final ilp animal-assisted therapy

Animal-Assisted Therapy 1

Chapter I

Introduction

“No, she doesn’t want to touch! She has cerebral palsy and doesn’t know what

that thing is!”

I remember this statement clearly from one of my first days working as a public

educator for The Virginia Zoo in Norfolk, Virginia. I was conducting a children’s

birthday party and amongst the chaos of excited four-year-olds, I noticed a woman taking

an older girl out of a utility wheelchair and holding her away from the group in the back

of the room. The woman placed the girl on her lap and watched me gather the rest of the

children into a circle. I motioned to the girl to join us, but the woman holding her shook

her head and waved me away. I continued on, bringing out a variety of animals and

allowing each child the opportunity to touch and ask questions. I presented a millipede, a

frog, and then a snake. Each animal brought its own squeals and excited questions from

the children, but each time I came near the woman with the girl on her lap, she put her

hand up and silently waved me away.

“Well, maybe she’s not a millipede, frog or snake fan,” I thought to myself.

The last animal proved to be a crowd favorite – a golden lionhead rabbit named

Snickers. This time, I approached the woman and kneeled down with Snickers before the

girl. Her eyes opened wide, her facial expression lit up and she began reaching towards

the rabbit. That is when the woman pulled her back, and snapped the comment that

changed my career direction as a biologist and educator:

“No, she doesn’t want to touch! She has cerebral palsy and doesn’t know what

that thing is!”


With that comment, the girl was deprived of her chance to experience something

new and possibly even opening a therapeutic outlet into her world. No, I didn’t care if she

grasped that Snickers was a mammal, a lagomorph, or any other biological jargon that

can be found in any textbook. That did not matter. What could make a difference

however were the sensory benefits the girl would gain from feeling the rabbit’s soft fur,

his warmth, and the emotional bond gained from interaction between a non-judgmental

animal and a child trapped in a labeling world.

This experience has led me to explore the power of the human-animal bond and

the possible therapeutic effects on special needs children. This concept, often referred to

as Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT) or Animal-Assisted Intervention (AAI), is not new.

Dogs have been utilized for therapeutic purposes for decades and canine use has captured

much of the attention, both positive and negative, surrounding AAT over the years.

However, I believe different animal species and nature experiences can also provide

therapeutic benefits and reach special needs children not often considered eligible for

AAT due to behavioral issues and/or severity of the disability.

For my project, I would like to explore the past, present and future of AAT and

investigate the successes and controversies surrounding the practice. Of greatest interest

to me is how animal and nature-based therapy can be applied to special education

curriculums to enhance children with special needs’ motivation, learning comprehension

and sensory exploration while increasing comfort and reducing stress in a classroom

setting. I would like to then apply my research into a comprehensive handbook for

special education teachers that will assist them in utilizing animals and nature into their

classrooms in a fun and safe manner.


Problem Statement

The therapeutic affects of animals are well known to pet owners and animal-

lovers alike. The very act of stroking a cat or dog’s fur or watching aquarium fish swim

among bubbling cascades seem to produce a calming effect for many people. As a public

educator at a zoo, I have seen how strangers open up when an animal is presented to them

in a relaxing environment. Smiles overtake stern faces, and shy young children come

from behind their parents’ backs to inspect the new “friend” they have just been

introduced to. I have also incorporated my experiences as an animal educator into my

work with adults with severe and profound intellectual disabilities. Again, I have

witnessed how an animal can calm behaviors and bridge communication gaps when

traditional methods have failed.

This claim that animals have this power to reach those labeled “unreachable” is

not new. However, it is only recently that the benefit of animal-assisted therapy has been

given an in-depth look by both scientists and educators. Despite this recent academic

interest, methods of putting animal-assisted therapy into practice remain in its infancy,

especially among educators of children with special needs in a classroom setting.

Introducing an animal into a classroom can be an intimidating and daunting

experience for teachers. Considerations must be made for school policies and the safety

of teachers, children and animals. Not all animal species are suited for therapy, and not

all children will benefit from the experience. Additionally, knowledge of animal behavior

and care are essential before introducing an animal to a group setting, and careful

observation by the handler is needed to prevent undue stress on the animal. Such

obstacles can easily persuade educators to stay away from introducing animal-assisted


therapy into the classroom. Bringing certified animal-therapy experts is a recommended

option to overcome such obstacles. However, animal-assisted therapists are often

difficult to find and scheduling conflicts may not be conducive to classroom schedules

and education plans. Such conflicts have led me to wonder if there was a way to equip

educators with a “one-stop tool box” to assist them in incorporating animals into special

education classrooms while taking policies and safety into consideration.

My experiences as both a biologist and educator have led me to explore whether

the use of animals can be useful in correcting disruptive behaviors and influencing

positive ones among special needs children and if so, how teachers can apply animal-

assisted therapy in a special education classroom setting. With this thought in mind, I

would like to create a “tool box” for educators in the form of a handbook on how to

incorporate animal-assisted therapy, complete with policies, safety considerations and

educational plans, into classrooms with special needs children.

Rationale

Creating a comprehensive handbook for utilizing animal and nature-based therapy

into special education classrooms can be an important tool for educators who may be

unfamiliar with animal husbandry, safety considerations and regulations. Such a guide

may serve as a motivational factor when teachers are looking for other methods or tools

they can use to assist children who may have been perceived as “difficult” or “hard-to-

reach.” It is my hope that through my research and by compiling this guide, teachers will

feel more confident to try these techniques in their own classrooms and enhance the

learning experience for their students.


Many resources are already available that provide lesson plans on how to

incorporate animals into learning, but I also hope that my experiences in biology,

education and human services will add a different perspective into AAT and provide a

more complete reference on how animals can be safely and humanely integrated into the

educational experience of special needs children. For this reason, I feel this study and

handbook can be beneficial for students, educators, parents, therapists and counselors and

therefore, worth the effort.

Anticipated Outcomes

Through the course of my project, I hope to gain knowledge of the various

benefits research has shown through the use of AAT/AAI and where future studies into

this field are heading. I also expect to increase my awareness of the ethical issues

surrounding the use of animals for human benefit and regulations regarding standards of

care in place to prevent the misuse of AAT/AAI practices. Because of the potential for

both human and animal injury, I expect to find debates about animal and human welfare

and whether AAT/AAI only serves as a “one-sided” partnership where only humans

benefit. I hope to analyze and address these concerns as part of my project and

incorporate them into my handbook where appropriate.

In addition to the benefits and ethics of AAT/AAI, I anticipate finding a wealth of

information available on utilizing specific species such as dogs and cats in AAT/AAI,

especially in senior populations and as service animals. However, I expect to find limited

information on the use of “non-traditional” species for AAT/AAI, methods to incorporate

nature experiences as a form of therapy and corresponding lesson plans that focus on the

therapeutic benefits of animals instead of only meeting educational outcomes. This gap in


information serves as a primary goal of my project and the basis for creating the

handbook.

Research Question

Can children with special needs benefit from a greater variety of animal and

nature-based therapeutic resources and how can teachers safely and effectively utilize

such resources in the classroom?


Chapter II

Pioneers in Animal-Assisted Intervention: A History of the Human-Animal Bond

Modern scientific evidence dates Ardipithecus ramidus, the first bipedal human

on fossil record, to nearly 4.4 million years ago (White, Suwa & Asfaw, 1994). While

archeologists and biologists are still debating over “Ardi’s” place in history, one fact is

known: she had plenty of company. Animals - whether fish, amphibian, reptile, avian and

even fellow mammals - called our planet home millions of years before Ardipithecus

emerged from present-day Ethiopia (White, Suwa & Asfaw, 1994). With such established

“neighbors,” it was inevitable that our primal ancestors would interact with and

eventually develop bonds with the creatures who share our environment.

Early human-animal interactions were primarily based on humans’ need for food

and safety. However, archeological evidence indicates human-animal social interaction

and domestication dates back more than 14,000 years ago, when wolves lived alongside

humans in settlements (Walsh, 2009). Animals also played crucial roles in farming

communities 9,000 years ago, with dogs serving as herding guides and cats reducing the

disease-ridden rodent population (Walsh, 2009).

Walsh (2009) also illustrates how the human-animal bond grew through Egyptian,

Greek and Roman empires, where animals were revered as companions and worshipped

as Gods. Even the literature of the time notes the strong bond a dog has with its owner. In

Homer’s Odyssey, an incognito Odysseus returned home after many years at sea. Only

his dog Argus recognized him, wagging his tail before collapsing in death (as cited in

Walsh, 2009).


Animals continued to play a comforting role as societies grew throughout Europe

and Asia, with specialized breeding developed for desired traits in cats and dogs and links

to the aristocracy. These specially bred animals soon found their way from the barnyard

into luxury, and earned their place as a beloved member of the household. According to

the American Pet Products Association 2009-2010 national survey, there are more than

77.5 million dogs and 93.6 million cats in homes across the United States today

(American Pet Products, 2010). Factor in the millions of “non-traditional” pets such as

birds, rodents, reptiles and fish, and it is easy to see that humans’ love affair with their

animal companions remain strong.

Although the human-animal bond can be traced throughout history, the idea to

utilize animals as an alternative healing therapy is mostly a modern concept. Some early

uses for therapy animals were documented in England around 1792, when birds and

rabbits were introduced into an insane asylum in York as part of patient treatment plans

(Hooker, Freeman & Stewart, 2002). Nursing pioneer Florence Nightingale also gave

credence to the healing powers of animals for the ill in the late 1800s, writing in her book

Notes on Nursing (as cited in Hooker, et al., 2002, p. 18) that “a pet bird in a cage is

sometimes the only pleasure of an invalid confined for years to the same room.”

Nightingale herself was extremely fond of birds, and her beloved pet owl Athena remains

preserved and on display at the Florence Nightingale Museum in London (Hooker, et al.,

2002; florence-nightingale, 2010).

Pet therapy in the United States had its first documentation in 1919, when dogs

were introduced to psychiatric patients at a hospital in Washington, DC. Their use was


informal, however, and no data was recorded on the outcome to both patient and animal

(Hooker, et al., 2002).

Animal therapy remained in the background of medical interest in the United

States until 1961, when child psychologist Dr. Boris M. Levinson published Pet-Oriented

Child Psychotherapy and presented his findings to the American Psychological

Association (AMA). In his book, Levinson (as cited in Kruger & Serpell, 2006) wrote

how his dog helped a young client with communication and rapport building. The AMA

received his work with mixed reviews; however, Levinson (as cited in Kruger & Serpell,

2006) continued his research and eventually set the framework for modern animal-

assisted techniques (Kruger & Serpell, 2006; Hooker, et al., 2002).

In the 1970s, animal-assisted intervention gained further scientific acceptance

when veterinarian Dr. Leo K Bustad shared his experience with pets as therapeutic tools

with Dr. William McColloch and his brother, psychiatrist Dr. Michael J. McCulloch, who

had also witnessed the benefits of animals with patients. They, in turn, combined their

expertise with four other veterinarians to form the Delta Society, a non-profit

organization dedicated to multi-disciplinary research into the human-animal therapeutic

bond. The Delta Society remains at the forefront in developing research-based animal-

assisted programs and service animal handling certification (Kruger & Serpell, 2006;

Anderson, 2004; DeltaSociety, 2009).

Today, research into animal-assisted therapy has branched from the boundaries of

psychology into mainstream health care, with studies occurring on the benefits of animal

therapy for patients with high blood pressure, Alzheimer’s disease, spinal cord injuries

and other disabilities (Hooker, et al., 2002). Additionally, different forms of animal-


assisted interventions have recently evolved to incorporate species ranging from equine

(horse) therapy to dolphin hydrotherapy, with both targeting physical therapy and mental

health goals for patients (Anderson, 2004).

Defining Animal-Assisted Interventions

Despite the historical evidence linking animal companions to human well-being, a

precise definition of the practice remains elusive, as a researcher uncovered upon

searching for such a definition. According to Kruger and Serpell (2006), a doctorial

candidate’s review of literature on the subject revealed at least 20 definitions for the term

“animal-assisted therapy” and more than 12 related terms such as “pet therapy, pet

psychotherapy, pet-facilitated therapy, pet-mediated therapy, emotional support animals,

etc…” Many of these terms can be classified under the “catch-all” term of Animal-

Assisted Interventions, or AAI. However, animal service organizations like the Delta

Society and the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) have agreed to

standard definitions of animal-assisted therapy and animal-assisted activities based on the

extent of therapeutic monitoring and data collection.

Today’s current standard definition of animal-assisted therapy, or AAT, is:

A goal-directed intervention in which an animal that meets specific criteria

is an integral part of the treatment process. AAT is directed and/or delivered

by a health/human service professional with specialized expertise, and within

the scope of practice of his/her profession (DeltaSociety, 2009).

Walsh (DeltaSociety, 2009) further clarifies the Delta Society’s definition by adding that

AAT “involves the carefully planned and monitored use of the therapist’s companion


animal in sessions to build rapport, enhance the therapeutic process and facilitate positive

change” (2009, p. 474).

The Delta Society’s (2000) definition further distinguishes AAT from other

animal-assistance categories by the requirement of specific goals, objectives and

accompanying plans for each person utilizing AAT, along with documentation of

measurable progress. For example, a child with fine motor skill difficulties may utilize

AAT by working with a physical therapist to open a cat food container and attempt to

feed a cat. Specific goals are set for the child (i.e. develop motor skills to open a

container, grasp a piece of food, hold food out for the cat), and progress can be easily

measured. Other uses for AAT as outlined by the Delta Society include: Improving

wheelchair skills, increasing verbal/social interactions, developing leisure skills, anxiety

reduction and improving attention skills (DeltaSociety, 2009).

Comparatively, the Delta Society (2009) also defines any activity utilizing an

animal for “motivational, educational, recreational, and/or therapeutic benefits to enhance

the quality of life” (DeltaSociety, 2009, ¶ 1) as animal-assisted activity (AAA). Under

this definition of AAA, persons directing the activity can be professionals,

paraprofessionals or even specially trained volunteers in a variety of environments. There

are no specific goals intended for the visits, detailed progress notes are not required by

those directing the activities, and participant animal interaction is voluntary and

spontaneous. An example of AAA would include casual visits by a dog to a nursing home

or hospital. Although staff and professionals may be involved in the “visit,” there are no

specific goals or plans other than to improve the patients’ quality of life.


