600 B. C. Forum Romanum Forum Romanum was the first forum ever built. It was built on the Palatine hill, around 600 B.C. During the selection of locations for the Forum, there were unpleasant marsh-es in the hollow which led to a main drain-age channel being built to drain the Forum. The forum consists of basilicas, temples, curia (senate house), comitium (public assembly), tabularia (offices), saepta (voting precincts), macella (market building), porticoes and horrea (warehouse). The exact area of the Forum is in between the Capitol and the Temple of Caesar. However, during Caesar’s period, he decided to move Curia away from Comitium. He was erect-ing his own new Curia lulia and that is why he took away the Senate’s house. Now, the Curia is added to the corner of the Forum and it is part-ly over the Comitium. The significant feature of the Comitium, the Rostra, was also relocated at the front of Tabularium. Through this arrange-ment, Caesar had enclosed the open section by making the Curia less important. After Caesar’s death, Augustus continued his work. He built a temple for Caesar at the other end of the forum which was opposite of the Tabularium. The Fo-rum became bipolar with the Temple of Caesar dominating at the other end. As the result from this act, the Forum was closed to form a square. The square is merely framed by the buildings that have their own functions. The buildings do not surround the forum in uniform due to their own unique shapes, heights and widths. During the middle age, the forum is enclosed by specific buildings, especially basilicas. Even though the forum is almost rectangular, it is slightly narrow towards the Temple of Caesar.

Other than that, Augustus placed three arch-es at three different corners of the Forum. The Arch of Augustus and another arch for his grandchildren were on the both sides of Temple of Caesar. The Arch of Tiberius was placed right opposite of his own arch. During 12 B.C. onwards, some older struc-tures were burned down. They were either rebuilt like the Basilica lulia, or replaced by bigger, marble structures. Besides that, a few emperors added extra features includ-ing monument into the Forum. Domitian was the first one to do it. He emphasized the cen-ter of the Forum by placing his statue there. Due to this, the bipolarity of the Forum is weakened. However, the statue was being re-moved after his death. A century and a half later, Septimius Severus added his own arch to the fourth corner which was near to the Curia. Diocletian also built five memorial col-umns erected above the Rostra to celebrate twenty years of system tetrarchy. Once again, the attention was being pulled towards the Capitol, as it had been before the Tabularium was built. The last monument installed was a statue for Constantine the Great in 334 A.D.

Temple of Jupi-ter Capitolinus ( r e c o n s t r u c -tion) - 509 B.C.

At the end of this century (Hellenistic Period), they discovered the lime which led to the use of lime in the manufacture of mortar to bond rubble masonry. Thereby, mortar had replaced clay and achieved its role as permanent glue. It enables the use of concrete masonry in enor-mous constructions. Mortar also allows the developments and constructions of vaults.

The First Style of Roman art was mostly an exploration of simulat-ing marble of various colours and types on painted plaster. In order to replicate masonry, artists of the late republican period drew upon ex-amples of painting and architecture from the early Hellenistic period.

During the Roman colonization of Pompeii, the First Style of Roman art suffered a decline. This led to the trans-formation of an Italic town with Greek influences into a Roman city.

Mid of 2 B.C., primitive con-crete was the further devel-opment of mor-tar. Primitive concrete is the product of mix-ing mortar with

light rubble. Concrete was first used in the town of Cosa. Construction is easier and cheaper with primitive concrete. In the construction of arch and vault, concrete is poured over temporary timber mould (centering). This inven-tion, concrete, drove the radical ad-vancement of the conception of form. At the late 2 B.C., concrete facing had become more regularized, eventually; it consisted of square and pyramid shaped blocks of tough set in a diagonal grid pattern, opus reticulatum. The choice to use opus reticula-tum is due to the desire

REPUBLICAN

300 B. C. -200 B. C.

First style (200—60 B.C.) Development of hard setting mor-tar or Mortar of Pozzolana (300 B.C.) It is made of volcanic sand (Pozzolana), lime and water. This could reduce reliance on the dead weight of massive blocks. Due to its water resis-tant property, it can be set in a very damp envi-ronment. Mortar is used for waterproof facings.

In ancient Rome, the Temple of Jupiter Cap-itolinus is important and it is located on the Capitoline Hill. The first Temple of Jupiter is from the later Roman times and it was built on September 13 on 509 B.C. The Capitoline Tri-ad considered it sacred as it consist of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. The original Temple mea-sured almost 60 m x 60 m (197 feet square) and was considered the most important religious temple of the whole of Rome. This temple was rebuilt, but Quintus Lutatius Catulus was given the honour of dedicating the new struc-ture in 69 B.C. The new temple was built using the same plan and the same foundations, but with more expensive materials for the super-structure. However, it was completed during the late 60 B.C. The third and fourth building was built during A.D. and no longer consid-ered as prehistory of the Roman architecture.

