouble…in search of…under scrutiny…under pressure…

Target/goal/focus At, on …be surprised at…compliment on…

Topic/main idea About, of, on, over

I have been thinking of/about you. …spoke on the

topic....

Value/rank (sets of opposites)

Above/beneath, down/up, on/off, over/under, in/out,

in front of/behind, forward/backward

…above reproach…beneath contempt…feeling up…feeling down…feeling off today…on top of the

world…over the moon…under stress…in fashion…

…out of order…being out in front of the pack…behind the eight ball…forward thinking…

…backward people…

15

If one broadens the view of prepositions to be the head of a phrase, as Huddleston and Pullum do, one may

add these words and phrases to a list of prepositions and similar phrases:Abreast

Abroad

Absent

Abstain

According

Adjacent

Adrift

Aft

Afterward

Ago

Aground

Ahead

Ahead

Ahead of

Allowing

Aloft

Alongside

Anti

Apart

Apart from

As for

As from

As per

As to

As well as

Ashore

Aside

Aside

Aside from

At (the) risk of

At first

At the behest of

At the hands of

At last

At loggerheads with

At odds with

At the behest of

At the expense of

At the hands of

At the opposite end

At the other end

At the risk of

At variance of

At variance with

Away

Away from

Back

Back away

Back off

Backwards

Ban

Bar

Barring,

Because

Because of

Beforehand

Block

But

By (force) of

By dint of

By means of

By the force of

By virtue of

By way of

Cattycorner

Cease

Close

Concerning,

Consequent,

Contrary

Contrary to

Counter

Counting,

Delay

Depending on

Desist

Discourage

Disqualify

Dissuade

Distract

Divert

Downhill

Downstage

Downstairs

Downstream

Downwards

Downwind

Draw back

Due

Due to

East

Eastwards

Effective,

Enjoin

Except

Excepting,

Exclude

Excluding,

Exclusive

Exempt

Failing,

Far

Far from

Following

For (the) sake of

For all

For certain

For fear

For free

For sure

For the sake of

For want of

For/from want of

Forbid

Forth

Forward

Forward of

Further

Given

Gone (Brit.Eng.),

Granted

Hang back

Heavenwards

Hence

Henceforth

Here

Hereat

Hereby

Herefrom

Herein

Hereof

Hereon

Hereto

Herewith

Hinder

Hold back

Hold off

Home

Homewards

In (the) face of

In (the) front (of)

In (the) light of

In (the) process of

In accordance with

In accordance with

In addition to

In aid of

In back of

In between

In brief

In case

In case of

In charge of

In comparison with

In compliance with

In conformity with

In consequence of

In contact with

In exchange for

In favor of

In front of

In full

In league with

In lieu of

In line with

In order

In place of

In private

In quest of

In relation to

In return for

In search of

In short

In spite of

In step with

In terms of

In the back of

In the bottom of

In the event

In the face of

In the light of

In the middle of

In the midst of

In the name of

In the process

In touch with

In two minds

In vain

In view of

In/on behalf of

In/with reference (to)

In/with regard to

In/with respect to

Including,

Indoors

Inhibit

Inside

Instead

Instead of

Into

Inward

Inwards

Irrespective

Irrespective of

Keep

Leftwards

Near

Near to

Nearby

Next

North

Northwards

Now

Of late

Of old

On (the) ground(s) of

On account of

On behalf of

On board

On condition

On pain of

On the basis

On the grounds

On the grounds of

On the inside of

On the part of

On the strength of

On top of

Onto/ on to

Onwards

Opposite to

Opposite,

Other than

Out

Out from

Out of

Outdoors

Outside

Outward

Outwards

Overboard

Overhead

Overland

Overseas

Owing

Owing to

Percent Off

Pertaining

Pertaining to

Preclude

Preliminary

Preparatory

Preparatory to

Prevent

Previous

Prior

Prior to

Prohibit

Protect

Pursuant

Pursuant to

Pursuant,

Re

Recoil

Refrain

Regarding,

Regardless

Regardless of

Relating to

Respecting,

Restrain

Restrict

Rightwards

Save for

Saving,

Seawards

Shrink

Shy away

Skywards

South

Southwards

Step back

Stop

Subsequent

Subsequent to

Thanks

Thanks to

That of

Then

Thence

Thenceforth

There

Thereat

Thereby

Therefrom

Therein

Thereof

Thereon

Thereto

Therewith

To the effect (of)

Together

Together with

Touching,

Unbeknown(st)

Under the aegis of

Under the auspices of

Underfoot

Underground

Up against

Up to

Up until

Uphill

Upon

Upstage

Upstairs

Upstream

Upward(s)

Upwind

Wanting,

West

Westwards

When

Whence

Where

Whereat

Whereby

Wherefrom

Wherein

Whereof

Whereon

Whereto

Wherewith

With a view to

With effect from

With regard to

With respect to

With the exception of

Withdraw

COMPLEMENTATION

Amid(st)

Among(st)

As

At

Bar

Beside

Come

Despite

During

Ere

From

Into

Less

Like

Minus

Of

Onto

Per

Plus

Save

Than

Till

Times

Unlike

Until

Upon

Versus

Via

With

À la

Chez

Circa

Contra

Modulo

Pace

Re

Sana

Vis-à-vis

MODIFICATION

Around

Between (+ and-

coordination)

Close to

From…to

In excess of

Over

Under

Up to

Words can be more than one part of speech, according to how they are used. word Part of speech Example These are just a few examples. There are more, even for some of these words.

Read Noun That book was a good read.

Verb Please read chapter 3 for tomorrow.

But

Conjunction Joan came but Michele didn't come.

Preposition Everyone came but Michelle.

Noun No buts about it.

Adverb There is but one answer.

Noun In Scotland, one’s kitchen in a cottage is called a but.

REFERENCES/ADAPTED FROM: 2000+ Essential English Verbs, by Living Language (2009).

501 ENGLISH Verbs, T.R. Beyer Jr. Barron's Educational Series; 2nd edition (2007).

The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language, by Huddleston & Pullum, Cambridge UP (2002).

English Prepositions Explained, by Seth Lindstromberg, John Benjamins Publishing Co. (1998).

Modals and Quasi-modals in English, by Peter Collins. Rodopi (2009).

Mood and Modality, by F R Palmer. Cambridge University Press; 2 edition (2001).

Grammar Sense 3, by Susan Kesler Bland. Oxford UP (2004).

Premium-Verbtabellen Englisch, by Lutz Walther. Langenscheidt (2009).

The Teacher's Grammar of English., by Ron Cowan. Canbridge (2008).

Understanding and Using English Grammar, by Betty Azar. Pearson ESL; 4th edition (2009).

http://crab.rutgers.edu (modals, subjunctive) page no longer available

http://hi2en.com/grammar.aspx?Id=75 (subjunctive)

http://www.athabascau.ca/courses/engl/155/support/verb_tenses.htm (verb tenses)

http://www.brighthub.com/(catenatives, quasi modals, etc)

http://www.broward.edu, (conditional mood) page no longer available

http://www.englishclub.com, (parts of speech, pronouns)

http://www2.gsu.edu/~wwwesl/egw/bryson.htm (conjunctions)

www.englishpage.com, (conditionals, modals)

www.orlapubs.com (subjunctive) page no longer available

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