final test paper

8/6/2019 Final Test Paper

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CHAPTER I

RELATION BETWEEN CULTURE AND LANGUAGE

Language can be said as a product of culture. By understanding a language, a student of

linguistics can have a picture of the background of the society who speak the language. English

linguist, Ronald Wardhaugh, believes that there should be some kind of relationship between the

sounds, words, and syntax of a language and the ways in which speakers of that language

experience the world and behave in it seems so obvious as to be a truism (Wardhaugh, 1986:

217).

The concept of culture here is not the high culture such as music and arts, but simply the

know-how that a person must possess to get through the task of daily living (Wardhaugh, 1986:

217). This definition can be said similar to the one proposed by Goodenough, that culture is

whatever it is one has to know or believe in order to operate in a manner acceptable to its

members (1957: 167). In the other word, culture is the way people do and people know to

survive in their lives. Culture has a wide range of fields. Includes in culture are foods, climate,

ecology, techniques, clothing, housing, art, and so on.

Human beings who live in a habitat would have to communicate to each other and

visualize the things around them using words as a means of communications. Words are known

as suitable way to demonstrate the concepts of nature, culture, and environment. A society who

lives in a region whose climate is cold and has long winter will have many vocabularies on icy

things, snow, and snow beasts. In the opposite, they will lack the vocabularies of tropical flora,

tropical agriculture, and even, thin clothing, because tropical related things cannot be found in

their culture.

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Furthermore, Javanese language has three words for rice. These are pari which

means rice plant, beras which means the uncooked rice, and sega which means cooked rice.

Javanese has more words for a concept which in English is described by only one word. This

condition is due to the Javanese speakers consider rice as staple food. In the opposite, a Javanese

will simply say ati to refer French foie gras. Ati in Javanese means liver and it can

refer to any kind of animal liver. While, foie gras is a special meal made from duck liver

which has underwent the process of fattening. Javanese has no vocabulary for that concept

because their culture does not have such meal as foie gras.

The repertoire on food and climate related words are examples on how local factors

determine the vocabularies of a language. This is one evident on a claim saying that the culture

of a people finds reflection in the language they employ: because they value certain things and

do them in a certain way (Wardhaugh, 1986 : 218). The claim believes that culture has influence

on language. A people speak certain language which is rich in certain field because they are

familiar with that particular field. For example, maritime society in Cuba will have more

vocabularies about sea, sea creature, and sailing tools than the agricultural society in the

Philippines.

Ecology is one of the most important factors which influence language. Ecology donates

a lot of concepts which will later undergo a process to result vocabulary. Ecology, especially,

donates a lot of lexicons for color repertoire in many languages. Below is a table for vocabularies

of color in English and the similar concept in Bahasa Indonesia.

English Bahasa Indonesia

indigo nila

gamboges yellow getah manggis


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cyclamen sirop betawi

greenish white nusa indah

deep magenta padma

lavender gandaria

sunburnt sawo matang

amethyst gelam

apricot pinang masak

bay kapisa

blackish blue wulung

bronze brown perunggu

greenish white nusa indah

greenish yellow pucuk pisang

grenadine pink dewangga

king blue nila kandi

waxy pinang perus

white-as-a-swan kinantan

wood brown kopi susu

salmon bangbang

(Sugono : 2003, 125-126)

Indigo is a range of purplish color, whose etymology originally come from Greek

indikon which literary means blue dye from India (Etymonline.com). The word is borrowed

by many European languages as the thing (the blue dye) is distributed throughout the European

continent, including England. Indonesian speakers, who did not use the blue dye from India, did

not create the word indigo for the purple color concept. However, they have the exact same

color from the night sky which they call nila. Getah manggis (literary means mangosteen

sap) has the same yellow with gamboges. Sirop betawi (Batavian syrup) has the same color

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with cyclamen flower. Lavender which grows in Europe donated a vocabulary for pale purple

color in 1840 (Etymonline.com). But, gandaria flower represent the color in Indonesia because

the flower grows rapidly there.

Not only in vocabulary, can culture also influence the phonological rules of a certain

language. In French language, phoneme /h/ is omitted. Though the letter h is available in the

spelling, the speakers drop it anyway when pronouncing it. In French, voiceless stop is also

unaspirated. This is due to the French manner that releasing air from the mouth noisily is

considered impolite.