Temple of Saturn - 498 B.C.Erected in 498 B.C., the Temple of Saturn was and still is the oldest sacred place in Rome, after the Temples of Vesta and Jupiter.

Aqua Appia, 312 B.C.

Aqua Appia was built in 312 B.C. during the Roman republic, by Appius Claudius Cae-cus who also built the famous Via Appia. Aqua Appia is located in Italy and was build to satisfy the need of water supply in Forum Boarium in Campus Martius. It is the oldest aqueduct in ancient Rome. The length of Aqua Appia is approximately 10 miles (16 km) and 7 miles (11 km). It begins underground from its source then continues on on arches for 3 miles (4.8 km) to its terminus in the Forum Boarium in Campus Martius. When describing how low it travels, Aqua Appia has the lowest level travel point among all of the aqueducts. It stretches 8 miles to the Sabine Hills which is outside of Rome. To provide protection to Appia from attackers during the Samnite Wars that was occuring during construction, most of the length of the aqueduct was built underground, which was necessary because of the heights of its source and destination. This aqueducts structure has similar struc-tures as the Greek and Egyptian aqueducts.

express a connection of Rome’s power base.

241 B.C., Falerii Novi is a new city built by the Romans using Etrus-can engineering. The arch of the entrance was the definite mark-er in the early history of the voussoirs arch.

House of Menander - 300 B.C.

The House of Menander is located in Pompeii, Italy. An unknown architect con-structed it in the late 1st century BC. Due to the villa’s impressive size and intricate struc-ture, as well as the numerous decorative touches such as frescoes, it has been con-cluded that an affluent person owned the house when Vesuvius erupted. It is referred as The House of Menander because of the well-preserved fresco of the ancient Greek Dra-matist Menander in a niche in the peristyle.

190 B. C. -100 B. C.

Temple of Castor and Pollux (rebuilt) - 117 B.C.

The temple of Castor and Pollux is an ancient structure in the Roman Forum, Rome, central Italy. It was built in re-membrance of victory at the battle of Lake Regillus (495 BC). Theoctostyle temple was peripteral, with eight Corinthian columns at the short sides and eleven on the long sides.

House of the Faun - 100 B.C.

The House of the Faun is known for the Al-exander Mosaic, depicting the Battle of Issus in 333 BC between Alexander the Great and Darius III of Persia. The House of the Faun is nearly 3,000 square meters, and occupies an entire city block, or insula. The House of the Faun had tabernae, or storefront shops, and a highly sophisticated building plan, which de-tails the many rooms. The entrance of House of Faun decorated by the Latin message ―HAVE, a greet-ing both for meeting and parting.

Temple of Fortuna Primigenia, Palestri-na (Perspective reconstruction) - 80 B.C.

Palestrina (ancient Praeneste) is an old city and comune (municipality) with a population of about 18,000, in Lazio, c. 35 km east of Rome. prae-nest inae) .

90 B. C. -50 B. C.

Forum Caesar, Foro di Cesara (46 B.C.)

This Forum was the first forum ever built among the imperial forums. It was an extension of the Roman Forum because it is located right beside it. The forum was incomplete because Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 B.C. Thus, Caesar’s successor, Augustus Caesar continued his work.

Despite other forums, Forum Caesar was a meeting place used for dealings and

Tabularium, Forum Romanum (78 B.C.)

The construction of Tabularium was by Sulla, then Caesar and his successor, Augustus. Tab-ularium is the only republican building which survived through wars. The uses of Tabularium in the Forum had further developed the shape of the forum in a whole new level because it made the forum more orderly. The structure has three storeys. On the second storey, there are eleven open arches that escalated from a large base. The large base consists of several small windows that provide sunlight to the low-er corridor. The tower that is located on top of the building was added around 1300. Besides that, Michelangelo demolished the upper sto-rey and replace it with Palazzo del Senatore.

Second style (80— 20 B.C.)

During the Second Style, architectural forms were imitated by fresco artists purely by illustrative means. Artists of this period used flat plaster. Projections and recessions were illustrated using shading and perspective. This method allows pictures to seem real like the pic-ture of a which table can be made to seem like it is projected out from the wall.