It is also important to note that “service” or “assistance” animals are not classified

under AAI, AAT or AAA, and are considered a separate entity by the Delta Society and

other animal-assisted intervention organizations (DeltaSociety, 2009; Walsh, 2009).

The Evidence for Utilizing Animals for Human Therapeutic Benefits

With millions of dogs, cats, horses, fish, birds, reptiles and other animals living

with humans as companions, it is not surprising that pet owners claim many benefits from

their relationship with their animals. Companionship, exercise, entertainment, relaxation,

compassion, emotional stability, trust and unconditional acceptance are all components

pets can help their human companions develop (Brodie & Biley, 1999). Many scientific

studies conducted over the past 30 years have uncovered correlations between pet

ownership and health benefits such as lower blood pressure and cholesterol levels,

improved human immune system functioning, faster recovery times from illness, and

higher survival rates from heart attacks (Walsh, 2009). Animal companions are also

linked to increased functioning and quality of life in individuals with a broad range of

mental health disorders including depression, schizophrenia, anxiety and Attention

Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Although the exact mechanism by which

this occurs is unknown, Kruger and Serpell (2006) cite a theory raised by E.O. Wilson in

1984, where he coined the term “biophilia hypothesis” to refer to the theory that “humans

possess a genetically based propensity to attend to, and be attracted by, other living

organisms” (p. 26). This theory is formed on the evolutionary view that human survival

depended on cues and knowledge of their environment and the living things it contains

(Kruger & Serpell, 2006).


The abundance of scientific studies and wealth of personal testimonials by pet

owners led the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to form an investigative group of

experts to explore these claims more than twenty years ago (Anderson, 2008). This

workshop explored relationships between people, pets, and health and sought to provide

scientific descriptions within these relationships (Tedeschi, Fitchett & Molidor, 2005).

Preliminary findings could not find conclusive evidence to support the health benefits of

pet ownership however, and the researchers could only deem these claims as persuasive,

but unsubstantiated. The NIH has since retracted this investigation, stating that their

report is outdated and possibly inaccurate (Anderson, 2008).

Today, the NIH is re-examining AAT with four active studies underway. The first

study is looking at AAT for hospitalized heart failure patients, a second investigating

AAT and recreation therapy in relieving distress in cancer patients undergoing pain

treatment, a third researching the possible effects of Oxytocin during human and animal

interaction, and a final study in the early stages looking into the relationship between pet

therapy and “well-being” in geriatric rehabilitation (ClinicalTrials, 2011).

In addition to the resurgence of interest by the NIH, other recent studies continue

to find numerous health benefits associated with animal companionship. A 2009

international review of scientific literature on the subject from 1960 to 2007 by Salvatore

Giaquinto and Fabio Valentini of the IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana Rehabilitation Center in

Rome found consistent evidence linking dog ownership to a healthier lifestyle, mainly

through the exercise test subjects received through walking their dogs. Giaquinto and

Valentini’s (2009) research also uncovered numerous studies linking pets and stress


alleviation in the elderly, and they concluded that further research into the animal-human

bond would be beneficial to enhance the scientific acceptance of such studies.

Other studies have taken a more direct, clinical approach to linking animal

interaction with specific health benefits. One South African study took blood samples

from participates to analyze their physiological states following interactions with their

own dog and with an unfamiliar one. Their results found a positive correlation between

their physiological statuses when any dog is present (Jalongo, Astorino & Bomboy,

2004). A similar study conducted by J.S. Odendall in 2000 also analyzed blood samples

in humans and dogs before and after contact and found “increased levels of biochemicals

associated with social bonding, decreased blood pressure, and decreased levels of

biochemicals associated with stress in both species following their interactions” (as cited

in Thigpen, Ellis & Smith, 2005). Odendall’s (2000) study also saw greater positive

changes when the human was interacting with their own animal instead of an unfamiliar

one. Based on the blood analysis from both human and canine, he concluded that

arranging interactions that influence positive emotions can help treat mental illness in

humans but also have positive benefits on the animal as well (Thigpen, Ellis & Smith,

2005).

Social benefits to AAI have also been scientifically documented in studies.

Researchers Sam and Elizabeth Corson (as cited in Brodie & Biley, 1999) investigated

whether socially withdrawn patients would interact with animals and if so, would the

interactions improve their communication abilities. Out of the 50 patients studied, only

three refused the animal. The remaining 47 showed measurable improvement in the


development of independence, self-esteem, self-confidence and increased interaction with

peers and staff (Brodie & Biley, 1999).

Research into therapeutic animal use in schools and institutions has also found

correlations between reduction in anxiety, increased social interaction and higher test

scores. The Reading Education Assistance Dogs (R.E.A.D) program conducted the Utah-

based Intermountain Therapy Animals (ITA) group found that children participating in

the program improved their reading abilities by as much as four grade levels (Jalongo,

Astorino & Bomboy, 2004). A separate study by the Carolina Canines for Service project

found similar results. According to Jalongo, Astorino and Bomboy (2004), test subjects

read to a therapy dog weekly for 20 minutes each session during the school year and

subsequently improved their reading skills by two grade levels. Another study

Incorporating AAT into traditional treatments among hospitalized psychiatric patients

saw a significant reduction in State-Trait Anxiety Inventory scores among patients with

psychotic disorders following reoccurring sessions with a trained therapy dog (Barker &

Dawson, 1998).

When utilized among children with disabilities requiring special education

interventions, AAT/AAI can serve as a non-traditional, therapeutic approach to behavior

management and enhancing positive emotions. For some children with Autism Spectrum

Disorders (ASD), AAT/AAI has been shown to be helpful in bridging the social and

communication gap often associated with ASD. According to Grandin, Fine and Bowers

(2010), some children and adults with ASD do well with AAT/AAI because they are

sensory-based thinkers, using sight, smell and sound to process information. They believe

that since animals do not think in words but relate to their environment through senses, a


bond can be created between the animal and a child with ASD based on their similarity of

communication. This sensory-based thinking can also serve as a limitation to AAT/AAI

use, however. Grandin, Fine and Bowers (2010) also caution that oversensitivity to

senses can differentiate between the successful use of an animal for ASD and why some

children and adults cannot tolerate an animal present. This extreme sensitivity, called

“sensory overload,” may cause an individual with ASD to react negativity to the smell or

sound of a particular animal. Therefore, it is important for AAT/AAI therapists to

consider these limitations when considering the practice for their ASD clients.

Evidence against Animal-Assisted Intervention Practices

Despite the studies and accompanying literature supporting the therapeutic

benefits of animals, the topic has created controversy and skepticism. Kruger and Serpell

(2006) cite several studies where similar calming effects could be recreated through any

stimulus to an aesthetically pleasing item, living or not, and that culture and individual

experience can effect people’s responses to animals.

An issue often raised among the scientific literature is the lack of studies

conducted on possible negative aspects of AAT/AAI and the limited human populations

targeted. Velde, Cipriani and Fisher (2004) cite a 2002 review conducted by J. Cipriani et

al. which looked at the inclusion criteria used to formulate AAT research in 23 separate

studies. According to the findings, 18 of the 23 studies focused on AAT with older adults

as the targeted population for inclusion. Cipriani et al. (2000) also noted that only four of

these studies were conducted by occupational therapists, which frequently include AAT

as part of their treatment programs. This and similar studies led Velde, Cipriani and

Fisher (2004) to conclude that “little is known qualitatively about the impact of AAT


from the perspective of the therapist or the participant involved” (p. 45). Other studies

have also been unable to formulate links between animal intervention and human health

benefits. Brodie and Biley (1999) cite five unrelated studies conducted between 1972 and

1984 where results were inconclusive with three of these, finding “no association

between pet ownership and improved psychological health” (Brodie & Biley, 1999, p.

334).

The majority of objections to AAT/AAI are not based on data showing

inconclusive evidence to the practice but rather to practical concerns such as safety,

sanitation and proper animal care along with ethical considerations raised by utilizing

animals for human benefit. One of the greatest concerns is zoonoses, or “a disease that

can be transmitted to people by vertebrate animals” (Webster’s New World College

Dictionary, 2000, p. 1669). According to Brodie, Biley and Shewring (2002), there is

estimated to be 35 medically identified zoonotic diseases currently thought to be

transferable between human and animal in an AAT/AAI setting. The occurrence of

disease transfer is also increased in individuals who are immune compromised,

undergoing steroid treatments or chemotherapy, organ transplant recipients and very

young or elderly individuals. Ironically, this comprises a high percentage of populations

targeted for AAT/AAI programs. Also adding to the zoonoses concern is the lack of

statistics on how many people have actually contracted a disease through animal contact

or even which species was directly involved, as different animal species carry specific

zoonotic diseases. Instances are rare, however. A year-long study conducted by the

Minnesota State Health Department looked at resident and visiting animals to 284

nursing homes and found no instances of zoonoses or allergic reactions (Ormerod, 2005).


Even the World Health Organization (as cited in Ormerod, 2005, p. 28) dismissed

zoonoses as a concern, stating that the benefits of AAT are great and that well cared for

animals “are a danger to no-one.”

Bites and scratches, or “animal-induced accidents” are another concern often

raised by opponents of AAT/AAI. Although no statistics are currently available

specifically for animal-induced accidents related directly to AAT/AAI, animal handlers

can reduce this risk through carefully screened and trained animals. Brodie, Biley and

Shewring (2002) believe that “after careful selection of the pet-therapy animal and

education of nurses and clients alike, the risks of animal bites are minimal and should not

prevent the implementation of such therapy” (p. 454).

The concept of utilizing animals for the benefit of humans raises the ethical

dilemma of whether animals should be used for the benefit of humans and is this practice

is a form of animal exploitation? Animal welfare proponents argue that the practice of

AAT/AAI limits the freedom of the animals in use for life, the animals are

inappropriately handled, susceptible to injury and they don’t enjoy participating in such

activities. According to Zamir (2006), many species used in such programs are not

actually “pets” at all, but rather modifications of pets used solely for the benefit of

humans. He cites:

Rabbits, hamsters, chinchillas, snakes, birds, all of whom respond to human

beings but, unlike alarm or service dogs, do not appear to derive pleasure from

such interaction and seem incapable of transferring their social needs onto

humans. (Zamir, 2006, p.181)


Zamir (2006) believes utilizing these “pet modifications” breech the classification of

“pet” and are therefore, a violation of the pet-owner relationship. He further states “if pet-

owner relationships can be morally justified, some of the therapeutic uses of animals

sketched above might be vindicated as well” (p. 183). His basis for this argument stems

from the fact that dogs and horses cannot survive without human captivity in today’s

world and “without a relationship with humans, an overwhelming number of these beings

would not exist” (p. 195). Other species, however, do not need humans for their care and

survival, and are therefore exploited for human benefit under the title of “therapy.”

Therapists, clinicians and others who utilize AAT/AAI take such animal-welfare

concerns seriously, and take measures to ensure the care, safety and welfare of their

animals in addition to the individuals they engage the animals with. Therapist and author

Aubrey H. Fine (2010) compiled five basic ethical principals of AAT that are often

incorporated into AAT/AAI programs as a guideline for therapists. As cited in King

(2002), Fine’s principles are as follows:

1. Therapy animals must be kept free from abuse, discomfort and physical

and/or mental distress.

2. Proper health care for the animal must be provided at all times.

3. All animals will be provided with a quiet place to have time away from

their work activities.

4. Client interactions must be structured to maintain the animal’s ability to

serve as a therapeutic agent.

5. Abuse or stress of a therapy animal is never permitted except when a

temporary allowance of such abuse is necessary to avoid serious injury


to the human client. (p. 17)

Consideration must also be taken of the special needs of individual species and that the

handler is knowledgeable about the animal he/she is using. In fact, many proponents of

AAT/AAI believe that animals used in therapy are often better cared for than household

pets and their “usefulness to people often serves as a means to improve animal care,

training and treatment” (Tedeschi, Fitchett & Molidor, 2005, p. 73). Additionally, most of

the literature on AAT/AAI techniques stress that all animals are individuals with different

personalities and dispositions, and “this makes for a truly wonderful and complex

diversity in animals, and also may define each animal’s true calling and limitations”

(Tedeschi, Fitchett & Molidor, 2005, p. 73).

Nature-Based Therapy: An Alternative to Animal-Assisted Therapy

With the benefits of AAT/AAI weighed with viable concerns and ethics

surrounding the practice, recent trends have sought a mid-point that can provide similar

therapeutic benefits without the risks of harming animal or human. Nature-based therapy

is one such option. In this adaptation of AAT/AAI, Berger and McLeod (2006) state that

“nature therapy is a postmodern experiential approach based on the integration of

elements from art and drama therapy, Gestalt, narrative, eco-psychology, transpersonal

psychology, adventure therapy, shamanism and body-mind practices” (p. 82). Despite

their criticisms of AAT practice in general, Beck and Katcher (as cited in Thigpen, Ellis

& Smith, 2005) acknowledged in 2003 that nature-based therapy could be viable

alternatives to using live animals in a captive setting. According to Thigpen, Ellis and

Smith (2005), Beck and Katcher stated that “the benefits of being in a setting that


involves plants and interacting with animals in ways other than as pets need to be

compared to the traditional methods of AAT” (¶ 17).

An advantage of this type of therapy is that no captive animals, if any at all, are

used. Instead, the therapist uses nature itself such as in a serene outdoor setting or

planned wildlife observation. Although nature-based therapy is relatively new in formal

therapeutic practice, preliminary studies suggest it may provide similar results to

AAT/AAI in decreasing stress, developing self-esteem and social skills in addition to

allowing for personal exploration and expression (Berger, 2006). The practice is

especially useful when there are barriers preventing live animal use such as human

allergies to animals, autistic oversensitivity, past aggression towards animals and

phobias. When seen as an option to traditional AAT/AAI techniques, nature-based

therapy can be a useful tool to assist individuals who may not otherwise be able to

participate, and benefit from, the therapeutic effects of a live animal.


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Connections to Companion Animals. Westport, Connecticut. Praeger Publishers.

Barker, S.B. & Dawson, K.S. (1998). The effects of animal-assisted therapy on anxiety

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Berger, R. (2006). Using contact with nature, creativity and rituals as a therapeutic

medium with children with learning difficulties: a case study. Emotional and

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Berger, R. & McLeod, J. (2006). Incorporating nature into therapy: a framework for

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Brodie, S.J. & Biley, F.C. (1999). An exploration of the potential benefits of pet-

facilitated therapy [Electronic version]. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 8, 329-337.

