final project sustainable

8/10/2019 Final Project Sustainable

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Technical Content

Fuel Cell

Introduction

Fuel cells are, in principle, continuously operating batteries, producing direct

current by electrochemical cold combustion of a gaseous fuel, usually hydrogen. Thus,

hydrogen is oxidized to protons in gas diffusion electrodes, releasing electrons,

according to the reaction:

H2 2 H+

+ 2 e-

(1)

On the opposite electrode, also gaseous diffusion, considering the cell proton

exchange membrane (acidic), we have the reaction:

2 H++ 2 e-+ O2 H2O (2)

The overall reaction, which is accompanied by heat release, can be written asfollows:

H2+ 1/2 O2 H2O (3)

The figure 1 shows the scheme of a fuel cell and the reactions that occur inside it.


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Figure 1. Fuel cell scheme

Gas diffusion electrodes are permeable to electronic conducting reactant gases

and are separated from each other by an electrolyte (ionic conductor) in a way that the

gases do not mix. The electrolyte can be a liquid, a conductive polymer cation,

saturated with a liquid or a solid (zirconium oxide). For a hydrogen/oxygen the working

cell potential is between 0.5 and 0.7 V. Open circuit potentials are between 1.1 and 1.2

V. Due to its high reactivity, hydrogen is now day, the most suitable choice for fuel,

however, there is a lot of researches testing methanol and even ethanol as an

alternative fuel.

Fuel Cells types

Table 1 shows the different types of fuel cells, as well as its main features.

Currently, AFC (Alkaline Fuel Cell) have an important role only in space travel, showing

no land application due to the fact that you use only ultra-pure hydrogen and oxygen.

Further, work at a low operating temperature and require a relatively complicated

process to remove the water from the electrolyte. However, this cell type is the

precursor of the most modern cells.

Currently, the development of cells not demand the same dependence for pure

gas fuel, but, for example, natural gas or methanol. In turn, for the oxidizing agent, the

use of atmospheric air is preferable to pure oxygen.


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Table 1. Fuel cells types.

Type Electrolyte Temperature

Range (oC)

Advantages Downfalls Applications

Alkaline Fuel

Cell (AFC)

OH- 6090 High efficiency

(83% theoretical)

-Sensible to

CO2

-Ultra pure

gases, without

reform of fuel

- Spacecraft

- Military

applications

Proton

exchange

membrane

fuel cell

(PEMFC)

Polymer:

Nafion

(H3O+)

8090 Flexible

operation

- Sensible to

CO

-High

membrane

cost

- Spacecraft

- Mobility

- Motor Vehicles

and catalyst

Phosphoric

acid fuel cell

(PAFC)

H3O+ 160 - 200 Further

technological

development

- Need to

control the

porosity of the

electrode

- Sensible to

CO

- Efficiency

limited bycorrosion

- Stationary units

- Cogeneration

electricity / heat

Molten

carbonate fuel

cell (MCFC

CO32- 650 - 700 - Tolerance to

CO / CO2

- Ni-based

electrodes

- Need to

recycle CO2

- Three-phase

interface

unwieldy

- Stationary units

of several

hundred kW

- Cogeneration

electricity / heat

Solid oxide

fuel cell

(SOFC)

O2- 800900 - High efficiency

(favorable

kinetic)

-The reform of

the fuel can be

made on the cell

- Thermal

expansion

- Need for pre-

retirement

- Stationary units

from 10 to

several hundred

kW

- Cogeneration

electricity / heat


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Reactions inside the fuel cell

The anodic reactions (1) and cathode (2) are, in general, breakage of the

chemical bond between two atoms of hydrogen and oxygen respectively. The rupture of

the diatomic molecules H2 and O2 require an activation energy of the same order of

magnitude of their formation energies, when the reactions are homogeneous and occur

in the gas phase. In fuel cells, however, both reactions are heterogeneous and occur at

the electrode / electrolyte interface, being catalyzed at the electrode surface. Due to this

fact, it is used in cells with low operation temperature, platinum as a catalyst in both the

anodic and cathodic reaction (Appleby et al., 1989). Platinum is scattered randomly in

nanometrics particles on the inner surface of activated charcoal. The catalytic effect on

the anode summarized at break by chemical adsorption of H2, meanwhile at the

cathode the catalytic effect is just in weakening the bond oxygen / oxygen also by

chemical adsorption of O2 molecule. The steps (4a) (4b) and (4c) describe

electrochemical breakdown of hydrogen.