78 B.C. - The passage behind the facade is di-vided into 11 individual vaults, each of which rests on four arches. The first groined vaults known in Roman Architecture are found here.

80 B.C. - Romans came up with new standards of concrete construction and concrete has greater spatial diversity. Later developments of Roman buildings were depended on molded concrete.

noblest activities. From 4th century onwards, this forum was used as Basilica Argentaria. It was a specialized market that sells items made out of bronze and silver. After a few decades, it was used as a school instead.

The long rectangular piazza had columnar por-ticos on both sides with two individual naves. On the other hand, there is only one nave portico for the entrance to the presence of Chalcidicum. There were a series of tabernae, shops under the lateral porticos. The shops of different sizes were arranged in wedge shape in the Campidoglio facing Clivo Argen-tario. Clivo Argentario is a street that con-nected the Roman Forum to the Campidoglio.

The site of Temple of Venus Genetriz, which is at the end of the piazza, was the signifi-cant element to the architectural complex. This fundamental arrangement is compatible with the ideology of Hellenistic sanctuaries. The temple contains eight columns in the front and nine on both sides. The back of the temple is contradicting with the other three sides of the temple because no columns exist.

50 B. C. -20 B. C.

27 BC—14 AD

The Romans elaborate arch into monumen-tal isolation. Triumphal arches became the symbol of Empire. Augustus made triumphal arch became an established convention and a char-acteristic feature of the imperial scene.

Temple of Fortuna Virilis - 40 B.C.

It is an ancient building in Rome, Italy. It is themain temple dedicated to the god Por-tunus in the city. It is in the ionic order.

Temple of Apollo Sosia-nus (34 - 20 B.C.)

The Temple of Apollo Sosianus (was known as the Apollinar and the temple of Apollo Medicus) is a Ro-man temple dedi-cated to Apollo in Rome, Italy.

Mausoleum of Augustus - 28 B. C.

The first Roman Emperor built a monu-mental family tomb at Campus Martius.

JULIAN - CLAUDIAN

DYNASTY

20 B. C. -10 B. C.

14 B.C. - Pont du Gard, was the high-est bridge which carried water across theGard river to Nimes, s o u t h e r n F r a n c e .

Third style 20 BC—20 AD

This period of art style coincides with the reign of Emperor Augustus. The Third Style rejects illustrating illu-sions for sur-face ornamentation. The paintings contain elaborate architec-tural with a single mono-chrome back-ground. Small figural and landscape scenes are usually depicted in the mid-dle. Although they are in the mid-dle, they are just part of the overall decora-tive scheme and not the main element.

Maison Carree - 16 B.C.

Maison Carree was built by Agripa who later died in 12 B.C., it was later dedicated to his two sons who both died at a very young age. This structure is now located in Nimes, France.

Theatre of Marcellus (13 B.C. - 11 B.C.)

The Theatre of Marcellus was built by Emperor Augustus in 13 B.C. It was the largest theatre in ancient Rome. It was dedicated in 13 B.C. and named Theatrum Marcelli in the mem-ory of Marcellus, the son of Augustus’ sister.

10 B. C. -1 B. C.

Market in Leptis Magna - 8 B.C.

This was the type of a Roman food market in North Africa, Libya. The market was contained in a walled rectangular courtyard that was raised above the street level.

Necropolis of Cerveteri (7 - 6 B.C.)

It is situated close to the coast north of Rome and is a veritable city of the dead (area known as the Banditaccia necropolis). Vaguely remi-niscent of ancient Egyptian burials that you will walk around an ancient city, the housing being made up of a huge number of burial mounds.

Fired brick became one of the prin-cipal materials for facing concrete. Fired brick are used for roof tiles and deco-ration of Romans borrowed from Etruscans.

Temple of Hera II - 3 B.C.

The Temple of Hera II, sometimes called the Temple of Neptune or the Temple of Poseidon, is an archaic Doric tem-ple in the ancient city of Paestum.

Temple of Fortu-na Virilis - 2 B.C.

The temple stood by the Portus Ti-berinus in Roman times. The tem-ple was dedicated to the god Por-tumnus, protec-tor of harbors and sea trade.

THE BEGINNING OF THE

ROMAN EMPIRE

1 A. D. -15 A. D.

20 A. D. -50 A. D.

The son-in-law of Emperor Augustus, Marcus Agrippa, was responsible for many of the struc-tures that were made public, which included over-seeing the Pantheon during its construction period. Apollodorus, who was assumed to be the architect of the structure, acted as the over-seer of the construction of public works during the Trajan’s later years and during the Hadri-an’s time of power, along with Marcus Agrip-pa. He was also the architect of Trajan’s Bath.