The evidence for the claim that culture influences language is easy to find. However,

Benjamin Lee Whorf opposes the claim. He believes that language is the one that influence the

culture, and furthermore, grammar can influence how people understand the world. He believes

that words are not merely the instrument to voice ideas, but words themselves are the shaper of

ideas. The claim is known as the famous Whorfian hypothesis.

Whorfian hypothesis believes that language elements, especially grammar, control your

world view. Whorf had made a research on comparing the Hopi language of American-Indian

with what he called as Standard Average Europan (SAE). SAE consists of famous European

languages such as English, French, German, and so on (Wardhaugh, 1986 : 221).

According to Whorf, the Hopi see the world as essentially an ongoing set of process;

objects and events are not discrete and countable; and time is apportioned into fixed segments so

the Hopi languages does not have the word for minutes, mornings, and days. On the opposite,

SAE speakers regard time as an important thing so that they have the vocabularies for it, and

even time tenses in their grammar. SAE people are said to see their world as discrete,


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measurable, countable, and recurrent.

SAE languages indeed concern so much on tenses, plural system, and gender system. In

English, there are three kind of tenses: present tense (Subject + Verb 1 [-s] + Object), past tense

(Subject + Verb 2 + Object) , and past perfect tense (Subject + Verb 3 + Object). The tenses are

still divided into two types which are simple, to express habitual activity or event, and

progressive, to express activity or event which is ongoing. The complexity of the grammatical

rule concerning the tenses shows that SAE speakers really care about time. The westerns

consider time as a valuable thing. They do not like to waste time and are very discipline about

being punctual.

SAE languages also concern about plural system. They care about which thing that can

be counted and which other that cannot. In plural system English has special suffix s to be

added in the words. The suffix is attached to the verb if the subject is singular (e.g. My mother

likes ice cream.), and to the countable noun if the noun is plural (e.g. My mother can eat three

bowls of ice cream.). The complexity of plural system and countable nouns shows that English

speakers concerns so much about quantity of material matters. The grammar of the language

forces the speakers to unconsciously think about it before utter their thoughts.

SAE speakers also concern about the gender of the nouns in their vocabulary. English

generally divide animals and human beings into masculine and feminine. But languages such as

German and French go further by attaching gender to inanimate objects. For example, chaise

is the French for chair. If you want to say a chair in French, you should say une chaise.

The word chaise is attached with feminine determiner une. But if you want to say a towel,

you have to say unserviette with masculine determiner. The complexity of grammatical

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gender encourage the speakers of SAE, especially French and German, to be more sexist. This is

the same with Whorfs opinion that speakers of particular languages can be sexist (Wardhaugh,

1986 : 11).

Other than the claims above, there are two more claims about the relationship between

culture and language. The first is that the influence is bi-directional language and culture may

influence each other. This view is encouraged by Marxian view about dialectical in nature. Basil

Bernstein is one of the most influential linguists who believe in this claim. Bernstein believes

that language is something which influences culture and being influenced by culture as well.

The other one is that there is no relationship at all between linguistic structure and social

structure, and that each is independent of the other. This view is proposed by Chomsky who

prefers to develop asocial linguistics (Wardhaugh, 1986 : 11). However, these two claims are not

very popular and there are only few linguists who agree with the claims.


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CHAPTER II

SPEECH VARIATION

A. Speech Variation and Language Varieties

People all around the world speak languages to communicate with each other. Languages

differ in different places and different times. There is a hypothesis that believes that once people

speak one single language, which is, the root for all of the languages in the world. People then

traveled to different places and settle there. Then, people started to speak different languages, or

at least different varieties of a language, because they faced different environment.

Different environment gives different influence to vocabularies in a language. Thats how

people who live in different places speak different varieties. As time goes by, historical events

happen and change the way people talk by adding more vocabularies and influence grammatical

patterns. Thats how people speak different varieties from time to time.

Language variety, according to Hudson, is a set of linguistic items with similar

distribution. This definition allows linguists to say a wide range of speech variation as a

linguistic variation. For example, a variation of English might be British English, American

English, London English, English of a football commentary, etc ( Hudson, 1980 : 24).

While, according to Ferguson, a language variety is any body of human speech patterns

which is sufficiently homogeneous to be analyzed by available techniques of synchronic

description and which has a sufficiently large repertory of elements and their arrangements of

process with broad enough semantic scope to function in all context of communication

(Ferguson, 1971: 30). This hypothesis narrows our scope of definition because it bounds a

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particular region or social group as a group of speaking society.