H2 H2, ads(4a)

H2, ads

2 Hads(4b)Hads+ H2O H3O

++ e

-(4c)

The steps involved in reducing oxygen are significantly more complicated, with

the formation of hydrogen peroxide as an intermediate product, and are shown below:

O2 O2, ads(5a)

O2, ads + H++ e

- O2Hads(5b)

O2Hads+ H++ e

- H2O2(5c)

H2O2+ 2 H++ 2 e

- 2 H2O (5d)

For fuel cells with high-temperature operation there is no need for the use of

noble metals as catalysts, since in this temperature range, the metal of the electrode


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itself becomes sufficiently active. Thus, for molten carbonate cells, is used as the

electrode material - while electrocatalyst - nickel for the anode and nickel oxide inlaid

with lithium to the cathode, which is a semiconductor p. In the case of ceramic cells, we

use a cermet of Ni / ZrO2 as the anode material, or an array of metallic nickel

synthesized with finely distributed zirconium oxide. As the cathode material is used

Lanthanum strontium manganite La(Sr)MnO3.

Gas diffusion electrodes

Gas diffusion electrodes are a porous structure of that conduct electrons. The

construction of this electrode has the function to maximize the gas-liquid-solid (except

for the SOFC, which have solid electrolyte) phase interface, greatly increasing the

speed of electrodic processes. The gas diffusion electrodes must satisfy at least two

important requirements: (1) must have high catalytic activity in order to obtain high

current densities and; (2) the pores of the electrode during operation, may not have

strong capillary forces, not to suck all the electrolyte, and the gas pressure should not

be too high, so that the electrolyte is not completely expelled from the pores. In these

two extremes the electrode becomes inefficient. The inner surface of the pores of the

electrode is contacted by a thin film electrolyte, so that relatively large pores (diameter

0.1 to 1mm) are free for the circulation / distribution of the working gas. The gas

diffusion electrodes are extremely thin and can have, for example, thicknesses of 0.1

mm in cells of low temperature operation or 0.5 mm high cell operating temperature.

In cells with low operation temperature, the electrocatalyst particles are in the

nanometer range of size distribution of dispersed, generally, activated charcoal particles

with a diameter between 30 and 100 nm. In fuel cells with high-temperature operation

the electrocatalyst particles (the electrode itself) are of the same order of magnitude or

larger than the particles of activated charcoal. The manufacture of these electrodes is

based, in most cases, in the manufacture of precursor films, which are obtained from a

slurry as in traditional ceramic processes (doctor-blade). This directory contains, in

addition to the catalyst, a pore former and an appropriate organic binder, for example a

polyvinyl alcohol. The binder gives intermediate support to the film, which later


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evaporated by heating. For the manufacture of a gas diffusion electrode for membrane

cells, one should first put the catalyst with an electrolyte solution (Nafion). When the

electrolyte is in liquid form, as is the case of the phosphoric acid cells and molten

carbonate, it is not possible, obviously, form a portable solid film. In this case, the

electrolyte is sucked by a porous matrix fixed between the electrodes. In phosphoric

acid cells, silicon carbide with an average diameter of 0.1 mm is used as material for

this matrix. In molten carbonate cells a matrix of particles of LiAlO2is used. The matrix

is also manufactured in the form of films, thereby obtaining units electrode / matrix /

electrode (MEA: Membrane / Electrode Assembly Matrix).