Brodie, S.J., Biley, F.C. & Shewring, M. (2002). An exploration of the potential risks

associated with using pet therapy in healthcare settings. Journal of Clinical

Nursing, 11, 444-456.


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Chapter III

Overview

With the evidence suggesting that AAT/AAI can be a useful tool to help children

with special needs decrease stress and anxiety, increase self-esteem and social interaction

and overall enhance their classroom experience, I believe utilizing such methods can be

beneficial within the scope of a special education classroom. However, teachers

interested in implementing such a program are faced with numerous obstacles such as

safety considerations for their students and the animals, meeting the husbandry needs of

the animals, policies and regulations that affect the use of animals in classroom settings,

and finally, how to develop programs that will effectively meet the needs of their

students.

With these barriers in mind, I combined my experiences as a biologist, educator

and human services clinician to create a handbook to guide and inspire the utilization of

AAT/AAI and nature therapy techniques in special education classrooms.

Rationale

Creating a comprehensive handbook for utilizing animal and nature-based therapy

into special education classrooms can be an important tool for educators who may be

unfamiliar with animal husbandry, safety considerations and regulations. Such a guide

may serve as a motivational factor when teachers are looking for other methods or tools

they can use to assist children who may have been perceived as “difficult” or “hard-to-

reach.” It is my hope that through my research and by compiling this guide, teachers will

feel more confident to try these techniques in their own classrooms and enhance the

learning experience for their students.


Many resources are already available that provide lesson plans on how to

incorporate animals into learning, but I also hope that my experiences in biology,

education and human services will add a different perspective into AAT and provide a

more complete reference on how animals can be safely and humanely integrated into the

educational experience of special needs children. For this reason, I feel this study and

handbook can be beneficial for students, educators, parents, therapists and counselors and

therefore, worth the effort.

Target Population

The context of this handbook is targeted towards teachers, particularly those

working with special needs students in the younger grade levels. However, many of the

techniques outlined in this guide can be implemented by school counselors, parents,

therapists, clinicians, camp counselors, and zoo education professionals. With the

exception of certain advanced techniques that are geared for trained therapy dogs, cats

and their handlers only, the majority of these exercises can be utilized in any classroom

setting as long as the precautions, regulations and any added “special” considerations

noted in each section are followed.

Chapter Descriptions

Chapter 1: In this introductory chapter, the reader is provided with considerations

for animal and human welfare, health concerns and state regulations that may influence

bringing live animals into the classroom. The chapter concludes with a guideline to using

the handbook.


Chapter 2: Readers are introduced to invertebrates such as insects, millipedes and

hermit crabs and provided with basic husbandry information. The chapter concludes with

sample activities readers can bring into their classrooms.

Chapter 3: This chapter outlines descriptions and basic care techniques for bettas,

goldfish and freshwater tropical fish species followed by sample lesson plans.

Chapter 4: In this chapter, readers are introduced to reptile species that may be

appropriate for classrooms along with safety considerations, basic husbandry techniques

and sample activities.

Chapter 5: Readers are provided with an overview of “Pocket Pet” species such as

hamsters, gerbils, rats and mice along with care instructions and sample activities.

Chapter 6: This chapter shapes the framework for animal-assisted therapy training

and certification with dogs and cats. Resources are provided for such training and sample

activity plans are provided.

Appendix: The appendix contains a list of helpful websites on animal-assisted and

recreational therapy, a list of recommended readings and finally, the list of resources used

in the research of this handbook.


Animal-Assisted Therapy,

Interventions and Nature-

Based Activities for Special

Education Classrooms

A Handbook for Teachers and Students

Created by: Laurie L. Camp


TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 – Animal Therapists: Their Roles and Your Responsibility

Introduction

What Animal Therapists Are

What Animal Therapists Are Not

Special Considerations for Animals

Ethics and Regulations

Educators and Virginia’s Wildlife Laws

The Creatures of Comfort Commandments

Special Considerations for Humans

Zoonoses

Allergies

How to Use this Guide

Nature-Based Options

“Paws Up” Rating Guide

“From the Front Lines” and Other Symbols

Chapter 2 – Invertebrate Ambassadors

Bugs and Insects

Hermit Crabs

Activities

Chapter 3 - Aquatic Therapists

Fish

Activities

Chapter 4 – Tails and Scales

Reptiles

Activities

Chapter 5 - Pint-Sized Pals

Pocket Pets (Hamsters, Gerbils Rats, Mice)

Activities

Chapter 6 - Compassionate Companions: Cats and Dogs

Special Considerations, Resources and Training

Activities

Appendix

Helpful Websites

Recommended Reading

List of Resources


CHAPTER 1

Animal Therapists:

Their Roles and Your Responsibility

Helen Keller and her beloved pit-bull.

www.epilepsy.com


Introduction

“No, she doesn’t want to touch! She has cerebral palsy and doesn’t know what that thing

is!”

I remember this statement clearly from one of my first days working as a public educator

for The Virginia Zoo in Norfolk, Virginia. I was conducting a children’s birthday party and

amongst the chaos of excited four-year-olds, I noticed a woman taking an older girl out of a

utility wheelchair and holding her away from the group in the back of the room. The lady placed

the girl on her lap and watched me gather the rest of the children into a circle. I motioned to the

girl to join us, but the woman holding her shook her head and waved me away. I continued on,

bringing out a variety of animals and allowing each child the opportunity to touch and ask

questions. I presented a millipede, a frog, and then a snake. Each animal brought its own squeals

and excited questions from the children, but each time I came near the lady with the girl on her

lap, she put her hand up and silently waved me away.

“Well, maybe she’s not a millipede, frog or snake fan,” I thought to myself.

The last animal proved to be a crowd favorite – a golden lionhead rabbit named Snickers.

This time, I approached the lady and kneeled down with Snickers before the girl. Her eyes opened

wide, her facial expression lit up and she began reaching towards the rabbit. That’s when the lady

pulled her back, and snapped the comment that changed my career direction as a biologist and

educator:

“No, she doesn’t want to touch! She has cerebral palsy and doesn’t know what that thing

is!”

With that comment, the girl was deprived of her chance to experience something new and

possibly even opening a therapeutic outlet into her world. No, I didn’t care if she grasped that

Snickers was a mammal, a lagomorph, or any other biological jargon that can be found in any

textbook. That didn’t matter. What could make a difference however were the sensory benefits

the girl would gain from feeling the rabbit’s soft fur, his warmth, and the emotional bond gained

from interaction between a non-judgmental animal and a child trapped in a labeling world.

This experience has led me to explore the power of the human-animal bond and the

possible therapeutic effects on special needs children. This concept, often referred to as Animal-

Assisted Therapy (AAT) or Animal-Assisted Intervention (AAI), is not new. Dogs have been

utilized for therapeutic purposes for decades and canine use has captured much of the attention,

both positive and negative, surrounding AAT over the years. However, I believe different animal

species and nature experiences can also provide therapeutic benefits and reach special needs

children not often considered eligible for AAT due to behavioral issues and/or severity of the

disability.

My experiences as both a biologist and educator have led me to explore whether the use

of animals can be useful in correcting disruptive behaviors and influencing positive ones among

special needs children and if so, how teachers can apply animal-assisted therapy in a special

education classroom setting. With this thought in mind, I created this “tool box” for educators in

the form of a handbook on how to incorporate animal-assisted therapy, complete with policies,

safety considerations and educational plans, into classrooms with special needs children.


What Animal Therapists Are

Animal Therapists ARE:

Living beings with feelings, needs and the ability to feel

pain

A life-long commitment relying on you for their care, health,

safety and protection

Counting on you to learn about their individual

requirements, preferences and behaviors

Subject to district, city, state and organizational policies

and regulations

Non-judgmental listeners and observers

Silent communicators and motivators

Grief counselors, depression deterrents, anxiety relievers,

sensory enhancers, trust builders and loneliness fighters

Apt to have mood swings, stress and bad days – just like

the rest of us!


What Animal Therapists Are Not

Animal Therapists are NOT…

Disposable objects for short-term benefit – plan on being

responsible for their care for life!

Always predictable…expect the unexpected and be

prepared for anything!

Always welcomed or appropriate for every person or

setting.

Human! Don’t “give” them human traits or behaviors.

Always able to tell you when they are ill, uncomfortable,

hurt, stressed, tired or just not in the mood to interact.

A “cure” for every behavior, illness or disorder.

Miracle workers – but they can come close!


Special Considerations for Animals

Ethics and Regulations:

Animals are living, breathing organisms which require species-

specific care, handling and knowledge to maintain their safety

and welfare in addition to the safety and welfare of the humans

they interact with. All animal species are subject to district,

city, state and other regulations regarding acquisition, use,

breeding and care in private and public settings. Some species

may require special permits and/or documentation of origin.

DO YOUR HOMEWORK!

Before considering using animals in a classroom, animal-

assisted therapy program or animal-interaction activity, please

check your school or organization’s individual policies in

addition to consulting local and state laws to ensure proper

and legal use of animals in your program!

The following pages contain a guide available from the

Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries designed to

assist educators with the state’s wildlife laws and regulations.

These laws vary by state…Check with your state’s Department

of Game and Inland Fisheries, Department of Natural

Resources or the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (www.fws.gov)

for additional information .

http://www.fws.gov/


Educators and

Virginia’s Wildlife

Laws by Carol A. Heiser, Wildlife Division, The Virginia Department of Game and Inland

Fisheries

At teacher workshops, programs, and other educator trainings around the state we are frequently asked

questions about wildlife laws. “What kinds of animals can I keep in my classroom?” “Is it O.K. to buy native animals for educational purposes?” “What do I do if one of my students brings a bird nest or an

injured animal to school?”

In this article we will try to provide a basic overview of some of the most widely cited wildlife laws to

help answer these questions. However, this article is only a general summary of wildlife laws in

Virginia and does not attempt to address all laws, permits, conditions, or exceptions. If you have

questions about more specific aspects of the law, please call one of the contacts listed at the end of this

article.

Why We Have Wildlife Laws Between 1700 and 1900, Virginia’s landscape changed dramatically. Increasing numbers of settlers

meant a sharp rise in the number of forested acres that were cleared for agriculture, new communities,

and transportation for commerce. During the same period, wide scale and unregulated hunting and

trapping of large game and other fur-bearing mammals for the meat market trade put additional

pressure on wildlife populations. The demand for feathers in ladies’ hats for the millinery trade also

severely impacted wild bird populations. The extensive habitat loss that resulted from clearing large

acreages of the eastern deciduous forest was the primary factor that caused sharp reductions in wildlife

population numbers. With habitat being reduced at such rapid rates, combined with the effects of

unregulated harvesting, many wildlife species could not adapt successfully to survive, and some

species were virtually non-existent by the early l900s. Few people realize, for example, that by 1911

there were no beaver left in Virginia, white-tailed deer were rare in the western part of the state,

Canada geese were infrequently sighted, and the Carolina parakeet, the elk, and the bison had long

since disappeared. Because of this history and a growing realization of the economic value of wildlife,

Virginia officially began its wildlife conservation efforts in 1916 with the passage of a law that

established the Commission of Game and Inland Fisheries.

Today, as then, one of the missions of the DGIF is “to manage Virginia’s wildlife and inland fish to

maintain optimum populations of all species to serve the needs of the Commonwealth.” Since 1916,

many wildlife-related laws have been passed that protect game as well as non-game species. These

laws have substantially helped curb declining population numbers such that many species have

experienced a successful comeback. For example, the deer population in Virginia is now greater than

it was when settlers first came to the continent, and beaver populations have become re-established

throughout the state. The great blue heron has also made a tremendous recovery since the turn of the

century. Wildlife laws also serve to control commercial exploitation and illegal trade. Game laws set

hunting seasons that do not conflict with breeding seasons and bag limits that regulate animal harvest. Other laws require specific permits to collect, possess, propagate, exhibit, or sell native species. In

addition, wildlife laws that restrict importation ensure that non-native species are not introduced from


other states or countries that might otherwise out compete native species, dilute the natural gene pool,

alter the environment, or introduce diseases.

How Wildlife Laws Are Made The complexity of wildlife laws may make you wonder how all those details are actually worked out.

The process involves two decision-making bodies: the General Assembly of Virginia, and the Board

of the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries. A bill that is introduced to the General

Assembly must be passed by both houses of that body before it can be sent to the Governor. Once it

has been passed, the Governor must sign the bill in order for it to become law. Laws of the

Commonwealth established this way are then written into Virginia State Code. The numbers given in

parenthesis at the end of each law quoted in this article refer to a section of regulation or Code. Since

most laws cannot cover all of the details that may be needed to effectively carry them out, additional

regulations are written to cover the specifics.

This “nuts and bolts” part of the process is where the DGIF comes in. The staff and Board of the

DGIF spend months and sometimes years developing the basic regulations that govern the way

wildlife is managed in the Commonwealth. A team of biologists, environmental planners and law

enforcement officers take all aspects of a particular wildlife species into account when they develop

recommendations. These aspects include the biology of the species, such as how they reproduce, as

well as their habitat requirements and their population numbers. Once all of the data and analyses are

complete, recommendations for a particular regulation are then made to the DGIF Board. This Board

consists of 11 members appointed by the Governor, with one representative selected from each

congressional district in the state. The Board meets approximately six times a year to set regulations

and policy for the operation of the Department. Proposed regulations are presented at public meetings

so that anyone who has an interest in them is able to voice their opinion. Once the discussion is

complete, the Board votes on the regulation and sets a date for when it will take effect if it passed.

Laws, regulations and permit conditions are enforced by game wardens in the Law Enforcement

Division of the DGIF. Like a state trooper, a warden can write tickets, take people into custody, and

can issue summons to appear in court if a person breaks either a law or a regulation. Laws and

regulations are written in the best interests of Virginia’s wildlife and for your safety and well-being.

As a citizen, you have the right to participate in this legal process and to comment on laws and

regulations both before and after they are enacted.