According to Wardhaugh, a language variety is a specific set oflinguistic items orhuman

speech patterns, e.g. sounds, words, grammatical features, and so on, which we can uniquely

associate with some external factor e.g. geographical area or social group (Wardhaugh, 1989:

22). This hypothesis allows us to widen our research to even cocktail party talk and a

conversation inside a dentists clinic as a variation to study.

According to Hymes, speech components which determine the speech variation can be

explain using his S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G model:

S: Situation, means the condition and event

P: Participants, means the speakers and the adverse

E: End, means the objective of the speech e.g. topic, purpose, goal

A: Act: speech act (sharing, questioning, promising, commanding, arguing) and actsequence.

K: Key: model of speech

I: Instrument: verbal or non verbal

N: Norms

G: Genre

There are four points which is very crucial in a discussion about speech variation. These

points are dialect, style, register, and speech level.

B. Dialect

According to Oxford dictionary, dialect is a variety of a language that is characteristic of

a particular group of the language's speakers. People sometimes cannot distinguish between a

dialect and an accent. Actually, a dialect can be distinguished by learning three factors: grammar,


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vocabulary, and pronunciation, while an accent is distinguished by its pronunciation.

Linguists in general view a dialect as a variety of a language that is characteristic of a

particular group of the language's speakers. The term is applied most often to regional speech

patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as social class. Actually there

are seven types of dialect; these are regional dialect, social dialect, ethnodialect, professional

dialect, gender dialect, age dialect, and ideological dialect. There is also one special dialect

which is named idiolect.

According to Etymonline.com, the English word dialect comes from Latin dialectus

which means local language, way of speaking, conversation. An alternative etymology is

Greek word dialektos which means talk, conversation, speech. The word itself can be

elaborated per-syllable into dia- which means across andlegein which means speak.

Interestingly, the words derived from dialectus have different semantic properties in

different languages. In English, a dialectmeans a variation of language which is excluded from

polite society. The polite society speaks standard English which is used in literary works, formal

occasions, and even high class parties. A dialect is used in informal situation; conversation

within close friends, girl talk in an after-school party, and conversation the dining table while a

family eats breakfast.

In French , dialectus is borrowed and changed into un dialecte, which means a regional

variety of language that has associated literary tradition. People use un dialecte to write poetry,

prose, and songs. People also regard it as a higher variety form un patois. Un patois is a regional

variety that lacks such a literary tradition. Patois in Old French means incomprehensible

speech, rude language. Officially, Patois is any language that is considered nonstandard. It can

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refer to pidgins, creoles, dialects, and other forms of native or local speech, but not commonly to

jargon or slang, which are vocabulary-based forms of cant.

In one language, there may be some dialects. A dialect, no matter how far it differs from

the standard variety of the language, is still considered as a dialect when it is intelligible for

people who speak a different dialect of the same language. For example, a citizen of Yogyakarta

who speaks Javanese can have a conversation with a citizen of Klaten who also speaks Javanese

without any problem in understanding. Yogyakarta Javanese dialect and Klaten Javanese dialect

are slightly different in pronunciation. If a Yogyakarta citizen will say lanang /ln/ for

male, while a Klaten citizen will say lenang/len/. A pair of Javanese speaking grandfather

and grandson will also understand each other well though they speak different variations. The

grandfather will speak Javanese with some vocabularies which are rare in recent time, and the

grandson will speak a variation which is composed recently. For example, if the grandfather says

sentolop, the grandson will understand the word as the thing he will call senter, which means

flash light.

Now, lets discuss the types of dialects. Regional dialect is a dialect which is influenced

by geographical factors. Inside a geographical boundary there are some factors such as ecology,

culture, and society which influence the language (see chapter I). The Example for regional

dialect in the English language is New York English, Texan English, and Hawaiian English.

Social dialect is a dialect which is influenced by social rank. According to Wardhaugh

(1989: 46) social dialect is a dialect whose determining factor is the social rank of the speaker. It

is originate among social groups and depend on a variety of factors, the principal ones apparently

being social class, religion, and ethnicity. The examples are the caste system in India. People


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from different caste speak different variety of the language. One other example is the varieties of

Arabic language in Baghdad, Iraq. In this region, there are three religious groups: Jewish,

Christian, and Muslim. The Jewish and Christian speak their variety at home, and speak the

Muslim variety for inter-group relationship, such as in business and in trading. In the English

language, Black English is considered as the low variety of the language, while the Standard

English is considered as the higher variety of the language.