After assembling the electrode / matrix unit cell in PEM, proceeds removal of

organic polymeric binder matrix by heating. In the case of cells carbonate, the

electrolyte is introduced in the form of a film composed of the mixture of lithium

carbonate and potassium, which is subsequently molted. In other types of fuel cells,

after the introduction of the electrolyte, proceeds to the final configuration of the cell.

Unit cells have a potential open from 1 to 1.2 V and release, upon request from

0.5 to 0.7 V DC. These values are, in a practical point of view, very low. The need for

serial stacking of multiple units of cells (200 to 300), it becomes obvious in order to

obtain practical potential of the order of 150 to 200 V.

Phosphoric acid fuel cell

In the late '60s began the development of the phosphoric acid cell, by the

company United Technology Corporation, a fact which represented a significant

technological progress. This type of cell, unlike the alkaline cells are not sensitive to the

carbon dioxide from the air and even less sensitive to carbon monoxide, which poisons

the catalyst, allowing a content of up to 1% CO in the feed gas at 200oC. The

development of this cell had, from the outset, the goal of conquering the important

market of methane-burning power plants.

In the 80's was performed in the United States, the first field trial with a system of

40 units of phosphoric acid cells, fed with natural gas, with an electric power of 40 kW.


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An important condition for this experiment was the miniaturization of reform and

conversion of natural gas technology, reactions (6) and (7):

CH4+ H2O CO + 3 H2(6)

CO + H2O CO2+ H2 (7)

While a process of industrial reforming consumes 30,000 m3/h of natural gas, a

battery of cells 200 kW fuel, with a total efficiency of 40%, consumes only 50 m3/h of the

same fuel.

Cells of high temperature operation

Cells of high temperature operation are classified into two types: MCFC (Molten

Carbonate Fuel Cell) and SOFC (Solid Oxide Fuel Cell). These cells present certain

advantages over other types of fuel cells, such as ease of management of the

electrolyte (SOFC) and no need for the use of noble metals as catalysts (Kordesch et

al., 1996). They also have higher values of theoretical conversion efficiency, and have

a high capacity for coproduction electricity / heat. The high operating temperature

favors the kinetics of electrochemical reactions and allows reformation of the fuel (eg .:

hydrocarbons or natural gas) in the body of the cell. So energy systems based on fuel

cells ceramic (SOFC) can potentially be simple to operate and more efficient than the

others. It should also be noted another important characteristic of these cells is the fact

that all its components are solid and can be used in manufacturing processes thin and

compact layers with flexible configurations, thereby increasing the performance of this

cell type in particular. Technologically, the use of these cells is some design limitations

on the selection and processing of the materials involved. This is due mainly to the

high temperatures used, which promote corrosion processes, thermal stresses, fatigueof different components and others problems. These aspects have motivated

unremitting efforts by the scientific community to study and develop materials and

processes that can meet the specifications for this application.

The steps involved for the SOFC cell are:


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CO + H2O CO2+ H2 (anode) (8)

O2-

+ H2H2O + 2 e- (interface anode/electrolyte) (9)

O2+ 4 e-2 O2- (catode) (10)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------

H2 + 1/2 O2H2O (11)

CO + 1/2 O2CO2 (total) (12)

Proton exchange membrane fuel cell

Fuel cells that has a low operating temperature, which use a polymer membrane

as electrolyte, also called PEMFC (Proton Exchange fuel cell membran) are the most

promising as an alternative to combustion engines, and to be robust and easy to drive

off, apart from the advantages inherent high efficiency and low emission of pollutants.

Due to the low operating temperature, and even when using air as the cathode power

has become zero NOx emission. This kind of fuel cells also apply to stationary units.

Currently, the determinant for market entry factor, though, is its cost (Wang et al., 1996)

Fuel cells that use a polymer membrane as the electrolyte are known since the

early days of space research. However, only with the introduction of the membrane

Nafion, more chemically resistant, success was obtained with respect to long-term

performance.

Applications and new researchs.