The Laws in Brief Being familiar with some basic legal definitions is crucial to a thorough understanding of wildlife

laws. [See definitions below.] The word take, for example, legally means to harass, harm, pursue,

hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, possess or collect, or to attempt to engage in any such conduct

(4 VAC 15-20-140). The word person means any individual, firm, corporation, association, or partnership (4 VAC 15-20-140). Possession is the exercise of control of any wild animal, wild bird,

fish or fur-bearing animal, or any part of the carcass thereof (29.1-100). Such definitions are very

specific so as to minimize inaccurate or deliberately misleading interpretations of the law. In this way,

the original intent of the law is less likely to be distorted or misconstrued.

Know This Law! Perhaps the most important regulation to be aware of is fairly short and sweet: Under authority of 29.1-103 and 29.1-521 of the Code of Virginia it shall be unlawful to take, possess, import, cause to

be imported, export, cause to be exported, buy, sell, offer for sale, or liberate within the

Commonwealth any wild animal unless otherwise specifically permitted by law or regulation (4 VAC

15-30-10). In other words, unless a particular wildlife activity, purpose, or use is specifically

authorized by law, you can assume it’s illegal. It is up to you to find out whether or not the activity is

authorized!


Collecting Live Aquatic Invertebrates, Amphibians,

Reptiles, and Non-game Fish Virginia law specifies how many and what type of wild animals you can legally collect and/or have in

your possession at any given time. The following personal possession limits do not require a permit

but instead are purposefully designed to discourage wildlife collecting so that existing levels of

wildlife populations will not be jeopardized.

According to 4 VAC 15-360-10:

It shall be lawful to capture and possess live for private use and not for sale (excluding threatened and endangered species provided for in 4 VAC 15-20-130)

• no more than five individuals of any single native or naturalized (as defined in 4 VAC 15-20-50)

species of amphibian and reptile and • 20 individuals of any single native or naturalized (as defined in 4 VAC 15-20-50) species of aquatic

invertebrate and nongame fish....

• …The following species may be taken in unlimited numbers from inland waters statewide: carp,

bowfin, longnose gar, mullet, bullhead catfish, suckers, gizzard shad, blueback herring, white perch,

yellow perch, alewife, stoneroller (hornyhead), fathead minnow, golden shiner and goldfish.... • …‘fish bait’ shall be defined as native or naturalized species of minnows and chubs (Cyprinidae),

salamanders, crayfish, and hellgrammites. The possession limit for taking fish bait shall be 50 individuals in aggregate, unless said person has purchased ‘fish bait’and has a receipt specifying the

number of individuals purchased by species....

• …The daily limit for bullfrogs and snapping turtles shall be 15....

The above quotations are only excerpts of a lengthy regulation. In addition to the above, this

regulation details what methods are allowed for collecting the animals and what areas of the state are

restricted from taking mollusks or salamanders. Albino reptiles and albino amphibians or those

domestic animals as defined in 4 VAC 15-20-50 (4 VAC 15-30-30) can be possessed live in any

number without a permit.

What This Means to the Educator... Note that the above possession limits are given for private use, and they address the collection of live

animals only (hunting is a completely different issue). The regulation is interpreted by game officials

to mean wildlife that you collect live and bring home to keep, either for a short period of time or

indefinitely. If you are an educator and choose to bring the live animal(s) into your school or

classroom for educational purposes, as an individual you can only have the limit specified by law.

So, for example, a teacher may collect five live tadpoles for “private use” and choose to keep them in

his/her possession in a classroom setting. However, each student in the class cannot bring in five

tadpoles and leave them with the teacher as a “classroom collection,” because the teacher would then

be holding or “possessing” more than the five legally allowed to him/her for private use.

To carry this example further, each child in the class could only have five tadpoles apiece if the

animals would stay in the children’s possession and would be taken back home at the end of the day

(i.e. for their “private use”). A prudent educator who understands that the intent of this law is to

protect wildlife populations by controlling widespread collection will teach students to leave wildlife

in its natural setting. Instilling an ethic of respect that encourages patient observation of wildlife in the

environment and discourages collecting animals as neat “pets” is one of the challenges educators face

in the 21st century.


Collecting Live Invertebrates, Mammals, and Birds Invertebrates The regulations governing our smaller critters such as insects are much more lenient: Earthworms may

be taken at any time for private or commercial use (4 VAC 15-20-180). Also, except as otherwise

provided for in 3.1-1020 through 3.1- 1030 and 29.1-418 of the Code of Virginia and in 4 VAC 15-

20-130, 4 VAC 15-30-10 et seq. and 4 VAC 15-360-10 invertebrates, other than those listed as

endangered or threatened, may be taken for private use (4 VAC 15-20-180).

Mammals In general, you cannot capture or collect live mammals or birds in Virginia for any purpose except

under limited situations with a special permit. This includes the errant raccoon or squirrel in your

attic! Please review the language of 4 VAC 15-30-10 listed under the “Know This Law” section. Also

remember that it is unlawful to take, possess, transport or sell all other wildlife species not classified

as game, furbearer or nuisance, or otherwise specifically permitted by law or regulation (4 VAC 15-

20-160).

Birds, Feathers, and Nests There is no provision in the Code of Virginia to live collect and/or possess wild birds except under an

appropriate permit or license or as directly specified by law. Migratory game birds (doves, ducks,

brant, geese, swan, coot, gallinules, sora and other rails, snipe and woodcock) as defined in § 29.1-100

of the Code of Virginia and non-migratory game birds (grouse, pheasant, bobwhite quail, and turkey)

as defined in §29.1-100 of the Code of Virginia can only be taken with a valid Virginia hunting

license in accordance with wildlife regulations. Also, hunting any waterfowl requires a federal

Migratory Waterfowl Stamp (“Duck Stamp”) in addition to the hunting license. Most other birds for

which Federal hunting regulations have not been set and which are not officially listed by state law as

a migratory game bird, a non-migratory game bird, a nuisance species, or a threatened or endangered

species are federally regulated and protected under the provisions of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act.

The U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service is the federal agency which administers the provisions of this Act.

The Act also prohibits collecting any bird feathers or nests unless specifically allowed under the terms

of a salvage permit, a falconry permit or a raptor propagation permit.

What This Means to the Educator... Since birds and mammals are carefully regulated, it is important to explain these laws to your

students. If, for example, a student brings in a baby bird or mammal to school, there are a few things

you can tell the student. First, the majority of young animals that we think are orphaned really are not:

the parent animal is usually close by or well aware of the young’s location, although it is not often

apparent to us. Second, let them know that even though they may be “just trying to help,” the laws

were made for all people to follow and to protect wildlife from improper collection. Third, as soon as

you take in a wild animal, you have interfered with its ability to survive on its own. The longer a wild

animal is kept in captivity, the more difficult it will be for that animal to readjust back in its natural

setting if it is released. If a student does bring in an injured bird or animal, instruct the student to take

that animal to a licensed wildlife rehabilitator or veterinarian who has the proper training and

facilities to treat and care for it.

A Note About Releasing Animals Once an animal has been kept in captivity for any length of time, its chances of surviving when

released into the wild are very nominal. This is because the time that it takes for the animal to adjust

successfully to its new environment is longer than the time it takes to be preyed upon by a predator,

succumb to disease, or die of starvation or thirst. Also, because of the nature of captivity (close

quarters, for example, or inadequate hygiene), captive animals are more likely to contract diseases that their wild counterparts may not have been exposed to. Hence, when the captive animal is released, it

may introduce disease to the wild population that could impact the latter’s numbers. There is also a

genetic issue when one considers captive-bred animals. Animals which have been crossed and re-


crossed with different gene pools and have been bred for new characteristics no longer represent the

gene pool of the wild population that they originally came from. There is therefore a concern for the

potential negative environmental impacts of a release. Similarly, picking up a wild animal like a box

turtle in one part of the state while on vacation and releasing it in your backyard in another part of the

state introduces new genes to the turtle population that evolved in your area. Although the effect of

this example may seem insignificant, it is the cumulative effect of our actions over the centuries that

have such a great impact on our wildlife populations, often with irreversible results. Because of all

these reasons, it is unlawful to liberate within the Commonwealth any wild animal unless otherwise

specifically permitted by law or regulation (4 VAC 15-30-10). Also, although exotic animals not

classified as predatory, threatened/endangered, or undesirable may be possessed and sold, they shall

not be liberated within the Commonwealth (4 VAC 15-30-40F). In addition, any birds or animals

otherwise classed as predatory or undesirable, may not be imported into the Commonwealth or liberated therein, except under a special permit (4 VAC 15-30-20).

What This Means to the Educator... Since we know from the above law that you cannot legally release any animal into the wild, it should

be clear that any animal you buy or legally collect live must remain in captivity for the rest of its

life. Therefore, you should not acquire any animal unless you are prepared to care for it the rest of its

life or to make future arrangements for its care. If, for example, you have been legally holding a native

wild animal in your possession for several months and you decide you no longer wish to keep it, you

might give the animal away to another permitted or licensed person or institution who will take care of

it, with the understanding that they will not release it. A local veterinarian or the Permits Section of

the Department of Game and Inland Fisheries may also suggest other options (see last page for more

information).

Buying and/or Selling Wildlife Buying and/or selling wildlife in Virginia is also strictly regulated. In general, it is unlawful to buy or

sell any wild bird or wild animal or the carcass or any part thereof; except as specifically permitted

by law (29.1-521). Here are some other regulations and guidelines regarding buying and selling:

Game fish are only sold under certain conditions, namely for the purpose of stocking private

waters (such as a pond or lake), for stocking public waters (but only with approval from the

DGIF), and for human consumption (4 VAC 15-320-40). This regulation is not intended to

allow the sale of game fish for display in an aquarium. A school teacher or other individual

may possess and display game fish in an aquarium provided that they hold a valid fishing

license and provided that the fish were legally obtained by an individual possessing a valid

fishing license.

Minnows and chubs can be purchased for any purpose, as well as crayfish and hellgrammites,

provided they are purchased from a dealer who is authorized by the Virginia Department of

Game and Inland Fisheries to collect, hold, and sell them (4 VAC 15-360-20; 4 VAC 15-

360-30).

The Game Department is now issuing permits to licensed pet stores and captive breeders for

them to sell three species of captive-bred snakes (4 VAC 15-360-50): eastern kingsnake, mole

kingsnake, and corn snake. No other snakes native to Virginia can be bought or sold in

Virginia, and there are size limits as to what can be sold.

No threatened or endangered species may be bought or sold for any purposes at any time,

whether dead or alive, including their parts.

Because the Lacey Act restricts the interstate transport of birds and other animals, federal

laws prohibit moving fish and wildlife into the state if they were illegally taken elsewhere. Therefore, if you make a wildlife purchase from an out-of-state supplier, the species must

have been legally collected, propagated, and/or sold according to the laws of that state.


The bullfrog, green frog, southern leopard frog, and green tree frog can only be bought for

educational or research purposes if they are purchased from a permitted captive breeder in

Virginia or from a properly permitted business out-of-state (4 VAC 15-360-50).

When taken in accordance with the provisions of law or regulation, muskrat, opossum,

rabbits, raccoon and squirrels may be bought and sold during the open hunting season only,

but the hides, furs or pelts of fur-bearing animals legally taken and possessed, and the carcass of any fur-bearing animal may be sold at any time.... (29.1- 536 )

Nuisance Species The following 12 animals are officially considered nuisance species in Virginia and may be taken

(harvested) at any time without a collector’s permit (4 VAC 15-20-160):

House mouse

Norway rat

Black rat

Coyote

Sika deer

Feral hog

Nutria

Woodchuck

European starling

English (house) sparrow

Pigeon (rock dove)

Mute swan

Historically, many of these animals were associated with significant economic concerns or health

problems, and over time became viewed as “nuisances.” It is also lawful to take striped skunks

(Mephitis mephitis) at any time (4 VAC 15-220-10), although this species is not technically part of the

nuisance list. For further information on this topic of what, when and how nuisance animals may be

taken, please contact the Permits and Lifetime License Section.

Threatened and Endangered Species Currently, there are a little over 100 wildlife species that are officially listed as threatened or

endangered in Virginia, and over 900 worldwide ranging from millipedes to whales. Some of these

species are considered “federal endangered,” while others are “state endangered.” Over 50 additional

species are now being considered as federal candidates for the list. While the list is too long to include

here, it is available on request and should be consulted before conducting any wildlife collecting

activities. (See the section “Official Listings Available.”) Under the provisions of the law, it shall be unlawful to take, transport, process, sell or offer for sale within the Commonwealth any threatened or

endangered species of fish or wildlife (4 VAC 15-20-130).

Exotics There are additional requirements regarding exotic or non-native species which are animals that do not

occur naturally in Virginia. Biologists view non-native species with caution because these animals can

cause irreparable harm to a habitat and/or an entire population of native species. Some examples of

prior introductions that easily come to mind are the English house sparrow, the European starling, the

gypsy moth, and more recently, the zebra mussel. Educators should be particularly aware when

ordering lab specimens from mail order catalogs that availability from a catalog does not necessarily mean that you can lawfully possess that animal in Virginia. For example, the marine toad, African


clawed frog and piranha may be popular catalog items, but they are included as predatory and

undesirable in VAC 15-30-40.

When a non-native or exotic species is introduced to a new environment, it competes with native

species that were previously well-adapted to the way things were. The non-native population therefore

creates additional pressure on the native wildlife population by introducing new diseases and by

competing for suitable nest sites, food, and other habitat requirements. In addition, the non-native

species may now be living in a new ecosystem where its natural predators do not occur to keep its

population in check. The net result is often that native species have difficulty adapting and competing,

and their numbers subsequently decrease. Importation laws and multi-state policies protect against

such introductions of non-native species. A special permit is required to import, possess, or sell a

whole range of exotic species that are classed as predatory or undesirable within the meaning and intent of Title 29.1-542 of the Code of Virginia, in that their introduction into the Commonwealth will

be detrimental to the native fish and wildlife resources of Virginia (4 VAC 15-30-40).

Using This Information in the Classroom There are several Project WILD activities you can use to help teach about the legislative process.

Project WILD is a supplementary wildlife curriculum for teachers of students in grades K-12. The

curriculum guide is only available by attending a free six-hour workshop sponsored by the

Department of Game and Inland Fisheries (call the WILD Coordinator for more details at 804/367-

0188).

“Wild Bill’s Fate” gives students an opportunity to compare the different viewpoints that people have

about pending wildlife legislation. “Know Your Legislation: What’s in it for Wildlife?” carries the

process further by guiding students in selecting a piece of current wildlife legislation that they’re

interested in and getting in touch with elected officials to express their views.