Pantheon was built in 27 A.D.

Fourth style (20—79 AD)

Compared to previous styles, the Fourth Style is less disciplined. It re-tains the ar-chitectural details of the Third Style while using panoramic vistas. The colours used are warm.

FLAVIAN DYNASTY

70 A. D. -80 A. D.

Colosseum - 79 BC

The construction of Flavian Amphithe-ater began by Vespasian, inaugurat-ed by Titus and completed by Domitian.

Initially called the the Flavian Amphitheatre, the given name “Colosseum” was taken from the Latin word ‘colosseus’ which means co-lossal, refering to a gigantic statue of the Em-peror Nero, measuring 100 to 120 Roman feet (37 m) high, which had once occupied the lo-cation of the Colosseum in Ancient Rome.

The history of the Roman Colosseum dates hun-dreds of years before it was actually built when the tastes of Roman citizens craved the excitement and blood lust of the gladiatorial games. Their desire for this form of entertainment goes all the way back to 264B.C. when the first recorded Ro-man gladiato-rial combats took place in Rome.

The terror of the deaths of Christian martyrs in the Colosseum, the gladiator fights and the killing of thousands of exotic ani-mals, and craving for this type of entertainment in An-cient Rome’ finally ended in the 6th century.

The Colosseum comprises three stories of arcades and a blind attic story that reach a height of 50 meters. Each story consists of 80 arches. Embedded columns punctuate the fa-cade: the first story is in Tuscan style, the second in ionic, and the third Corinthian. The architecture of the Roman Co-losseum illustrates their use of one of the Romans most fa-mous inventions, which is concrete.

The Colosseum took less than 10 years to build which is a remarkable achievement for the ex-cellent engineers and their famous engineering

by the flavian emperors and its dedication in 80 A.D., that provincial architects had an example that could be universally imi-tated. The amphitheatre at Thysdrus was an imitation of the colosseum at Rome.

.

Pantheon was burned down and rebuilt in 80 A.D.

Fire burn down the Forum Caesar in 80 A.D.

ANTONINE DYNASTY

107 A. D. -113 A. D.

Forum Trajan - 112 AD

The construction work for Forum Trajan start-ed in 107 A.D. The Forum and the Basilica Ul-pia was completed after 5 years of construc-tion. The complex area is approximately 300 x 180 m while the uncovered area is 120 x 90 m. The Basilica Ulpia had used up around 180 x 60 m area. The Trajan Forum was used as an area for representation for public ceremonies. It was situated at the slopes of Quirinale hills.

Compared to other Imperial forums, Forum Trajan has a more confusing foundation. The piazza is enclosed by Basilica Ulpia. At the

Trajan’s Market (112 - 113 A.D.)

The contruction started around 94 till 95 A.D. under Domitian. This can be proved by the date that is imprinted on the bricks used. The

back of the piazza, there is the Trajan Col-umn. The Trajan Column rose in between the two Libraries. The temple that is dedicated to Divo Trajan was believed to be at the com-plex. There was a curved arch passageway, which is one type of arch of triumph at the entrance of the piazza. Trajan’s statue was placed at the center of the piazza and it was bordered by porticos with decorated attics.

The facade of the basilica also had an attic or-namented with Daci statue. These sculptural decorations of Daci were transmitted mes-sages of imperial propaganda of Trajan him-self. The Trajan Column was also bordered by porticos opposite of the Library’s façade. It is made out of giant marble blocks. There was a spiral staircase in the column which leads to the top. On the column shaft, there was a long embellishment surround it, leav-ing the fluting under the Doric capital visible.

height of Tower of Militia is 42.50 m.

The market consists of six levels that are con-nected by steep staircase. There are three levels in the upper area and another three levels in the lower area. In the upper area, there is the Great Hall and the Central Body which sits in between Via Biberatica and the back area. Meanwhile, in the lower area, there is the Great and Small Semicycle going down toward the Forum floor.

The Trajan’s Market uses refined bricks that are covered by cement nucleus. There were various types of vaults used in this structure. They also make full use of the foundation. For example, the Great Hall has an empty rectan-gular space which is covered with six cross–vaults. The vaults relieve the mass onto the surrounding. The air flow and sunlight are al-lowed to enter the building through the sys-tem of corridors on the first and second levels.