The Fuel cells presents various applications of commercial interest, highlighting

the applications as stationary power generators. As already showed, there are several

types of fuel cells, among them are the proton exchange membrane (PEMFC), which is

the most promising for use in city vehicles and stationary sources. (Wendt et al., 2000).

Typically, the fuel used in the PEMFC is hydrogen, but the fuel still has some

disadvantages and operational infrastructure (Wendt et al., 2002). So come by studying

new forms of fuel that can supply hydrogen to the oxidation reaction. In recent years,


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There researches are now focused in to find a multifunctional electrocatalyst.

Different components are being used in the electrocatalyst, such as Pt, Sn, Zn, Au,

however, the Pt/Sn eletrocatalyst is presenting the best results for now.

Batteries

Introduction

Batteries and cells have become indispensable to the present day, more and

more mobile devices require a power source. It is very difficult to find someone who

does not use a cell phone, watch or laptop, and this number is growing, become

obvious the limitations of these sources. The most common problems noted by users of

these devices are short periods of time to keep the batteries charged, the fact that the

batteries gradually lose their ability to recharge and the difficulty in disposing the

batteries because they have environmentally harmful materials.

The growing energy demand requires more modern and efficient and at the same

time environmentally friendly equipment. This involves in-depth studies on new

materials and technologies that can simultaneously extend the useful life of the

equipment, without harming the environment after disposal, and without increasing the

final cost to the consumer.

Today we can see the use of some alternative materials, but large-scale

production is still based on traditional models. The higher cost and availability of finest

materials to manufacture the most modern and efficient batteries seem to be the main

barrier, and lack of financial incentive to develop alternative technologies. Traditional

brands are more concerned with accumulating gains than to propose solutions.

Material limitation

The current production of cells is based on two main types: those of Leclanch

and alkaline. The alkaline already use more durable and less harmful to the

environment, with the advantage that they can be used as secondary batteries


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(rechargeable) materials simply by small changes in structure. The production of

batteries of the metal hydride / nickel oxide type and lithium ions, has a lesser

environmental risk than nickel cadmium batteries, even so, the large worldwide

production is still based on the traditional model nickel cadmium (BRODD et al., 1999).

The materials currently used have limitations as regards the capacity of energy

storage for long periods. Others have a deficiency in the process of electrolysis forced

(recharge) and finally, all pose a great risk to the environment, because when unused

can impair gravely soils, if not properly treated and disposed.

.

Batteries types and operating principle

The chemical process of electron exchange, known as redox, is responsible for

the operation and properties of the batteries. The primary function of a battery is to

convert chemical energy into electrical energy through a spontaneous reaction of

electron exchange between two species (electrodes), usually metal. Formed when an

electrode that has a metallic fragment immersed in a solution of its ions. In this case,

this can be called galvanic cell, or simply electric cell stack device. There are two

different types of batteries, the primary and secondary. The primary battery are

essentially non-rechargeable and some examples are: zinc / manganese dioxide

(Leclanch), zinc / manganese dioxide (alkaline), zinc silver oxide, lithium / sulfur

dioxide, lithium / manganese dioxide. The main difference between the Leclanch and

alkaline battery is that in the alkaline battery is that the electrolyte is a concentrated

aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide (~ 30 wt%) containing a given amount of zinc

oxide; hence the name for this alkaline battery. Moreover, this outer container is made

of sheet steel to better ensure sealing and thus preventing the risk of leakage of highly

caustic electrolyte (BRO et al., 1995).

In a secondary battery its half-reactions are all reversible, so this way during the

recharging, the battery will operate as a receiver of power by an external generator and

then all the half-reactions will be reversed by this external source of energy, allowing the

redox reaction to happen again. The big advantage of this type of battery is that it can

be recharged thousands of times, while maintaining the potential difference (1,44V)


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fairly constant during discharge. The main types of secondary batteries are: nickel

cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal hydride (NiMh), Lead-Acid, Lithium-Ion and Lithium-Ion

polymer (BENNET et al., 1995).