Another approach is to try the “Cabin Conflict” activity in which students set up their classroom as a

courtroom and role-play various points of view of a land-use issue that affects wildlife. “To Zone or

Not to Zone” is a similar activity that illustrates the complexities of land-use planning and decisions

that must consider differing viewpoints. Students might even be encouraged to write their own

proposal or bill about a wildlife issue and submit it to their General Assembly representative. Or, have

a local elected official visit your school and talk with the students about a local issue.

Although the above activities are geared towards upper grade level students, lower grade level

students might also explore their opinions on a simple issue that concerns their local community, as in

the activity “Changing Attitudes.” Students might interview parents and friends and record their

different thoughts and views in a journal-writing activity. They could follow this up with some

research in local newspapers and the library to find out more about both sides of the issue, then write

what their conclusion is about the matter.

Types of Permits Although the regulations are rigid and all-encompassing, teachers and other educators do have a few

avenues open to them if they are serious about wildlife conservation but still want to bring wildlife

into their schools for educational purposes. The following permits are those that the Virginia

Department of Game and Inland Fisheries may issue. Applications, instructions, and reporting forms

may be downloaded from www.dgif.virginia.gov .

Scientific Collection Permit: for research or educational purposes. This permit allows you to

collect live animals from the wild and possess them for scientific or educational purposes.

You will need an additional federal permit from the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service in order

http://www.dgif.virginia/


to perform research on birds. You will be required to report each year what was collected,

where it was collected, etc., or the permit will not be renewed.

Salvage Permit: for research or educational purposes. This permit allows you to collect dead

animals or parts and parts for scientific or educational purposes. You will need an additional

federal permit from the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service in order to collect dead birds, bird parts,

feathers, or nests. You will be required to report each year what was collected, where it was

collected, etc., or the permit will not be renewed.

Exhibitor’s Permit: for educational or scientific use to hold and display wildlife. This

applies to game fish, birds, mammals, as well as non-game fish, amphibians, reptiles, and

aquatic invertebrates. Nature centers and parks which do not charge a fee typically fall under

this category, as might a school system which is planning several exhibits in an

environmental education facility. There are fees associated with these permits. Please call the

number at the end of this article and ask for the Permits Section.

Official Listings Available The Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries has a web-based, computerized system of

databases, the Virginia Fish and Wildlife Information System (VAFWIS) that provides users with

information about wildlife in the Commonwealth. This may be accessed through the Department web

page at www.dgif.virginia.gov by choosing “Wildlife,” then “Wildlife Information and Mapping

Services,” and finally “Virginia Fish and Wildlife Information Services.” Complete listings of all

native and naturalized species, threatened and endangered species, and species of special concern are

also available from the “Wildlife” page by selecting “Virginia’s Wildlife.”

For More Information Main Agency phone number (804) 367-1000.

Exhibitor’s permit: Permits Section (804) 367-9588.

Scientific collection, salvage, or threatened and endangered species permits, and issues

regarding nongame wildlife: Wildlife Diversity Division, (804) 367- 6913.

Game mammals: Wildlife Division (804) 367-0904

Game fish: Fisheries Division (804) 367-0509

Violations, licenses, and the law: Law Enforcement Division (804) 367-0171.

Federal laws and permits: Northeast Region of the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service (413) 253-

8643.

Wildlife Crime Line: 1-800-237-5712 or e-mail [email protected].

To view the complete wildlife laws in the Code of Virginia, go to the web site of the Virginia

General Assembly at www.legis.state.va.us and click on “Code of Virginia.” Then click on

“Table of Contents” and scroll down to “Title 29.1—Game, Inland Fisheries and Boating.”

If you decide to purchase an animal that is native to Virginia for educational

or research purposes, be sure to check that the seller is authorized to do so and has the proper permits.

http://www.dgif.virginia/


Things to Remember Do…

Keep records of any animal purchase or any animal specimen donated to your

school.

Teach our students not to collect wild animals or other wildlife-related specimens

such as feathers, nests, bones, etc. Encourage them to observe wildlife in its

natural setting and keep a journal of what they see.

Call the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries for more specific

information about wildlife laws that are not covered in this article.

Don’t… Collect or buy any animal that occurs naturally in Virginia without knowing the

law! Call your county Game Warden.

Buy wild animals from other states unless they have been legally collected or

propagated according to the laws of that state.

Release any captive animals to the wild. This is neither healthy for the individual

animals released, nor for the environment they’re released to.

If you decide to purchase an animal that is native to Virginia for educational or research purposes, be sure

to check that the seller is authorized to do so and has the proper permits.

Definitions: (from §29.1-100 of the

Code of Virginia and 4 VAC 15-20-50) Wild Animal—any member of the animal kingdom, except domestic animals, including without

limitation any native, naturalized, or non-native (exotic) mammal, fish, bird, amphibian, reptile,

mollusk, crustacean, arthropod or other invertebrate, and includes any hybrid thereof; except as

otherwise specified in regulations of the board, or part, product, egg, or offspring thereof; or the

dead body or parts of them. (4 VAC 15-20-50)

Naturalized Animal—those species and subspecies of animals not originally native to Virginia

which have established wild, self-sustaining populations, as included in the department’s 1991

official listing of “Native and Naturalized Fauna of Virginia.” (4 VAC 15-20-50)

Game Animal—Game means wild animals and wild birds that are commonly hunted for sport or

food. Game animal means deer, bear, rabbit, fox, squirrel, bobcat and raccoon. (§29.1-100 of the

Code of Virginia)

Native Animal—those species and subspecies of animals naturally occurring in Virginia, as

included in the department’s 1991 official listing of “Native and Naturalized Fauna of Virginia.”

(4 VAC 15-20-50)

Domestic Animal—This term is commonly accepted to mean animals which humans have tamed

in captivity or bred for particular genetic traits. Although all domestic animals at one time had

their origin in wild species, they no longer share those distinguishing “wild” traits. The following

animals are defined as domestic animals (4 VAC 15-20-50):

*Domestic - dog (including wolf hybrids); cat (including hybrids with wild felines); horse

(including hybrids with Equus asinus); ass/burro/donkey; cattle; sheep; goat; swine

(including pot-bellied pig).

*Domesticated races of - hamsters; mink; red fox (where their coat color can be

distinguished from wild red fox); guinea pigs; gerbils; chinchillas; rats; mice; European

rabbit; chickens; turkeys; ducks and geese distinguishable morphologically from wild

birds; pigeons (and feral pigeons); guinea fowl; peafowl.

*Also, llama, alpaca, and camels are designated domestic under this law.


Exotic Animal—The term non-native (exotic) animal means those species and subspecies of

animals not naturally occurring in Virginia, excluding domestic and naturalized species. (4 VAC

15-20-50)

Game Fish—means trout (including all Salmonidae), all of the sunfish family (including

largemouth bass, smallmouth bass and spotted bass, rock bass, bream, bluegill and crappie),

walleye or pike perch, white bass, chain pickerel or jackfish, muskellunge, and northern pike,

wherever such fish are found in the waters of this Commonwealth and rockfish or striped bass

where found above tidewaters or in streams which are blocked from access from tidewaters by

dams (§ 29.1-100) except those species that may be listed as Threatened or Endangered.

Fur-Bearing Animals—includes beaver, bobcat, fox, mink, muskrat, opossum, otter, raccoon,

skunk, and weasel

By law, no more than five individuals of any species of amphibian or reptile, such as this five-lined skink,

may be taken from the wild for one’s “private use.”

Originally published April, 1998 with the assistance of Fred Leckie, Jeff Uerz, Becky Wajda, Bob

Ellis, and Dave Dowling. Revised March, 2004 with the assistance of Kathy Graham.

Last revised January 2005.

Produced by the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries

P.O. Box 11104

4010 West Broad Street

Richmond, VA 23230-1104

804/367-1000/VTDD

www.dgif.virginia.gov


Modified from The Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy: Theoretical Foundations and Guidelines for

Practice by Aubrey H. Fine (2010).

1. Thou shall match the animal to the individual’s needs.

2. Thou shall integrate the animal interaction to the therapeutic goals

of the individual.

3. Thou will understand the dynamics of therapist, individual and animal.

4. Thou will explore the role of family animals and other family

members.

5. Thou shall be sensitive to potential aggression from the individual

towards the animal.

6. Thou will consider alternative animal experiences as appropriate

such as puppets, books, toys, stuffed animals, etc…

7. Thou shall be aware of cultural attitudes and family history towards

animals.

8. Thou shall carefully consider if animal therapy is appropriate for

each situation and individual.

9. Thou shall make animal and human welfare the top priority at all

times!


Special Considerations for Humans

Zoonotic Diseases

Zoonoses: Diseases that can be transmitted

from animals to humans.

Zoonoses, although rare, must be considered a

possibility whenever people and animals come in

contact with each other, especially in confined areas where

many people may touch an animal at one time.

To reduce the risk of zoonotic diseases: Learn about which animal species are potential

carriers.

Recognize transmission modes and symptoms.

Have your animal checked thoroughly by a certified

veterinarian.

Follow proper care and handling of your animal.

Practice sanitization techniques such as the use of

anti-bacterial agents and hand-washing before and

after all animal handling.

Seek medical treatment for ALL bites and scratches,

even those that may seem superficial.

www.tal.ifas.ufl.edu


Common Zoonotic Diseases of Pet/Companion Animals

Animal Diseases Transmission Prevention Reptiles: turtles, snakes,

and lizards

Amphibians:

salamanders, frogs,

toads

Salmonella,

Campylobacter,

Mycobacterium

Contact with fecal

matter on animal or in

habitat.

Use of anti-bacterial hand

agents, limit contact with

feces, proper diet of non-

wild food, frequent

maintenance of habitat.

*Avoid all direct contact

with amphibians due to

their permeable skin! Use

moistened gloves to

handle amphibians.

Birds: parrots,

parakeets, canaries,

finches, chickens and

waterfowl

Salmonella, Parrot Fever

(psittacosis), Ornithosis

Inhalation or digestion

of feces or nasal

secretions from infected

birds, mites and/or lice.

Obtain birds from

reputable breeders;

maintain birds in a stress-

free environment, careful

observation and

immediate treatment if

disease is suspected.

Fish: Tropical and/or

cold freshwater

Leptospirosis (Weil’s

disease), Tyzzer’s disease,

Mycobacterium marinum

Very rare: possibly

transmitted by tank

cleaning.

Maintain optimum tank

conditions, conduct

partial water changes

frequently, use gloves

when cleaning extremely

dirty tanks.

Small Mammals: rats,

mice, gerbils, hamsters,

guinea pigs, rabbits

Salmonella, Ringworm,

Trichophyton,

Dermatophytosis

Varied, usually through

direct contact via bites

or scratches.

Maintain proper habitat

sanitation, be observant to

stress caused by frequent

handling, clean and

disinfect all scratches and

bites.

Cats and Kittens Ringworm,

Toxoplasmosis,

Tapeworm, Guiardia

Direct physical contact

and improper feeding

practices.

Sanitize hands following

contact with litter, feces

or unclean animal.

Maintain vaccinations and

veterinary check-ups.

Clean, disinfect and seek

medical attention for bites

and scratches.

Dogs and Puppies Roundworms, Ringworm,

Sporotrichosis fungus

Direct physical contact

and improper feeding

practices.

Sanitize hands following

contact with litter, feces

or unclean animal.

Maintain vaccinations and

veterinary check-ups.

Clean, disinfect and seek

medical attention for bites

and scratches. Modified from: (Brodie, Biley & Shewring, 2002) and (Bailey, retrieved June, 2011)


Allergies

Before deciding on a therapy animal for your classroom or

organization, be aware that many individuals have allergic

reactions to some animal species or the habitat conditions

required for their survival. While many allergies are mild,

ranging from skin irritation to sneezing, some can be life-

threatening and require immediate emergency attention.

DO YOUR HOMEWORK!

Check with parents, guardians or caregivers about

possible allergies.

Request signed permission slips or release of

information forms before beginning any animal

interactions.

Monitor for potential allergy signs during all

interactions and be prepared to stop activities and

contact emergency services if necessary.

REMEMBER: Allergies can occur at any time, even

if the participant has never had a previous reaction!

Author’s personal photo


How to Use this Handbook

The information in this handbook is designed as an

introductory guide to basic animal-assisted interventions for

teachers of children with special needs, school counselors,

therapists and clinicians. For this reason, most of the

therapeutic activities and animal husbandry techniques are

kept at a basic level intended to teach about the animals

themselves and their potential for therapeutic benefit.

The animal care information in this handbook only highlights

the basic requirements for the animals’ welfare and IS NOT

intended to be a comprehensive guide to the complete care of

any animal included in this handbook. It is intended to provide

the reader with information to help them understand the

commitment required for the health of the animal. Before

deciding to adopt any animal for companion, education or

therapeutic use, do your research!

When possible, alternative suggestions to live animal use will

be included in addition to a list of resources for more complete

care of companion animals.

Nature-Based Therapy

Nature-based therapy involves using the natural environment

as the basis for therapeutic activities instead of utilizing captive

animals for such purposes. When possible, nature-based

activities will be included as optional adaptations to activities

in this handbook.


“Paws Up” Rating System

A “Paws Up” rating system is given separately for each activity

and animal as follows:

Activity Level Animal Care Level

Beginner Beginner

Intermediate Intermediate

Advanced Advanced

Animals listed in the “Advanced Animal Care Level” category

will not include care instructions. Instead, readers are asked to

consult with a veterinarian, professional animal-assisted

therapy organization or other resources due to the higher level

of care, commitment and training required by these animals.

Sample activity plans will still be given to provide the reader

with ideas for therapeutic interventions possible with advanced

training.

Jaeger, a Labrador/golden retriever mix, is

a certified therapy dog through Canine

Companions for Independence. He works

with adults and children with disabilities

through The Up Center in Norfolk,

Virginia.

The Up Center file photo


“From the Front Lines” Personal Tidbits…

Sometimes, experience is the best teacher!


Look for “the expert” for personal tips and techniques the

author of this guide has discovered while doing similar

activities or working with selected animals… direct from the

front lines!

Other Symbols…

More Information: look for this symbol for

interesting information or facts regarding the

activity or animal.