Ethnodialect is a dialect whose distinguishing factor is ethnicity. Some linguists use

ethnolect as the proper term for the concept. According to Joshua Fishman, ethnicity signifies the

identificational dimension of culture and emphasizes that the perspectival quality of ethnicity

means that its specification or attribution is fundamentally subjective, variable and very possibly

non-consensual (1997 : 329). The example for ethnolect or ethnodialect is Betawi dialect of

Bahasa Indonesia which is spoken by Jakarta citizens in Indonesia.

Professional dialect orjargon is a set of special linguistic tools used by people in a

certain profession. Every science has its own set of terminologies, and people who are

professional in that certain field will speak fluently in jargon while involved in a conversation

will fellow professionals, e.g. nautical jargon which is developed among sailors in a voyage.

Slangor terminology simplification is also used within professional area. People who work in

medical field have made some slangs e.g.ER for emergency room, and appy for appendix.

Gender dialect is a dialect whose distinguishing factor is the gender of the speaker.

Hormonal factors and social roles influence this dialect. Typically, women will speak softer than

men, and men will use more non-standard variation than women.

Age dialect is a dialect whose distinguishing factor is the age of the speaker. Typically, as

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the speaker grows older the speaker will have encountered more things in his life that will

influence his speaking style. Children and babies who are still learning to talk fluently are also

interesting to study.

Ideological dialect is the dialect whose distinguishing factor is the speakers ideology.

The ideology can be religion and politic view. A religious Christian may speak calmly and use

more diction from the bible. Mean while, a fanatic democrat will speak liberally and use more

diction form the politics field.

There is one interesting term of dialect, which is named idiolect. Idiolect is individual

dialect, a dialect which is influenced by the speakers personality background. A person will

color his or her own speech with his or her own personality. A sad person may speak sadly. A

cheerful person may speak cheerfully, happily, and openly to people. A person who easily

tempered will talk harshly, and so on.

C. Style

Style in speech variation is the level of formality of the speech which is governed by the

circumstance. Style can simply be categorized into formal, informal, and literary.

Formal style is used in formal occasions such as in political speech, news broadcasting,

and business treaty. A speaker of formal style usually speaks standard variety of the language.

Informal style is used in informal occasions, such as a conversation during class break with close

friends, a talk between seller and buyer in a grocery store, and in teenage magazine articles.

Literary style is a style of language used in the terms of literary works which requires esthetics.

Literary style sometimes is bound with rhythm and rhyme in arranging words.


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D. Register

Register according to Wardhaugh is a set of vocabulary items associated with discrete

occupational or social groups. A register chosen by the speakers are governed by the purpose or

the objective of the conversation.

Here is an example of a speaker who will change register. A speaker could be a medical

doctor who loves rock music. When he speaks as a doctor, he will speak with medical jargons

with his partners. But when he goes to a music concert, he may give comment to the band

performing using terminologies from rock music field.

E. Speech Level

Speech level is the politeness level of the speech. This is influenced by the rank of the

participants. The rank here may mean social rank, age stratification, of professional stratification.

Speech level can be simply categorized into polite and impolite.

For example, the Javanese Language in Indonesia has three stages of politeness in its

grammar: basa ngoko lugu, basa ngoko alus, and basa krama. Basa ngoko lugu is the most

impolite variation among all, used by close friends, husband to wife, and parents to children.

Basa ngoko alus is used by older person to a younger person from the higher rank, within

brothers and sisters, wife to husband, and person from a higher rank to a person from the lower

rank.Basa krama is the politest variation among all, used by people from the lower rank to the

higher rank, children to parents, and younger person to the older person. It is also the official

style for formal occasions, e.g. public speech, news broadcasting, and announcement. Basa

krama even is classified into two more categorize: Neutral and humble. The humble variation is

exclusively used by common people to the noble family members in Keraton.

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Below is the example of a simple sentence in Javanese using the four variations. In

English, the sentence simply means, I want to eat.

- Ngoko lugu:Aku arep mangan.

- Madya:Kula ajeng nedha.

- Krama: * (Neutral)Kula badh dhahar.

* (Humble) Dalem badh dhahar.


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CHAPTER III

PIDGIN AND CREOLE

Pidgins and creoles are artificial languages which are used to do communications

between speakers of different languages. Pidgin and creoles are formed from the different

languages from the participants. The languages will undergo the process of admixture, reduction,

and simplification before becoming a pidgin. When the speakers can communicate with each

other using the language, it means a pidgin has been formed. When a pidgin is inherited into a

new generation, which means members of a generation regard the pidgin as their native tongue,

the pidgin has become a creole.