Daniell battery

The Daniell battery operated with two interconnected electrodes. Each electrode

was a system consisting of a metal immersed in an aqueous solution of a salt formed by

two of the metal cation.

In such a system a dynamic balance between the metal element and its

corresponding cation is established.

The model Daniell uses zinc as electrode. The zinc electrode is a system

consisting of a plate of metallic zinc immersed in a solution containing zinc cations,

Zn2+(aq). This solution is obtained by dissolving a salt, such as zinc sulphate, ZnSO4 (s)

in water. At this electrode the following phenomena occur: the zinc metal (plate) loses

two electrons to the zinc cation (solution) and becomes Zn2+(aq).

Zn(s)Zn2+

(aq)+ 2e- (oxidaxion) (13)

The zinc cation (in solution) receives two electrons from metallic zinc and turns

into Zn(s).

Zn2+

(aq)+ 2e- Zn(s)

(reduction) (14)

As it is a continuous and uninterrupted process, write the overall equation

symbolized by the dynamic equilibrium:

Zn(s)Zn2+

(aq)+ 2e-

(equilibrium) (15)

Now consider an copper electrode, analogous to the zinc electrode, compound

by a plate of metallic copper immersed in a solution of copper sulphate, CuSO4 (aq),

which thus contains copper cations Cu2+(aq) in which the equilibrium is established as

follows:


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Cu(s)Cu2+

(aq)+ 2e-

(equilibrium) (16)

In his research Daniell realized that if he did an interconnection between two

electrodes, made of different metals, the most reactive metal would transfer their

electrons to the cation of the least reactive metal instead of transferring them to your

own cations in solution.

As zinc is more reactive than copper, if electrodes of zinc and copper are

connected through a wire, zinc metal will transfer its electrons to the cation copper

Cu2+(aq) instead of transferring them to the zinc cation , Zn 2+(aq). Thus a passage of

electric current through the wire conductor is established.

Lithium batteries

Batteries that have lithium as the main constituent has as one of its

characteristics the fact that they are very light, because lithium is the least dense metal

discovered so far. There are two main types of batteries or lithium batteries, one of

which is called a lithium-iodine battery. It was developed especially for use in cardiac

pacemakers, since it is quite light, safe (does not release gases, it is airtight) has a good

durability (about 8 to 10) provides a voltage of 8 V and a high charge density (0.8 Wh /

cm3).

The electrodes are formed by lithium and iodine complex, which are separated

by a layer of crystalline lithium iodide which allows the passage of electric current. The

lithium metal serves as the anode in the battery and the iodine complex as the cathode.

The reactions inside this type of battery are:

2 Li(s)2 Li+

(s)+ 2e-

(anode) (17)

In2(s)+ 2e

- In

-(s) (catode) (18)

2 Li (s) + In2(s) LiI (s) (total) (19)


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The other type of cell or battery is a lithium ion battery. It takes its name precisely

because its operation is based on the movement of lithium ions (Li +). It is currently

widely used in the batteries of mobile phones and its potential varies between 3.0 and

3.5 V.

The anode and the cathode are formed by atoms arranged as if they were on

planes blades with spaces where lithium ions are inserted. The anode consists of

graphite with metal and copper ions are intercalated in the plans of hexagonal carbon

structures, forming the following substance LiyC6. The cathode is formed by lithium ions

intercalated in the lamellar structure (LixCoO2). Thus, the lithium ions have to leave the

anode and migrate through a non-aqueous solvent for the cathode (VINCENT et al.,

1984).

The reactions inside this type of battery are:

LiyC6 (s)C6(s)+ y Li+

(solv) +y e- (anode) (20)

LixCoO2(s)+ y Li+

(s) +y e- Lix+yCoO2(s) (catode) (21)

LixCoO2(s)+ LiyC6 (s) Lix+yCoO2(s)+ C6(s) (total) (22)

These batteries are rechargeable just by using an electrical current that causes

the migration of lithium ions in the opposite direction, from the oxide to the graphite.