DO YOUR HOMEWORK! Look for this

symbol when additional research may be

required.

Look here for

“Tails” From

the Front Lines


CHAPTER 2

Invertebrate Ambassadors

www.antfarmsforkids.com


Invertebrate Ambassadors

“EEWWWW!” usually comes to mind anytime the words

bugs, creepy-crawlies or insects are mentioned. Sometimes

however, the small things can have a huge impact on an

individual’s self-esteem, self-protection and a sense of

belonging.

Once children get used to the

“wave-like” motion of an African

Giant Black Millipede’s legs, they

often overcome their fear of the

creepy-crawlies and let their

curiosity show!


Invertebrates such as butterflies, worms, ants, millipedes and

hermit crabs can be excellent and simple introductory animals

for animal-therapy interactions provided care is taken to

introduce the animal cautiously. Keep in mind that some

people have a natural, in-born fear of such creatures. Other

individuals may have the opposite reaction and prefer

invertebrates over traditional “cute” mammals!

Cool Invert Facts: Invertebrates, or Inverts, don’t have

backbones! Most are worm-like or have exoskeletons that help support

and protect their bodies. A few familiar inverts include worms, crabs,

oysters, insects, spiders, octopi, snails and slugs (whew!!)


DO YOUR HOMEWORK!

Research invertebrates you are interested in keeping – some

are restricted by law in certain areas and may be illegal to

posses in your area despite being available in pet stores and

through online breeders!

Some Basics on Invertebrate Care

Care and feeding will vary greatly depending on the type of

invertebrate you are interesting in keeping. Here are some

basics for the most commonly kept invertebrates: ants,

butterflies, millipedes and hermit crabs.

(Beginner)

Ants: One of the easiest insects to keep and utilize for

therapeutic activities are ants. Ant “farm” kits are readily

available from education stores and websites and contain

everything you will need to provide your ants with a happy,

healthy existence. Just follow the instructions and enjoy!

al photo


An ant farm saved the day when I once was a substitute teacher

for second graders. It just happened to be Valentine’s Day and

the children were loaded with candy and ready to go home. Just

as chaos set in, a small boy came up to me and asked if he could

show me his ants. Puzzled, I said “sure” and wondered what I

had gotten myself into. The boy went into his backpack and

produced an ant farm. Almost immediately, the other children

stopped running around and looked to see what I was going to

do. I simply took the ant farm, walked to the carpeted area, sat

down and told the children to join me in the circle. Surprisingly,

they did! I showed them the ants and explained how they were

working together as a team. This led to questions, stories and

undivided attention from the children! The day was saved, the

children learned about teamwork and science, and I survived the

day…barely!


(Beginner)

Butterflies: Similar to ants, butterflies can be purchased in

kits that demonstrate the life stages from caterpillar to

butterfly. These kits also contain everything you will need to

raise and care for the caterpillars through butterfly stage,

with instructions on their release (should wildlife laws

permit – check your regional regulations).

*Nature-based option: instead of rearing captive

butterflies, opt for planting a butterfly garden and

let nature do the rest!

Children are drawn to butterflies and can feel

“accepted” when one decides their finger is the

perfect resting spot! Such activity helps

children learn about patience, acceptance, and

protection.


(Intermediate)

Millipedes: If you are interested in an invert that can be

kept for long periods of time in an artificial habitat,

millipedes can be an excellent option. Children are

especially fascinated with millipedes and watching the wave-

like motion of their legs when crawling. For this reason,

millipedes can be a therapeutic option for learning about

overcoming obstacles, adapting to new situations and self-

esteem. Check with your local regulations to see if these

interesting invertebrates can be legally kept in your area.


www.eduwebs.org

Habitat Requirements:

- Aquarium (10 gal) with screen lid

- Under-tank heating pad

- Tank thermometer and hydrometer

- Spray bottle for misting

- Reptile/Aquarium water conditioner to remove chlorine from tap water

- Rotting wood/mulch/moss bedding

Millipedes can be housed in a glass 10 gallon aquarium

or small animal terrarium. Most millipedes available

for purchase are tropical to sub-tropical varieties that

prefer temperatures from 75-85ºF, so a reptile heating

pad may be used under the tank for added heat. Light

bulbs should be avoided as millipedes like the dark!

Place rotting wood and moist natural “bedding” in the

tank for them to crawl through and dig. Maintain

moisture in tank by misting daily as needed with

conditioned tap water. KEEP TANK MOIST AT ALL

TIMES – hydrometer should not drop below 60%

humidity!

Change bedding weekly and scoop up excess fecal

matter as detected (feces look like round seeds).

Diet: Soft fruits and vegetables such as cucumbers

and potatoes (slightly rotten is preferred!) Feed

millipede(s) small amounts and do not allow food to

http://www.eduwebs.org/


become over-moldy, especially in the tank’s humid

conditions.

Behavior: Millipedes will coil up when threatened

and will occasionally molt (shed) their outer

exoskeleton. Make sure enough moisture is present

to assist with molting.

DO YOUR HOMEWORK!

Millipedes are not venomous, but can

secrete a toxic fluid from pores on their

body. Most people are not affected by

this liquid; however others may have a

reaction similar to a bee sting. Use gloves when

handling millipedes and sanitize/wash hands

immediately following contact.

(Intermediate) Hermit Crabs: Land hermit crabs are interesting and

unique animals for observation and relaxation.

Although mostly active at night, these crustaceans can

be a wonderful on-going therapeutic option for

individuals overcoming shyness and in learning how to

care for others. They also have a great advantage

among other animals considered for therapy as they

are not known to carry any zoonotic diseases or trigger

allergic reactions. They are however, susceptible to

mites, although these can be easily controlled through

treatments available at most pet supply stores.

www.hermit-crab-care.com/



- 10 gallon aquarium or medium animal habitat kit with lid

- Sand substrate (Calcium sand preferred, but play sand is acceptable)

- Shallow water and food bowls

- Natural sea-sponge

- Assorted empty shells

- Small scoop for waste

- Spray bottle for misting

- Tank hydrometer

- Reptile/Aquarium water conditioner to remove chlorine from tap water

Hermit crabs can be easily maintained in a 10 gallon

aquarium with sand substrate, and prefer the

company of other crabs. Two shallow dishes should

be kept in the tank: one containing food and the

other with pre-conditioned water and a sea sponge

(to maintain moisture and give the crabs something

to hold onto while drinking). Other decorations may

be added to encourage the crabs’ natural tendency

to climb and explore their surroundings.

Scoop out waste material daily and mist the tank

with pre-conditioned tap water to maintain

moisture.

Diet: Hermit crab food is available at most pet

supply retailers. They also enjoy small “treats” of

meat and fruit when cut into small pieces. Some

will also take carrots, potatoes and lettuce.

Behavior: Hermit crabs stay in their shells most

of the day and are active at night (nocturnal).

They do not often pinch with their claws, but may

attempt to if not handled frequently. Until they

are used to handling, pick them up by their shell

and place gently on your flat palm. They will

likely come out of their shell and explore.


I’m ok, I just need privacy: Hermit crabs molt

(shed their outer shell) to grow. Some owners will find an

empty shell in the tank and assume their crab has died! Don’t

panic! Check around carefully for the naked crab and if found,

place it into its own private “recovery room” (any small

container with sand, food and water will work). It is very

vulnerable when naked, and other tank mates may harass the

crab to its death. Once its shell has hardened, it can go back

into the tank with its buddies!

Sample Therapy Activities with Invertebrates

Many of these activities can be used with any of the above

listed invertebrates. Consider the individual’s needs you are

working with in determining what activity is appropriate.

Remember: These activities are only sample ideas intended to

guide you in preparing animal-assisted interventions. Allow for

your own creativity, knowledge and above all…enjoy the

experience!

(Beginner activity level)

Little Me in a Big World (Modified from a lesson plan outlined on http://insected.arizona.edu)

Objective: To encourage self-esteem building, team work

and develop problem solving strategies.

Targeted Population: Children ages 5+

Animal: Ants or other insects

http://insected.arizona.edu/


Activity (30-45 minutes): Observe an established ant farm

or colony found outdoors. Have the child talk about what

the ants are doing and why. Explain how ants work as a

team to meet the needs of their colony, and how they rely

on each other for this goal. Are there any obstacles

preventing the ants from reaching their goal? Ask the

child to think of obstacles that may prevent the ants from

getting food, etc…back to their teammates. Then ask the

child to predict how they could overcome these obstacles

to meet their goals. You may want to write down these

observations and predictions or have the child do so.

Once the child has made predictions and/or observed the

ants overcoming such obstacles, ask them to think of

obstacles they may face either at home, in school, with

friends, etc… Brainstorm with them strategies on how

they may overcome obstacles in their life. How are they

like the ants? How are they different?


Think Safe! Be Safe! (Modified from a lesson plan outlined on http://insected.arizona.edu)

Objective: To develop self-protection and security skills.

Targeted Population: Children of all ages

Animal: Insects, millipede, hermit crabs

Activity (15-30 minutes): Introduce the child to an insect,

millipede or hermit crab and proper handling procedures.

Once the child is comfortable holding or observing the animal,

ask them what the animal is doing. Is it hiding from them (i.e.

rolling up, hiding in shell, etc…), is it curious about them, or

does it seem comfortable with them? If the animal is hiding,



ask the child why. What could the animal be afraid of? If the

animal is comfortable or curious, also ask the child why. Talk

with the child about protection and what the animal may do

when it feels threatened. Ask the child what things they may be

afraid of and why. Brainstorm strategies that they could use to

protect themselves when they are afraid.

Variation 1: Have the child act out various defenses the

animals may exhibit such as running away, rolling up into

a ball, or hiding in its shell. Then have them play act

situations in the past where they have been afraid and

how they reacted.

Variation 2: Walk around with the child or help them to

draw items or areas around their home, school or

community where there could be safety hazards. Discuss

strategies with them on overcoming these hazards and

protecting themselves.

*Nature-Based Options: Both activities listed above can be

done using nature-based therapeutic strategies. Instead of

utilizing a housed animal, bring

the child outside and allow them

to look for ants or other insects in

nature, and then proceed with the

activity plan as described!



CHAPTER 3

Aquatic Therapists

The Up Center file photo


Fish: Bettas, Goldfish and Tropicals

Ask any fish owner why they keep fish and they’ll likely tell

you it is because they are relaxing. Watching fish swim lazily

around their tank and listening to the sound of the filter’s air

bubbles can provide anyone with an instant break from stress.

They are also non-threatening to many people and only carry a

minimal risk of zoonotic disease, making them an excellent

option for therapists.

Fish can be easily maintained on-site and left alone for several

days when provided with the right equipment. They do have

special needs, however; and it is highly recommended that

anyone considering fish keeping do research on the best species

and set up for your needs. This guide will outline some basic

care required to maintain bettas (Siamese fighting fish),

goldfish and tropical freshwater species.



DO YOUR HOMEWORK! Deciding on which

type of fish to keep depends on many variables such as cost,

space available, personal expertise and time. In general, a

larger aquarium (50 gallons +) is more expensive and difficult

to establish, but long-term maintenance is easier and fish

health is better. However, recent additions to aquarium

technology have made smaller “Nano” tanks (2-5 gallons) just

as efficient and easy to care for as larger aquariums. Do

research into reputable aquarium supply dealers in your area!

(Beginner)

Bettas: Bettas (also called Siamese fighting fish) are commonly

sold in pet stores in very small bowls and occasionally

recommended for so-called “Betta Vases.” Although these

tropical fish do prefer smaller spaces, they do not do well in

extremely small bowls or vases and are best considered for

small, two-five gallon aquariums with filtration and heater

capacity. They can, however, be placed in small bowls or vases

for several hours with their regular aquarium water, making

them portable for transportation to classrooms, offices, etc...

They are also loners, and a male betta will attack and kill other

males when placed together (thus the name, Siamese fighting

fish).

www.freshwater-tropical-fish-care.com



- Two to Five gallon aquarium (complete kits are available – check with your pet retailer)

- Tank lid with light bulb

- Power filter (optional, but can be beneficial as long as water flow is not too powerful)

- Small, Nano-tank heater (optimal temperature ~75ºF)

- Gravel and plant decorations

- Tap water conditioner

- Freshwater aquarium salt

- Small fish net

- Betta food

Bettas are comfortable in smaller aquariums (2-5 gallons) with

plant decorations and freshwater aquarium salt added to the

water for improved gill function (follow dosing instructions on

bottle).

Remember: set up your aquarium where you intend on

keeping it. Even small tanks will be extremely heavy once filled

with water and gravel!

DO YOUR HOMEWORK! When cleaning or

setting up any aquarium, NEVER use soap or

detergents. These chemicals are extremely toxic

to fish. Additionally, make sure your hands are

free from soaps and chemicals as well – rinse

hands thoroughly with fresh tap water before

putting them into any aquarium water.

If using an aquarium kit, follow instructions for set-up. For a

standard aquarium, rinse gravel and decorations with fresh

water to remove dust then add to tank. Fill with warm (70-

80ºF) tap water and add water conditioner to de-chlorinate as

directed on bottle. Set up power filter (if used) as instructed

and add the heater (do not add heater to a dry tank – make

sure aquarium is full and ready to run before plugging in

heater to avoid risk of shock).


Once the betta aquarium is set-up, turn on the filter and heater

and allow tank to run for several days before adding fish. This

allows the water to cycle and create natural biological filtration

beneficial to the fish’s survival. Once the aquarium is cycled,

add the betta by floating the pet-store bag in the water for

several minutes, and then add a teaspoon of aquarium water

into the bag every three to five minutes to allow the fish to

acclimate to the new water conditions. After 15 minutes, use

the net to scoop out the betta and gently place him into the

tank. Never add water from the pet-store bag into your

aquarium! This could introduce diseases and/or unhealthy

water conditions into the newly cycled tank.

General Maintenance: Smaller aquariums should be

changed every week by placing betta into a small

container filled with old tank water, then discard

remaining water and rinse tank, gravel, decorations.

Follow set-up instructions ensuring to condition tap

water and add aquarium salt as directed. Larger

aquariums will require the use of a siphon to

“vacuum” the gravel and conduct a 15% water

change weekly.

Diet: Bettas eat commercially prepared flake or

small pellet foods specifically designed for the

species. Feed twice daily only what the fish can

consume in two minutes, and then net out remaining

food.