Trajan reconstructed the Temple of Venus Ge-netrix in the year 113. He also constructed an-other semicircular series of columns that is fac-ing the south-east angle. It could be the largest that was ever constructed in the ancient world. This series of columns gave access to a large public lavatory. Other than that, he added a new struc-ture that consists of pillars with double naves and two wings along the border of the Campidoglio. The Public Lavatories is a semicircular brick structure that had a slack stone foundation under the pavement with small brick pillars insert-ed for drainage. Meanwhile, the exterior could be covered with a ring barrel vault. The center part was uncovered to allow light and air comes in.

114 A. D. -150 A. D.

In 118 AD, Emperor Hadrian commis-sioned for the Pantheon to be rebuilt different way that would last longer.

The reconstruction of Pantheon was completed in 126 AD. The main themes for this Pantheon are celestial and terrestrial. The initial function of the Pantheon was to astound the Roman populance. The Pantheon represents the home of the Gods. The Oculus was used in the design of this building. The absences of windows were rather important because it offers an astonish-ing sense of drama. It acts as a monarchy re-moved from everyday reality. Other than that.

The escalated curve on the floor is one of the clever features of the Pantheon. Due to this unique design, drain rainwater flows towards the border of an open-air space because there are gaps for drainage beneath the oculus. Despite that, the curve encour-ages dispersion and evaporation. Thus, the floors dry very fast even after a thunderstorm.

Meanwhile, the design principles for Pan-theon are geometry and structured. The volumetric proportions of the Panthe-on had reduced to a hemisphere, a cylin-der of the same height and a double cube.

They used geometry shapes for the initial design of this building. Be-sides that, the en-trance, apse and 6 exedrae punched into the depths of the drum. There are 8 major area of support for the building. In the center of each area, there are half-moon chambers grow towards the exteriors. These empty spaces save amounts of weight without di-minishing the buttressing action of the wall. The loads are trans-ferred through a series of solid bricks. This helps the vaults which take up the entire thickness of the structure.

The building, Pantheon includes a Cupola, ro-tunda, a dome, oculus, squares of floors, col-umns and portico. The diameter of Cupola is 150 feets while the diameter of Oculus is 30.14 feet which is around 8.92m., and for the main interior columns is 3.73 feet, approximately 1.105m. The Rotunda is 150 feet next to the Oculus. It is not a per-fect hemisphere, but in-stead it is a segment of the implied sphere that cut off by the floor. As for the dome, it is di-vided into 28 coffers 5 rows. When the height of the dome increases, lighter weight concrete was used. And so, various concrete with differ-ent aggregates was used. Other than concrete, travertine, brick and tufa were used as well.

SEVERAN DYNASTY

193 A. D. -235 A. D.

217 A.D. - Much of the Colosseum was destroyed after being struck by lightning.

222 AD - the Colosseum is re-opened after some restoration.

CRISIS OF THE THIRD CENTURY

235 A.D. - 284 A.D.

Aqua Alexandrina was constructed in 226 A.D. by Frontinus. Aqua Alexandrina is also lo-cated in Italy. Alexandrina was established for the sole purpose of Severus’ remodelling of the Thermae Neronianae in the Campus Martius built by Alexander Severus (208 A.D. - 235A.D.) in the same year. It was the last aqueducts in the ancient Rome. The sources of Alexandrina’s was the marshy basin of the Pantano springs, which it is one mile south of Via Prenestina’s 14th mile, at the foot of the hill of Sassobello.

Alexandrina headed due west, almost paral-leling the Via Pre-nestina, instead of making it headed to the south that the other aqueducts followed to Rome. The length of Alexandrina was 14 miles (23 km) and 4 miles (6.4 km) un-derground from its source, then on arches for 10 miles (16 km) to its terminus at the baths of Alexander Severus in Campus Martius.

Roman Empire split into Western and Eastern

Roman Empire (285 AD)

CONSTANITIANDYNASTY

285 A. D. -364 A. D.

EASTERN EMPIRE

364 A.D. - 475 AD

319 AD Completion of the first St. Peter’s Basilica.

Constantine was the first Christian Ro-man emperor. He built a church on Vati-can Hill, right atop of St. Peter’s burial site. He began construction of the site in 319. The building featured a centralized floor plan with four arms of equal length.

408—410 AD

The Visigoths take control of Rome, bad-ly damaging the Colosseum during their conquest and occupation of the city.

364 A.D. - 475 A.D.

Fall of the Roman Empire of the West

500 A.D. - 650 A.D.

484 or 508 A.D.

A massive earthquake, known as abomi-nandus, hits Rome and devastates the Colosseum. Officials rebuild it enough to hold a small crown for games.

Pantheon had converted into a church in 609 A.D.