Sustainability discussion

Batteries and Sustainability

Batteries are divided into two groups,primary and secondary. The first group of

batteries (single-use or "disposable") are used once and discarded and Secondary one

(rechargeable batteries) can be discharged and recharged multiple times. The firstgroup is a non-sustainable use of energy that can be inferred because of the many toxic

and not environmental friendly chemical substances contained within the batteries, such

as Mercury and cadmium. On the other hand, the rechargeable batteries presents a

lifecycle and eventually will need to be discharged too. A better way to apply it using

sustainable approach is to recycle the batteries.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_batteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_batteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechargeable_batterieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechargeable_batterieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_batteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_battery


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The second group includes storage batteries, and present sustainable appeal if

merged to renewable sources of energy, such as wind and solar energies system. The

storage battery work as energy accumulator carrying electrochemical energy within. It

presents less environmental impact than disposable batteries and lower total cost.

The recycling process is based on the battery being broken apart in a hammer

mill, machine that hammers the battery into pieces. The broken battery pieces are then

placed into a vat, where lead and heavy materials fall to the bottom and the plastic

floats. At this point, polypropylene pieces are scooped away and the liquid is drawn off,

leaving lead and heavy metals. Each compound of the battery is used in a different

recycling stream.

For the Cadmium based batteries, the plastics are firstly separated from the

metal components. The low-melt metals (i.e. zinc and cadmium) separate during the

melting, the metals and plastic are then returned to be reused in new products. These

batteries are 100% recycled. To mercury batteries, the heavy metals are recovered

through a controlled-temperature process and then properly disposed.

Figure 2. Battery as a recycling leader

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that has its operation principles very close

to the batterys one. The fuel, hydrogen gas, is combined with oxygen between an

electrolyte to produce electric energy and heat with only one waste: water, with that

factor the fuel cells are considered clean, environmentally friendly and an efficient

power source. Among its uses, this energy source has been used to power spacecraft,

as Space Shuttle, Apollo and Gemini.


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Figure 3. Use of Battery in cars and the displaces of gasoline/CO2

In a comparative study realized by theAir and Energy Technology Case Studies

at a hospital in Rhode Island, when compared to a regular natural gas cell system the

reduction of - the primary greenhouse gas emitted by human activities in the USA -

is about 17,000 tons per year. And replacing the gas cell systems to produce one-third

of hospitals electricity during peak hours will save from $60,000 to $90,000 dollars per

year.

Using hydrogen fuel cells for electric vehicles (FCEV) is a well-appliedsustainable use of fuel cells. The estimate for the entire lifecycle cost range from $7,360

to $22,580, whereas those for regular battery electric vehicles (BEV) range from $6,460

to $11,420. Therefore, predictions from the Georigia Tech Research Industrysays that

in about 15 years electric vehicles powered by hydrogen fuel cells could achieve cost

parity with conventional gasoline vehicles.

A study published in 2001 from California Air Resources Board concluded that

when electricity for BEV generated from a mix of a fossil fuel and a non-fossil fuel can

be about 8% more energy efficient than fuel cell vehicles. This happens because the

hydrogen for the FCV are mostly reformed from natural gas nowadays.

Environmental importance of correct disposal of batteries

Batteries have inside, chemicals such as mercury, cadmium, lead, zinc and

manganese considered highly dangerous to health and the environment. To launch


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such waste in the trash, his fate will be, almost always, the dump, because they are not

biodegradable - does not decompose, contamination is certain.

These substances can cause, among other things, neurological damage such as

memory loss, respiratory problems and contribute to the development of cancers.

Contact with soil, these substances reach groundwater - groundwater reservoir, used by

animals and plants that can reach us. If they are burned, releasing toxic fumes that

pollute the air.

But the best solution to the environmental hazard that used batteries is

awareness and reducing the consumption of batteries containing these heavy metals. It

is also necessary that manufacturers invest in research to replace metals by other

substances less harmful to the environment and greater durability.