No Thanks, I Just Ate! Overfeeding is the cause of most

fish deaths! Some species, like goldfish, are not able to tell when they

have eaten too much and may experience fatal digestive issues as a

result. Other fish species will stop eating, but decaying food causes a

build up of nitrates in the water which will eventually poison

the inhabitants of the aquarium. So…it’s best to feed smaller

amounts more often then large amounts once daily!


Behavior: Although loners of their species, bettas

can be very social towards their humans, often

coming to the surface when approached. Male bettas

will also build “bubble nests” on the surface of the

water that will appear as soapy foam. This nest is

designed to attract a female for mating, and will not

affect the quality of the water.

(Beginner)

Goldfish: Goldfish are another popular fish species that are

fairly easy to care for, following most of the same habitat and

care requirements as the betta (see betta care for more

information). Goldfish, however, can be kept in small schools

(groups) and the interactions among each other can provide

additional therapeutic benefits. If intending to house several

fish together, a larger tank will be necessary.

DO YOUR HOMEWORK! When housing

more than one fish, a general “rule of thumb” is

to provide one gallon of water for each inch of

fish. Therefore, consider the adult size of the

species you intend to keep, and do the math!

For example: you would like five fish at their

maximum adult length of three inches. To keep

them healthy and avoid overcrowding, they will

need at least a 15-20 gallon aquarium.

The most important difference in maintaining goldfish as

opposed to a betta or other freshwater tropical fish is that

goldfish are a coldwater species. Therefore, a heater is not

required and goldfish are comfortable in room-temperature to

slightly cooler water.


Follow the same basic habitat, maintenance and diet

requirements as listed for bettas.

(Intermediate to Advanced)

Tropical Fish: The category of tropical freshwater fish is

extremely broad, ranging from relatively simple-to-care-for

guppies to complicated cichlids such as angelfish and discus.

Despite these variations, tropical aquariums can be rewarding

additions to therapy programs and offer a wide variety of

activities from basic relaxation techniques to improving range

of motion through adaptive feeding. Beginner species such as

guppies, swordtails, platys and some tetras can be maintained

in similar aquarium set-ups as outline in the betta section. The

use of a power filter and heater is required, however! Larger

species and aquaria require further research and preparation.

Freshwater tropical fish such as this

Firemouth Cichlid are beautiful and

entertaining additions to an aquatic

animal-assisted therapy program.

Advanced care is required for their

upkeep, however.


DO YOUR HOMEWORK! Readers

considering a tropical freshwater fish aquarium

are advised to contact a reputable aquarium

supply store or local aquarium organization for

more information on selecting, purchasing and

maintaining the best set-up for your needs!


Sample Therapy Activities with Fish

Many of these activities can be used with Bettas, Goldfish or

tropical fish communities.




experience!


A “Betta” Break

Objective: To facilitate relaxation, reduce depression and

lower blood-pressure caused by stress.

Targeted Population: All ages

Animal: Betta, housed in a portable small animal

aquarium or bowl with a breathable lid for

transportation.

Activity (ongoing, no time limit): This activity can be

“portable,” allowing the therapist to bring the betta to bedsides

or homes as needed. Simply place the betta on a solid surface

in sight of the individual, and allow them to watch the fish

swim. Discuss with them how the fish makes them feel. Offer to

allow them to feed the fish a small amount of food to facilitate

swimming activity. The betta may be left within site during

other therapy activities and referred to when the individual

feels the need to calm down and de-stress.



Fishy Feeding Frenzy

Objective: To facilitate relaxation, reduce depression and

lower blood-pressure caused by stress. Can also be used

to encourage responsibility, empathy and socialization.


Animal: Fish (goldfish or tropicals – best when fish are in

groups)

Other Equipment: A fish food ring or clip

Lettuce or other “treat” food for fish

Activity (15 minutes): Introduce the individual to the fish and

allow them time to get acclimated. Talk to the individual about

what the fish are doing, how they are interacting with each

other and whether they seem to get along together. Place the

lettuce in the clip and use a suction cup to attach it to the glass.

If using a food ring, allow the ring to float in an easily

observable area and fill with “treat” food (or have individual

do this step and “feed” the fish). Observe the fish as the swarm

around the food and watch their interactions. Discuss how

their behavior changes when the food is added and why. Are

the fish more aggressive or systematically taking turns at the

food? Are they working together to share? Once the fish have

finished eating, did they return to their normal behavior?

Variation 1: This activity can be a good

introduction into therapy sessions and

maintained as an ongoing exercise at each

session. If done repeatedly, take note whether

or not the fish begin “recognizing” when treats


are coming and if they behave differently in

anticipation.


Underwater Laser Light Show

Objective: To provide sensory stimulation and serve as a

calming agent.


Animal: Fish (goldfish or tropicals – best when fish are in

groups)

Other Equipment: Decorative air stones, aquarium laser

lights (available at any aquarium retailer)

Activity (ongoing as needed): This activity is intended to target

the visual and audio senses by adding decorative lights and

bubble displays to established aquariums. Although any of the

above activities can also be combined with this display, some

individuals (particularly those on the Autism spectrum) find

comfort in just observing the lights and bubbles in a calming

underwater setting. Combine your imagination with ready-to-

use decorative supplies available at any aquarium retailer to

create unique sensory experiences!



CHAPTER 4

Tails and Scales

www.geckosforpets.com


Reptiles

They may not be the most popular animals with some people,

but reptiles (snakes, lizards and turtles) can break barriers

where other species cannot. Children are especially fascinated

by reptiles, and seeing them up close is often a unique and

memorable opportunity. Reptiles can also be a great

therapeutic option for developing socialization skills and self-

esteem. However, they do have significant drawbacks that

therapists must consider before deciding on a reptile for such

purposes.

DO YOUR HOMEWORK! Reptiles are

carriers of the salmonella bacteria, making them

a high zoonotic risk. Care must be taken not to

come into direct contact with feces and proper

hand sanitization techniques should be

maintained immediately following contact with

any reptile species!

(Advanced)

Snakes and Lizards: Snakes, turtles and most lizards are

considered advanced animals in care and maintenance

requirements, and not recommended as companion animals

unless the caretaker is educated in their animal’s specific needs

and diet. For this reason, readers interested in incorporating a

snake into therapy plans should consult with their local zoo or

herpetology organization to arrange for a professional snake

“visit.” Educators from zoos and members of reptile clubs

often have such “meet and greet” programs already in place,

and will gladly bring a snake or two for therapeutic purposes.


Children are often open to

interacting with reptiles such as

this Honduran Milk snake.

Most reptiles have specific care

needs and require live food

such as mice and insects, so

they are not recommended for

the novice animal therapist.


(Intermediate to Advanced)

Leopard Geckos: One exception to the advanced maintenance

nature of most lizards is Leopard Geckos. These small desert

lizards are often considered great introductory reptiles due to

their minimal need requirements. Leopard Geckos do require

live foods such as crickets and mealworms, but are otherwise

easy to maintain and generally healthy animals. They are also

one of the “cuter” reptiles and appeal to people who are

otherwise not fond of lizards and snakes. Be aware, however,

that Leopard Geckos can live for nearly 20 years, so anyone

considering one should be prepared to care for them for their

lifetime!

A “Tail” of Two Geckos: The popular Leopard Gecko

and its cousin, the Fat-Tailed Gecko, have a unique fat-filled tail

that the animal can detach from its body when threatened. This tail

will continue to wiggle and distract predators while the gecko runs

to safety! Although the gecko will eventually grow another tail in

its place, the new tail is rounded and not as attractive as their

original. The experience also causes them great stress - think of

how we would feel if we lost an appendage! For this reason, never

handle a gecko by its tail and support its body evenly. You don’t

want to be left with a stubby gecko!


Habitat Requirements: - Ten to Twenty Gallon aquarium with screen cover (B). Commercially designed “desert” reptile

kits are also excellent habitats and often contain everything you will need. (G)

- An under-tank heating pad (H)

- Thermometer and Hydrometer C)

- Small “shed” container with moss (E)

- 75W Infrared heat bulb (A)

- “Clamp lamp” with dimmer (A)

- Floor tiles or reptile turf

- Shallow food/water dish (F)

- Decorations for climbing and hiding (D) (I)

- Calcium powder

- Repti-safe water conditioner

- Cricket keeper for live crickets

- Gut-feeding cubes for crickets

www.drsfosterandsmith.com

Leopard geckos can be kept as individuals, in female-only

groups, or as one female and one male pairs. They are

comfortable in 10-20 gallon aquarium desert set-ups that

include decorations to climb on, an enclosed “humid” shed

box, and shallow food and water dishes. One side of the

aquarium should be designated as the “warm” side where the

under-tank heating pad is placed along with the infrared light

bulb suspended from above. Maintain the temperature on this

side between 80-90ºF at all times. The other side of the

aquarium is the “cool” side with no special equipment

required. This allows the gecko to regulate its body

temperature from warm to cool as it desires. The tank should

be lined with either floor tiles or commercially purchased

reptile turf. Fine sand can also be used, but geckos have been

http://www.drsfosterandsmith.com/


known to eat larger grains of sand causing fatal internal

blockages.

Geckos routinely shed their skin, and a small container lined

with moist paper towels or terrarium moss will aid in the

molting process. Keep the shed box moist with pre-conditioned

tap water at all times.

General Maintenance: Geckos will designate one area

of their habitat as the bathroom and only use it once or

twice per week. Their waste resembles bird droppings

and can be easily wiped up with a paper towel. Their

shed box should be moistened and the water bowl

should be filled with pre-conditioned tap water daily.

Provide a small amount of calcium powder in their

food dish for them to lick as needed. The entire habitat

should be completely cleaned monthly with

commercially-made reptile safe aquarium cleaner.

Diet: Leopard geckos require live foods such as

crickets and mealworms, but only need to eat every

other day. See your pet retailer for availability of foods

and their feeding recommendations based on the size

and age of your gecko.

Behavior: Leopard geckos generally do not like to be

handled, but they will learn to walk onto your hand.

Tiny lizard harnesses can be purchased at pet retailers

and will help ensure the gecko does not escape when

taken out of their habitat. Leopard geckos are most

active at night and enjoy basking in the heat during the

day.


Leopard geckos are friendly lizards

that have minimal care

requirements. They can also be

taught to wear a harness and climb

onto your hand.


Sample Therapy Activities with Reptiles




experience!

(Intermediate activity level)

The Magic Touch

Objective: To teach appropriate touching and respect for

others and personal space

Targeted Population: Children ages 6+ through adult

Animal: Snake or Lizard

Activity (30 minutes): Introduce the reptile to the

individual and ensure they are both comfortable with

each other. Explain how reptiles have scales, and they

must be handled carefully to avoid hurting them. Point

out the animal’s scales and the direction they are laying.


Explain that touching the animal under the scales or in

the opposite direction then they are laying could cause the

animal discomfort. Discuss why it is important to touch

an animal appropriately. Talk about personal space, and

discuss ways in which animals show you they do not want

to interact. Talk about how people feel when personal

space is invaded, and what alternative behaviors can be

used.

www.zooinversity.org


CHAPTER 5

Pint-Sized Pals



Hamsters, Gerbils, Mice and Rats

They may be small in size, but these furry mammals can have a

big impact on teaching concepts of trust, dependence, and self-

care. Hamsters, gerbils, rats and mice are good options for

therapy animals as they can be portable, easy to work with,

entertaining to watch and seem to enjoy interacting with

people. Although all rodents, there are distinct differences

between hamsters, gerbils, mice and rats that must be

considered before deciding on the best “pocket pal” for your

needs.

(Intermediate)

Hamsters and Gerbils: While it may seem the main difference

between hamsters and gerbils is the absence or presence of a

tail, they do have other differences that must be considered

before deciding which one to keep. Hamsters are loners and do

best when kept as single individuals while gerbils prefer to live

in colonies. Additionally, gerbils tend to be more social towards

humans and are less likely to bite. Both species are notorious

escape artists, however; and care must be taken to secure their

enclosures to prevent escape. Care and diet are similar for

both.

Habitat Requirements: - Commercially made small mammal cage or modified glass aquarium with a tight fitting

screen lid. Cages with tunnels and other structures are also recommended for hamsters

as they are burrowing animals by nature. Gerbils can be housed in a modified aquarium.

- Feeding bowl and hanging water bottle

- In-cage exercise wheel or free-rolling exercise ball

- Small mammal toys

- Small mammal bedding material

- Commercially prepared hamster and gerbil food

Line the bottom of the aquarium or cage with bedding

material. Attach the water bottle as directed and add food

bowl, exercise wheel and other toys as desired. Make sure door


or lid to habitat is secure! Consider weighting the top of the

aquarium or adding a door lock to prevent escapes.

When you gotta go…: One factor influencing your

choice of bedding material will be which small animal you

wish to keep. In general, hamsters will urinate more often

than gerbils, and therefore will need more frequent bedding

changes. Mice and rats are notorious for their strong-smelling

urine, and will use the bathroom often! The difference

however, is that mice are substantially smaller than rats

and do not urinate the same amounts. Rat habitats will need

constant bedding changes as they will urinate frequently and

create a less-then-pleasant smell!

Diet: Fill water bottle with fresh water daily and as

needed. Hamsters and gerbils enjoy most

commercially prepared mixes of seeds and grains.

They also appreciate occasional “treats” of peanuts,

apple and greens. Watch for overfeeding: hamsters

and gerbils will hoard extra food in their bedding if

overfed. This wasted food is likely to rot, creating

unhealthy conditions for your animal.

Behavior: Both hamsters and gerbils are nocturnal

and will sleep most of the day. Provide plenty of

opportunity for exercise such as a running wheel or

exercise ball. Hamsters in particular do not like to

be handled, but can grow accustomed to being pick-

ed up with frequent human interaction.

A golden teddy bear

hamster (left) and a Mongolian gerbil

(right)

www.hamster-palace.com www.petcarevb.com

http://www.hamster-palace.com/


(Intermediate)

Rats and Mice: Next to reptiles and insects, rats and mice are

next in line in the least popular category. Many people are

squeamish around these rodents due to their reputation as

disease carriers and in their appearance (particularly in their

naked tails). Fortunately, domesticated rats and mice are not

the disease-ridden vermin of their wild relatives. In fact, rats

make excellent pets! They are intelligent, trainable and

affectionate, and even come to recognize their human and

interact accordingly. Mice are also entertaining companions,

though not as easy to train or handle as rats and have shorter

life spans (two to three years). The habitat and care

requirements are similar to those for hamsters and gerbils with

one exception – rats require considerably larger habitats with

plenty of climbing areas and resting hammocks. Rats should

be housed as individuals or in female pairs. Mice prefer single

sex pairs. It is also important to never mix the two species, as

rats are natural attackers of mice.

