final review renal system

8/3/2019 Final Review Renal System

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Final Review

Renal System


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Classification of Hormones

Peptide or protein hormones (large, water soluble)

chains of amino acids

most hormones are peptide hormones; e.g., insulin (pancreas)

Steroid hormones (lipid soluble)

derived from cholesterol

e.g., adrenocorticosteroids (adrenal cortex), estrogen (ovaries), testosterone

(testes) Biogenic amines (small, water soluble)

derived from the amino acid tyrosine

e.g., thyroxins (thyroid), epinephrine (adrenal medulla)


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Anterior

Pituitary

Hormones

gamete maturation

increases growth &

mitosis in most cells

-> indicates tropic

effect on hormone-

secreting organs

increases lactation

increases melanin

production

TSH -> thyroid

ACTH -> adrenalcortex;

secretes corticosteroids

GH -> liver; secretes

somatomedin

FSH & LH-> gonads;

secrete sex hormonesPRL -> testes

secretes testosterone


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1-4 Anterior

Pituitary

Hormones

mnemonics for hormones:

GH growth hormone

PRL prolactinA acidophils

b basophils

FSH follicle stimulating hormone

LH luteinizing hormone

ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone

TSH thyroid-stimulating hormone


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Control of Posterior Pituitary

Gland Secretions

The hypothalamus regulates the release of two hormones it secretes and stores in

neurosecretory cells which project into the posterior pituitary (pars nervosa)

Oxytocin (OT)- regulated by positive feedback!

stimulates uterine

contractions &

let down of milk

prostate gland

secretion in males

Antidiuretic hormone

(ADH) or vasopressin

stimulates water

reabsorption by kidneys

arteriole constriction

hypothalamo-

hypophyseal tract


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Adrenal Glands (suprarenal)

Paired, pyramid-shaped endocrine glands anchored on the superior surface

of each kidney & therefore retroperitoneal

Yellow due

to stored fat

Outer cortex

Inner medulla


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Adrenal Cortex Hormones

(Corticosteroids)

synthesis stimulated by ACTH produced by anterior pituitary

>25 steroid hormones vital to survival

regulate salt, sugar, & sex!


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SALT

mineralocorticoids:

aldosteroneincreases salt & water

retention from kidney; BP

SUGAR

glucocorticoids:cortisol

gluconeogenesis;

anti-inflammatory;

response to longterm stress

SEX

regulates androgens

neural tissue; epinephrine


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Pancreas

Spongy, nodular organ

between

duodenum & spleen;

posterior to stomach

Exocrine:

pancreatic acini

produce alkaline pancreatic

juice that aids in digestion

Endocrine:

pancreatic islets (Islets of Langerhans) consists of

four types of cells each producing a different hormone

Digestion


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Pancreatic

Hormones

Produced by the following cell types in the

Islets of Langerhans (pancreatic islets)

Alpha cells - in response to blood glucose

secrete glucagon blood glucose

Beta cellsin response to blood glucose

secrete insulin blood glucose Delta cells in response to blood nutrient

secrete somatostatin intestinal absorption

F cells - stimulated by protein digestion

Digestion


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Disorder of Beta cells of

Pancreas: Diabetes Mellitus

Results in inadequate uptake of glucose from blood so glucose

spills over into urine; (sweet urine)

Chronic high blood glucose damages small blood vessels retinal blindness,

kidney failure, leg amputations, heart disease, stroke

Type 1 diabetes

Insulin-dependent DM

Autoimmune disease Beta cells are destroyed

Type 2 diabetes

Insulin-independent DM

Decreased insulin uptake by body cells

Digestion


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Ribs

12 pairs (both sexes)

true ribs(17)1) connect individually to the

sternum by separatecartilaginous extensionscalled costal cartilages

false ribs (812)1) costal cartilages do not

attach directly to thesternum

2) 810 fuse to the costal cartilage of rib 7 and thus are indirectlyattached with the sternum

3) 11 and 12 are floating ribs because they have no connection withthe sternum


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Dense Connective Tissue:

Dense Irregular

collagen bundles lie indifferent directions.

Found in the dermis of

the skin and fibrouscapsules where pull is indifferent directions.


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Loose Connective Tissue:

Adipose

found with areolar

under skin

energy reserves

insulating and

protecting

Signet ring appearance.

Tightly packedadipocytes.

Highly vascular.


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Major Arteries of the

Thorax & Abdomen

Subclavian arteriesinternal thoracic arteries

intercostal a. thorax & abdominal walls

Abdominal aortaunpaired arteries to the

unpaired organs of the gastrointestinal tract:1. Celiac trunk

2. Superior mesenteric

3. Inferior mesenteric

Abdominal aortapaired arteries to paired organs:1. Renal kidneys

2. Gonadal gonads (ovaries or testes)

Aorta bifurcates ->common iliac arteries

-> internal iliac artery-> pelvis and perineum


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Major Veins of the

Thorax & Abdomen

Azygos system (unpaired)

drains thorax, pericardium, bronchi

may also drain structures that normally drain

into inf. vena cava or hepatic portal

merges into the superior vena cava

Following drain into the inferior vena cava:

Hepatic veins drain liver

Renal veins drain kidneys

Internal iliac veins drain pelvis & perineum

join common iliac veins

merge w/ inferior vena cava


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Correspond to heart

wall layers

1. Tunica Intima (Interna)

smooth endothelium;reduces friction

2. Tunica Media

circularly arranged

smooth muscle; under

sympathetic innervation

vasoconstriction

thicker in arteries

3. Tunica Externa (Adventitia)- areolar CT w/ elastic & collagen fibers

maintains integrity of vessel; anchors vessel to other tissues

thicker in veins

Vaso vasorum

small vessels w/in

tunica externa;

deliver blood to

large vessels

Tunics

(Layers)


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Centrifuge Separates

Components of Whole Blood

straw-colored liquid

Hematocrit or PCV =

ratio of RBCs to total volume

~42% in women


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Functions of Blood

Transportation

Erythrocytes carry oxygen and carbon dioxide

Plasma carries nutrients, hormones, waste products (to kidneys)

Regulation

Body Temperature

Plasma absorbs and distributes heat throughout the body To cool - blood vessels in dermis dilate and dissipate heat at surface To conserve heat - dermal blood vessels constrict, warm blood is shunted to

deeper blood vessels in the body

pH Levels (a measure of alkalinity or acidity; neutral is 7)

Plasma pH is kept at ~7.4 for normal cellular functioning Fluid Levels

Constant exchange between blood plasma & interstitial fluid in tissues Balance maintained by electrolyte & protein levels in blood Too much fluid absorbed in the blood - high blood pressure

Too much fluid leaves blood for tissues - low blood pressure & edema


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Simple Epithelium:

Simple Cuboidal

One layer of cube-

shaped cells

Nucleus: usually round

For secretion or

absorption of fluids

Examples: line kidney

tubules, cover ovaries,

line ducts of glands


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Transitional

Resembles bothstratified squamous andstratified cuboidal -

basal cells are cuboidalor columnar andsurface cells aresquamous or dome-shaped

Cells can slide over eachother to allowdistention from urine

Examples: lines ureters,

bladder and part ofurethra


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Body Membranes (coverings)

Epithelial membranes have epithelium on top of connectivetissue

1) Mucous membranes (mucosa) line passage ways and cavities opento the outside - digestive, respiratory, urinary, & reproductive tracts Mucus secreted on surface prevents dessication

2) Serous membranes (serosa) line cavities not open to the outside -pleura, pericardium, peritoneum Secrete watery serous fluid (transudate)

Always found as double membranes visceral and parietal

3) Cutaneous membrane is skin (external membrane)

Connective tissue membranes are CT only4) Synovial membranes line joints


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Skeletal Muscle

Long, striated,

multinucleated at

periphery

Voluntary movements,

expressions

Neural stimulation

required

Attached to skeleton

usually


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Smooth Muscle

No striations,tapered, singlenucleus

Often in sheets

Involuntary

May be

autorhythmic Found in walls of

hollow organs


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1-25Parasympathetic division:

Preganglionic axons: long

minimal divergence

Postganglionic axons: shortGanglionic neurons near target:

terminal ganglia or

intramural ganglia in organ

Sympathetic division:

Preganglionic axons: short

extensive divergence

exit spinal cord with anterior

roots of T1L2 spinal nerves

Postganglionic axons: long

Ganglionic neurons in:

paravertebral ganglia, or

prevertebral ganglia

(collateral axons)

myelinated

unmyelinated

unmyelinated

myelinated


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1-26PARASYMPATHETIC:

Conserves energy & replenishes

nutrient stores

Most active when body is at rest or

digesting a meal

Origin: brainstem nuclei for CNs III,

VII, IX, & X &

S2-S4 of spinal cord

SYMPATHETIC:

Uses energyfor mass activation in

emergency

Increases metabolic activity

Brain patterns change

Skins electrical resistance changes

(lie detector test)

Increased alertness

Origin: lateral horns of T1-L2

PARASYMPATHETIC SYMPATHETIC


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Spinal nerves S2-S4 give rise to pelvic

splanchic nerves:

Distal end of large intestine

& rectum

1. increased smooth muscle motility

& secretory activity

2. defecation

Bladder wall and distal ureter

1. contraction of smooth muscle2. urination

Female clitoris and male penis

1. increased vasodilation

2. blood flow up -> erection

Parasympathetic

Division


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Neurotransmitters

Preganglionic axons:

all release Ach; effect is always

excitatory, short-lived & local

Post-ganglionic axons:

Parasympathetic division

all release Ach; can be inhibitory

Sympathetic division

post-ganglionic axons which releaseAch are always excitatory

most sympathetic post-ganglionic

axons release norepinephrine (NE);

effect is long-lasting, widespread;

can be inhibitory

SYMPATHETICPARASYMPATHETIC


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Passive Transport Processes

Movement of substances along (down) aconcentration or pressure gradient

ATP is NOT required Simple Diffusion (gas exchange in alveoli of lungs) Osmosis (diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane; IV

solutions are isotonic (0.9% NaCl) to avoid hemolysis)

Facilitated Diffusion Requires the participation of specific transportproteins to move particles from a region of high concentration to lower

concentration (e.g., glucose, urea,vitamins, Cl ions) Bulk Filtration Involves the diffusion of both solvents and solutes

together across the membrane from higher to lower fluid pressure side(e.g. blood against inside wall of a blood vessel)


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Peroxisomes

Small sacs withpowerful oxidaseenzymes

Detoxification

Toxins (ethanol,formaldehyde,phenol) converted tohydrogen peroxide

Catalase convertshydrogen peroxide

to water and oxygen Especially found in

kidney and liver

Self-replicating

final review renal system

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