Recycling Batteries and Disposal

Due to new environmental policies and laws that regulated the disposal ofbatteries in different countries of the world some processes were developed for the

recycling of these products. To promote the recycling of batteries, it is necessary first

knowledge of its composition. Unfortunately, there is no correlation between the size or

shape of cells and their composition. In different laboratories research has been

conducted in order to develop processes to recycle used batteries or, in some cases,

treat them for safe disposal.

The process of recycling batteries can follow three distinct lines: based on

mineral processing operations, the hydrometallurgical or pyro metallurgical. Sometimes

these processes are specific for recycling batteries, the batteries sometimes are

recycled along with other types of materials.

Some of these processes are described below:

SUMITOMO - Japanese fully pyro metallurgical process in a very high cost is used in

the recycling of all types of batteries, less Ni-Cd type.

RECYTEC - Process used in Switzerland in the Netherlands since 1994 that combines

pyro metallurgical and hydrometallurgical. It is used in the recycling of all types ofbatteries and fluorescent lamps and also several tubes containing mercury. This

process is not used for the recycling of Ni-Cd, which are separated and sent to a

company that does this type of recycling. The investment in this process is smaller than

the SUMITOMO. However operating costs are higher.


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ATECH - Basically based in mineralogy and therefore with less than the previous cost

processes used in the recycling of all batteries.

SNAM-SAVAM - French Process, totally pyro metallurgical recovery of battery types Ni-

Cd.

SAB-NIFE - Swedish Case, fully pyro metallurgical recovery of battery types Ni-Cd.

Inmetco - North American Process INCO (Pennsylvania, USA), was initially developed

with the aim of recovering metal dust from electric arc furnaces. However, the process

can also be used for recovering metal from waste of other processes and Ni-Cd

batteries fit these other types of waste.

Waelz - pyro metallurgical process for recovering metals from dusts. Basically the

process is done through rotary kilns. It is possible to recover metals like Zn, Cd, Pb.

The Ni-Cd batteries often are recovered separately from each other due to two major

factors, one is the presence of cadmium, which provides some difficulties in recovering

zinc and mercury by distillation; the other is difficult to separate iron and nickel.


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Figure 4. Battery recycling process

Recycling batteries and the economic impact

Batteries are made for good performance and long life at a low price. Recycling

is an afterthought and manufacturers invest little to simplify the retrieving of precious

metals. The recycling business is small compared to the vast battery industry, and to

this day only lead acid can be recycled profitably. Nickel-based batteries might make

money with good logistics, but Li-ion and most other chemistries yield too little in

precious metals to make recycling a viable business without subsidies. The true cost to

manufacture a modern battery is not only the raw materials but preparation, purificationand processing into micro- and nano-structures. Recycling brings the metal to ground

zero from which the preparations must start anew.


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Figure 5. Cost of some Battery components

To make the recycling business feasible, subsidies are needed by adding a tax to

each cell sold. Perhaps more importantly than earning a profit is preventing toxic

batteries from entering landfills. Soil contamination can be harmful to health and is

difficult to reverse. The key to reduce the battery wasteland is in respecting batteries by

treating them well and only discard them when no salvage remedy exists. Better charge

methods, modern battery monitoring systems (BMS) and advanced battery test devices

help get the full life out of a battery. Too many batteries are replaced as a way to

troubleshoot an apparent problem. Advanced diagnostic devices help in eliminating trial-

by-error so that only faded batteries and those with valid deficiencies are replaced.

Achievements

There are a lot of researches about batteries and fuel cells and the high demand

for systems with high efficiency and low environment impacts will lead the companies to

adopt in the next 20 years actions to help the development of those researches and

facilitate the entry of those new technologies to the market.

The batteries are more promising as a solution to energy storage, because thistechnology is further developed, while fuel cells are still facing problems in primary parts

such as electrocatalyst and control of the electrolyte concentration during the energy

production.

Level of contributions

Forcelini, Mateus.: 25%

Nascimento, Marcus P.:25%

Garbin, Gregorio R.: 25%

Cardoso, Igor S.: 25%

References


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