.


Okay, I have to admit I’m a converted fan of rats! I

became a believer when we acquired a pair of female

rats at The Virginia Zoo for the education department.

Houdini and Pudge came to us from a loving home,

but their owners were moving out of town and could

not take their rats with them. I was hesitant at first,

but after spending only a few minutes with them, I

fell in love! Houdini had trained her human to hold

out their arm and let her climb up their shoulder by

tugging on their sleeve with her mouth. Once she

reached her destination, she would proceed to lick

their ear and neck until she got her head scratched!

The children loved watching her trick and she soon

became a beloved ambassador for her species among

zoo education staff!


Sample Therapy Activities with Pocket Pets




experience!


Trust Me, I’m Your Friend!

Objective: To learn trust-building techniques and

empathy towards others.

Targeted Population: Children 8+ through adult

Animal: Gerbil or Rat preferred

Activity (15 minutes per session – best as an ongoing trust-

building exercise): Introduce the animal to the individual and

allow both to become comfortable with each other. Ask how

they think an animal of this size feels when confronted with

someone as big as a human. Ask them what steps they could

take to make the animal learn to trust them? While holding the

animal, let the individual slowly touch its fur. Put the animal

back into its enclosure and allow the individual to offer it a

treat. Repeat this exercise frequently until the individual and

animal are comfortable; instruct them how to hold the animal

properly and allow further interactions to build confidence.

Discuss if the animal’s behavior has changed and if so, what let

to it? Talk about how the individual can use similar skills of

patients and kindness to build similar trusting relationships

with others.



The Little Mouse that Could!

Objective: Learning to overcome obstacles and meet

goals.


Animal: Hamster, gerbil, mouse or rat

Additional Equipment: Wood or plastic toy building

blocks, various small animal toys, treats for the animal

Activity (30-45 minutes): Offer the individual some toy blocks

and instruct them to use the blocks to create a simple maze

(guide them as necessary). Once finished, introduce the animal

to the individual and allow both to become comfortable with

each other. Instruct the individual to hide a piece of food

somewhere in the maze and predict how long it will take the

animal to find it. Place the animal into the maze and allow it to

find its way to the food. Discuss the results with the individual.

Was the animal able to find the treat? What obstacles did it

encounter? Next, ask the individual to build a bigger maze,

hide a piece of food and include some small mammal toys as

distractions for the animal. Again, predict how long it may

take the animal to find the treat and what obstacles it will find

challenging. Place the animal into the maze and observe. Was

it able to find the food? What obstacles did the animal face and

was it able to overcome them? What goals do they personally

want to achieve? Are there any distractions in their life that

could prevent them from reaching their goals? Discuss

obstacles the individual has in their life and what steps can be

taken to overcome them.


CHAPTER 6

Compassionate Companions: Cats and Dogs

www.azcentral.com


Dogs and Cats: Special Considerations,

Resources and Training

When it comes to animal-assisted therapy programs, cats and

dogs are the primary animals used in such programs today.

Their friendly nature and familiarity to most people make

them ideal for therapy programs in hospitals, schools,

psychiatric institutions and nursing homes. However, both the

animals and their handlers require specialized training to

qualify as certified therapy animals. If you are considering

using a dog or cat in any therapy program, contact the

following resources for certification and training information:

The Delta Society Canine Companions for Independence

www.DeltaSociety.org www.cci.org

875 124th Ave NE #101 Northeast Region

Bellevue, WA 98005 286 Middle Island Road

Phone: (425) 679-5500 Medford, NY 11763

Fax: (425) 679-5539 1-800-572-BARK

DO YOUR HOMEWORK! Dogs and cats

have advanced requirements beyond the scope

of this handbook. Please consult with a

veterinarian, professional animal-assisted

therapy organization or other resources due to the higher level

of care, commitment and training required by these animals.

Jaeger and handler Patricia Coale of The Up

Center in Norfolk, Virginia become acquainted

with students during an animal-assisted therapy

visit at a local grade school.

The Up Center File Photo


http://www.caninecompanions.org/


Sample Therapy Activities with Dogs and Cats


guide you in preparing animal-assisted interventions. Handlers

of therapy dogs and cats should be trained in proper handling

and command techniques by an AAT certification agency.


Getting To Know You Modified from the American Humane Association’s American Humane KIDS Activity

Packet, 2009.

Objective: Teaches kindness and respect for animals and

empathy towards each other. Helps recognize needs and

identify what makes us happy, healthy and safe.

Targeted Population: Children 6+ (solo or in groups)

Animal: Dog or cat

Additional Equipment: Paper and pen or chalk/dry-erase

board

Activity (40 minutes): In this activity, an individual (or small

group) is asked: What makes them happy? What do they need

to be safe? What do they need to be healthy? Write down

answers on a board or piece of paper and discuss what would

happen if these needs are not met? Next, introduce the animal

and allow both animal and individuals to become accustomed

to each other. Once introductions are made, ask the individual

(or group) what makes the animal happy, safe and healthy?

Write these answers down on a board or piece of paper.

Depending on the answers, ask the individual or group to

demonstrate some of the responses on the animal. For example,


if someone responds with “petting,” allow them to pet the

animal. If they say “food,” have them give the animal a treat.

When answers are made that cannot be demonstrated (such as

vet care or neutering), discuss why these are important. Return

the conversation back to human needs and ask if they have any

new answers to add to the list. Talk about emotional needs

both animals and humans have (such as friendship and trust).

Close activity by demonstrating how the animal indicates their

emotional needs to humans (such as barking, rubbing, etc…).

(Advanced activity level)

Play Time! Modified from Dustin’s Paw: Animal-Assisted Therapy Interactive Techniques, 2003.

Objective: To learn trust-building skills and increase

confidence around animals. Can also be modified to focus

on physical, speech and language challenges such as:

range of motion, communication and counting.

Targeted Population: Children 6+

Animal: Dog or cat

Additional Equipment: The animal’s favorite toys or

games

Activity (15-30 minutes): This activity is designed to allow

interaction between animal and individual while facilitating a

“game” of fetch, basketball, chase or string tag (depending on

your animal’s training or favorite activity). Additional goals

can also be incorporated into the chosen activity to facilitate

communication, exercise or other skills as needed. For

example: An individual can work on communication skills by


playing fetch with a dog. As part of the game, the individual

must learn and give the dog the proper command to retrieve

the object (based on learned commands the animal has

mastered in certification training). Once the object has been

successfully returned, the individual must offer praise to the

animal. A “score card” can also be used to incorporate

counting and game-playing skills.

Variation 1 for Cats: Cats often enjoy playing with

specially-made feather poles, and this can be made

into a game with the individual and cat in a similar

manner.

Variation 2 for Dogs: If the dog is trained to play

basketball (a standard skill taught in AAT courses),

facilitate a basketball game between the dog and the

individual. Have the individual keep score and give

the dog proper commands to retrieve and shoot the

ball.

(Advanced activity level)

Stand By Me! Modified from Dustin’s Paw: Animal-Assisted Therapy Interactive Techniques, 2003.

Objective: To reduce habitual patterns of running away

in public areas

Targeted Population: Ages 10+

Animal: Dog

Additional Equipment: Two leashes (one for handler,

another for individual). Ensure the dog is properly


marked as a companion or therapy dog for use in public

areas.

Activity (as needed): This activity serves as a fun way to break

habitual patterns in an individual who routinely runs away

from their parent or group in public settings when distracted.

It does require pre-familiarization between the individual and

dog in addition to proper command and handling procedures

by the handler. For the exercise, simply attach two leashes to

the dog when going into public settings. Allow the individual to

walk the dog with one leash while the handler maintains the

other (for the animal’s safety and control). Explain to the

individual that they are “in charge” of walking the dog.

Allowing them this important responsibility can minimize

distractions and gives the individual a task to focus on while in

public. Therapy dogs often receive additional attention in

public and this may also instill a sense of pride in the

individual walking the dog.


Whew! I’m tired

after all these

exercises. Time for a

cat-nap!


APPENDIX

Author’s Personal Photo


Recommended Sites and Books

Helpful Websites:

www.deltasociety.org – The Delta Society: information on animal-

assisted therapy training, certification and research.

www.cci.org – Canine Companions for Independence:

information on trained assistance dogs and support.

www.tdi-dog.org – Therapy Dogs International, Inc.: information

on qualified handlers and therapy dogs for visits, training and

testing programs.

www.avma.org – American Veterinary Medical Association:

provides resources for animal-assisted therapy standards and

guidelines in addition to current research.

www.aspcaeducation.org – The American Society for the

Prevention of Cruelty to Animals: A guide to lesson plans, animal

activities and nature-based learning activities for students and

teachers.

www.recreationtherapy.com - A comprehensive guide to

recreational therapy activities including some animal-assisted

therapy techniques.

www.ourfunnyplanet.com


http://www.caninecompanions.org/

http://www.tdi-dog.org/

http://www.avma.org/

http://www.aspcaeducation.org/

http://www.recreationtherapy.com/


Recommended Reading:

Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy: Theoretical

Foundations and Guidelines for Practice, 3rd

Edition by Aubrey

H. Fine – a collection of professional research journal articles

on various aspects of animal-assisted therapy.

The Powerful Bond Between People and Pets: Our Boundless

Connections to Companion Animals by P. Elizabeth Anderson –

a exploration of the human-animal bond including why people

are attracted to certain animals and how to deal with the loss

of a pet.

Practical Pet Care Handbook: Exotic Pets by David Alderton –

a comprehensive guide on the care, breeding and breed

selection of exotic pet species such as birds, reptiles,

amphibians, invertebrates and fish.

Practical Pet Care Handbook: Small Pets by David Alderton – a

comprehensive guide on the care, breeding and pet selection of

rabbits, guinea pigs, hamsters, gerbils, rats and mice.

The Everything Tropical Fish Book: Setting up and Maintaining

Freshwater and Saltwater Aquariums by Carlo DeVito &

Gregory Skokal – an easy-to-follow guide to aquariums,

goldfish and betta keeping.

Reptile Keeper’s Guides: Leopard and Fat-Tailed Geckos by

R.D. Bartlett and Patricia Bartlett – everything you need to

know about selection, care, health and breeding of Leopard

and Fat-Tailed Geckos.


List of Resources

Alderton, D. (2003). Practical Pet Care Handbook: Exotic Pets. London. Lorenz

Books.

Alderton, D. (2002). Practical Pet Care Handbook: Small Pets. London. Lorenz

Books.

American Veterinary Medical Society (2011). AVMA Policy: Wellness guidelines

for animals in animal-assisted activity, animal-assisted therapy and

resident animal programs. http://www.avma.org/issues/

policy/animal_assisted_activity.asp

Anderson P.E. (2008). The Powerful Bond between People and Pets: Our Boundless


American Humane Association (2009). American Humane KIDS: kids interacting with

dogs safely activity packet. Retrieved June 12, 2011, from

http://americanhumane.org

American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (2006). Teacher Newsletter:

What is Service Learning? ASPCA Animalessons. http://aspcaeducation.org

Bartlett, R.D. & Bartlett, Patricia (1999). Reptile Keeper’s Guide: Leopard and Fat-

Tailed Geckos. Hauppauge, New York. Barron’s Educational Series, Inc.

DeVito, C. & Skokal, G. (2000). The Everything Tropical Fish Book: Setting up and

Maintaining Freshwater and Saltwater Aquariums. Holbrook, Massachusetts.

Adams Media Corporation.

Fine, A.H. (2010). Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy: Theoretical Foundations and

Guidelines for Practice, 3rd


http://www.avma.org/issues/


Heiser, C.A. & the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries (2005). Educators

and Virginia’s Wildlife Laws. Retrieved June 12, 2011, from

http://www.dgif.virginia.gov



AuthorHouse.

Rampelberg, D. (2003). Dustin’s Paw: 2003 Animal Assisted Therapy Interactive

Techniques. San Jose, California. Self-Published.

Therapeutic Recreation Directory (2011). Animal-Assisted Therapy Ideas.

http://www.recreationtherapy.com/tx/animalassisted.htm

The Virginia Zoo (2007). Docent and Part-Time Educator Training Guide. Norfolk,

Virginia. Self-published.

University of Arizona: Center for Insect Science Education Outreach (1997). Lesson

Plans. http://insected.arizona.edu

University of Saskatchewan: College of Education (retrieved June, 2011). The Care of

Live Animals in the Classroom. http://usask.ca/education/coursework/mcvittiej/

resources/livingthings/animals.htm



http://usask.ca/education/coursework/mcvittiej/


Chapter IV

Statement of Learning

After conducting my research of the available literature and compiling this

handbook, I uncovered that the resources and techniques available on animal-assisted

therapy exceeded my expectations. My research of the literature uncovered a moderate

amount of documentation on the history of animal-assisted therapy and many studies

from the past to present supporting the benefits of the practice. However, the majority of

these resources were, as I expected, focused on canine or equine (horse) therapy

programs and beyond the introductory scope of my intentions for this handbook.

Based on my research, I believe creating a handbook on classroom-friendly

animal interactions and basic animal husbandry techniques fills a gap in the information

currently available to educators and therapists. Additionally, I found this handbook lends

itself to future revisions to include other animal species such as birds and rabbits along

with expanded activity plans for all species documented in the guide. This handbook is a

work in progress, and one that I hope to continue as I progress in the field of education

and science.

I hope that teachers, therapists or anyone interested in the amazing process of

animal-assisted therapy and intervention will enjoy and learn from this handbook, and

uncover for themselves the special bond humans can share with nature and all its

inhabitants.


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Books.

American Humane Association (2009). American Humane KIDS: kids interacting with

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http://americanhumane.org

American Pet Products Association. (2010). 2009-2010 APPA National Pet Owners

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American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (2006). Teacher Newsletter:

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American Veterinary Medical Society (2011). AVMA Policy: Wellness guidelines

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final ilp animal-assisted therapy

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