Wardhaugh defines a pidgin as a language with no native speakers (Wardhaugh, 1989:

58). A pidgin plays role only as a contact language, but no one born with that language. He also

explains that a pidgin has undergone a process of quality reduction from its standard language

base. A pidgin will have simplification of grammar and vocabulary, wide tolerance on

phonological variety, and an admixture of local vocabularies to meet the need of the

communication participants.

Holm defines a pidgin as a reduced language that results from extended contact between

groups of people with no language in common. (Holm, 1988 : 4-5). Holm stated that a pidgin is

used for particular activities, usually a trade, and is used so the both participants will not lack

trust to each other because they can understand each other well.

Wardhaugh interestingly stated that a pidgin will be formed if at least there are three

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languages involved. If only two languages involved in the formation, there will be an imbalance

proportion for the languages. One language will serve as the superior, while the other will serve

as the inferior. For example, after the battle in 1066, French language serves as the superior

language through out the British area and English is the inferior language. (Wardhaugh, 1989:

58). If there is any chance for the languages to influence each other, French would give more

influence to English than English giving its influence to French.

The reason for the creation of pidgin and creole is to ease communication between people

from different languages. Pidgin is widely formed in trading occasions, especially the

international one. Slavery and colonization also encourage the birth of pidgins. African slaves

were found multilingual. They spoke a language with similar structure but with different

vocabulary. They also tended to treat English, French, and Portuguese in the same way

Wardhaugh, 1989: 73). Mean while, Bazaar Malay, which is a trade and creole language spoken

in Eastern Indonesia, born for trading purposes (Sabrizain.org). The vocabulary is often

Indonesia, but the structure is European. For example the sentence Andi punya rumah. means

Andis house. in English. The standard Bahasa Indonesia for the sentence is Rumah Andi.

Wardhaugh says that the arising of pidgin and creoles encouraged from the basic needs of

people from different languages to find a common system of communication (Wardhaugh, 1989:

56). Therefore, pidgin and creole can serve as a lingua franca. Lingua franca according to

UNESCO is a language systematically used to communicate between persons not sharing a

mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both persons' mother

tongues. There are many lingua francas in the world. The most commonly used now is English

which is spoken in almost every part of the world. English is spoken by almost 400 millions of

people as first language, and almost 1,4 billions of people as second language (Ehistling-


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pub.meotod.de).

As pidgins are originally born due the purpose of trading, slavery, and colonization, the

distribution of the pidgins and creoles is concentrated mainly in equatorial belt of the planet,

especially in the areas which have direct contact with oceans (Wardhaugh, 1989: 62). The

regions are the Caribbean, the north and east coasts of South America, coasts of Africa, and

across the Indian and Pacific Oceans.

Hancock (1977) has made a thorough research on pidgins and creoles, and has lists

considerably all of the pidgins and creoles in the world. He lists 127 pidgins and creoles

(Wardhaugh, 1989: 62). From the list, the number of English based pidgins and creoles are 35,

including Hawaiian Creole, Gullah or Sea Island Creole (spoken on the island off the coasts of

northern Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina), Jamaican Creole, Guyana Creole, Krio (spoken

in Sierra Leon), Sranan and Djuka (spoken in Suriname), Cameroon Pidgin English, Tok Pisin,

and Chinese Pidgin English. There are 15 French based pidgins and creoles, among which are

Louisiana Creole, Haitian Creole, Seychelles Creolle, and Mauritian Creole. French creoles are

Caribbean and Pacific varieties, and uniquely, mutually intelligible. There are 14 Portuguese

based pidgins and creoles, seven Spanish based, three Italian based, five Dutch based, six

German based, and one Malay based (Bazaar Malay or Melayu Pasar).

Below is a list of some specific creoles around the world:

1. Haitian Creole language, French-based, an official language of Haiti

2. Mauritian Creole, French-based, spoken in Mauritius

3. Louisiana Creole French, spoken in Louisiana

4. Belizean Kriol language, spoken in Belize

5. Cape Verdean Creole, spoken on the islands of Cape Verde

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6. Krio Dayak language, spoken by Krio Dayak people in West Kalimantan,

Indonesia

7. Liberian Kreyol language, spoken in Liberia

8. Seychellois Creole, French-based, spoken in the Seychelles

9. Guinea-Bissau Creole, spoken in Guinea-Bissau

10. Negerhollands, a Dutch-based creole, once spoken in the U.S. Virgin Islands

11. Bislama, an English-based creole, spoken in Vanuatu

12. Llanito, a Spanish- and English-based creole, spoken in Gibraltar

13. Bajan or Barbadian Creole, English-based, spoken in Barbados

14. Antillean Creole or Crole Martiniquais, French-based, spoken in the Lesser

Antilles

15. Tok Pisin, an official language of Papua New Guinea

16. Torres Strait Creole or Brokan, spoken in Far-North-East Australia, Torres Strait,and South-West Papua

As we can see, most of the language base for pidgins and creoles are European language.

This phenomenon shows that pidgin and creoles are product of historical events, from the era of

European expansion to the new world. Caribbean has interesting quantity of pidgins and creoles.

The region has three language bases; English, Spanish, and French for the pidgins and creoles

there.

There are five hypothesis of pidgins and creoles origin. These are deficiency theory, baby

talk theory, polygenesis theory, relexification theory, and bioprogram theory.

Deficiency theory stated that pidgin and creoles are used by people who lack the ability

to learn the standard languages. Early linguists stated that pidgins and creoles are deficient

because of it reduced quality and the simplification of grammatical rules. They consider non-

European people who speak European language based pidgin as unintelligent because they

cannot acquire the language fluently. This theory, though once was popular, is dismissed in


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modern linguistics studies because of its racial prejudice sense.

Baby-talk theory or foreigner talk theory stated that pidgin speakers talk difficultly like

babies though they are adults. This theory is also not popular because of its negative sense. The

speakers are seemed having difficulties in speaking pidgin because of the simplified form of the

language, not because of their lack intelligence.

Polygenesis theories stated that pidgins and creoles have a variety of origins. Though the

origin causes vary, pidgins and creoles around the world may share some similarities. This is

because the circumstances in which they appear shared some similarities also. For example,

Bahasa Melayu Pasaror Bazaar Malay will share some similarities with rojak language in

Singapore because the creoles share similarities in their basic language. Bazaar Melayu based in

Malay language, while rojak language has a lot of influences form Malay language. The theory is

supported by many linguists such as Hall (1966) who encourage the comparative method to

study pidgins and creoles. The monogenesis theory contrasts polygenesis theory. The theory

stated that pidgins and creoles are origin from one single cause. But the evidence for the theory is

still in a quest, which is among the methods, using comparative method too.

Relexification theory believes that pidgin and creole have certain common structural

features about quite different vocabularies. This theory is first encouraged by a simulation of a

pidgin which is created aboard on a sailing ship. A trading ship used to have crews from different

places. For example, the famous Nelsons Victoria flagship was crewed by people from fourteen

different nationalities. So, there must be many languages aboard too. In order to communicate

with each other, the crew then created nautical jargon, which functions as a lingua franca along

the ships voyage.

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The other examples for reflexified languages are the European-language-based pidgins

and creoles. In the fifteen and sixteen centuries, Portuguese language was said to introduce their

vocabulary to many different places in Europe. The target people use the vocabulary using their

own grammatical structure. This is the embryo forSabir, a lingua franca used in Mediterranean

in the medieval era. That explains how people learn a structure of a language separately from its

vocabulary. Todd (1974: 38) said that people employ the new vocabulary from the new language

and use it to their own grammatical framework to make themselves understood.

Bioprogram theory is a theory arguing that the structural similarities between different

creole languages cannot be solely attributed to their superstrate and substrate languages. The

theory is proposed by Jespersen (1922: 234). He encourages the linguists who study pidgin and

creoles to think about what the languages have and do; not only what they lack. What is meant

by bioprogram is the way children create a creole when they are born in a multilingual

environment in which a pidgin is the only language to communicate. Children have the ability to

make the language and they are born with it. The ability is called bioprogram.


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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Wardhaugh, Ronald. 1989.An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Oxford. Blackwell

Publishers.

Sugono, Dendy. 2003.Buku Praktis Bahasa Indonesia Jilid 1. Jakarta. Pusat Bahasa

Departemen Pendidikan Nasional.

Fishman, Joshua. 1997. The Handbook of Sociolinguistics. East Anglia. Cambridge

University Press.

http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/library/dialectresearch.pdf

"Lecture 7: World-Wide English" http://www.ehistling-pub.meotod.de/01_lec06.php

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole

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