• Final Exam Review

• The final exam will be held on Wednesday, December 15 from 4 – 6 p.m. Note that the exam will take no longer than two hours, not three hours as scheduled by the university.

• The exam will be held in Trani 155.

• All students must bring their VCU identification cards, #2 pencils, and know their “V” number to record on the Scantron sheet.

• There will be no early or makeup exams.

• The exam will have 100 multiple choice questions, 60 questions on the new material and 40 questions on the old material. About 12 questions in the chapter.

• Chapter 1

• Identify the different levels of organization. (From simple to complex)

• Chemical Level: Atom/Molecule

• Cellular Level: Cells

• Tissue Level: Epithelial tissue

• Organ Level: Small intestine

• Organ System Level: Digestive system

• Organismal Level: Human Being

• Describe the body in anatomical position.

• An individual stands upright with the feet parallel and flat on the floor. The head is level, and the yes look forward towards the observer. The arms are at either side of the body with the palms facing forward and the thumbs pointing away from the body.

• Define standardized terms of direction, regional terms and planes of the body.

• Directional: Once the body is in anatomic position, we can precisely describe the relative position of various structures by using specific directional terms:

• Relative to the front/back

• Anterior, Posterior, Dorsal, Ventral

• Relative to the head/tail

• Superior, Inferior, Caudal, Cranial

• Relative to the midline/center

• Medial, Lateral, Deep, Superficial

• Relative to the point of attachment of appendance

• Proximal, Distal

• Regional: Human body is partitioned into two main regions

• Axial: Includes the head, neck and trunk; it forms the main vertical axis of the body

• Appendicular: Our limbs, or appendages, attach to the body’s axis and make up the appendicular region

• Planes: Imaginary “slices” of the body.

• Coronal Plane: also called the frontal plane. Is a vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior parts. Contains the chest (anterior) and back (posterior).

• Transverse Plane: also called the cross-sectional plane or horizontal plane. Cuts perpendiculary along the long axis of the body. The body is separated into superior (upper) and inferior (lower)

• Midsagittal Plane: also called a median plane. Extends through the body or organ vertically and divides the structure into right and left halves. A plane that is parallel to the midsagittal but to either left or right is referred to as the sagittal plane.

• Compare the dorsal body cavity with ventral body cavity.

• Dorsal Body Cavity

• Has 2 enclosed cavities. A Cranial Cavity is formed by the cranium and houses the brain. A Vertebral Canal is formed by the individual bones of the vertebral column and contains the spinal cord.

• Ventral Body Cavity

• Arises from a space called the coelom that forms during embryonic development. Eventually parts into a superior thoracic cavity and inferior abdominopelvic cavity. The formation of the thoracic diaphragm partitions between these cavities.

• Both cavities are lined with thin serous membranes which are composed of 2 layers: Parietal layer lines the internal surface of the body wall and a visceral layer covers the external surface of the organs. Between these layers of serous membrane is a thin serous cavity that is “potential space”. This contains serous fluid (lubricant)

• Compare and contract each of the serous cavities: pericardial, pleural and peritoneal.

• Pericardial Cavity: is potential space between the parietal and visceral pericardia; it contains serous fluid.

• Pleural Cavity: is the narrow, moist potential space between the parietal and visceral layers external to the lungs, but internal to the thoracic cavity. It also contains serous fluid.

• Peritoneal Cavity: is the potential space between the serous membrane layers lining the abdominopelvic cavity. The peritoneum is a two-layered serous membrane: parietal and visceral. The space between these two is the peritoneal cavity.

• Describe the organization of the abdominopelvic cavity into regions and quadrants.

• 9 compartments: 3 rows (superior, middle, and inferior), 3 columns ( left, middle, right)

• Epigastric: Superior, middle. Contains part of liver, part of stomach, the duodenum, part of the pancreas, and both the adrenal glands.

• Umbilical: Middle, Middle. Contains the transverse colon, part of the small intestine, and the brances of the blood vessels to the lower limbs.

• Hypogastric: Inferior, middle. Contains part of the small intestine, the urinary bladder, and the sigmoid colon.

• R/L hypochondriac: Superior, lateral to Epigastric. Contains part of liver, gallbladder, and R/L Kidney. The left hypochondriac contains part of the stomach, spleen, left colic flexure of large intestine, and L kidney.

• R/L Iliac: Inferior, lateral to hypogastric region. R side contains inferior end of cecum, the appendix, and part of the small intestine.

• R/L Lumbar: middle regions lateral to the umbilical region. R side contains ascending colon and the right colic flexure of the large intestine, part of the small intestine, the L side contains descending colon, part of left kidney, and part of small intestine.

• Chapter 4

• Distinguish between the four main types of tissue.

• Epithelial: Covers or lines everybody surface and all body cavities; thus it forms both internal and external lining of many organs and it constitutes the majority of glands. An epithelium is composed of one or more layers of closely packed cells between two compartments having different components. There is little to no extracellular matrix between epithelium cells; additionally, no blood vessels penetrate an epithelium.

• Connective: Most diverse, abundant, widely distributed, and microscopically variable of the tissues. CT is designed to support, protect, and bind organs. CT implies “glue” that binds body structures together. CT includes fibrous tendons and legatments, body fat, the cartilage that connects the ends of ribs to the sternum, the bones of the skeleton, and the blood.

• Muscle Tissue: composed of specialized cells (fibers) that respond to stimulation from the nervous system by undergoing internal changes that cause them to shorten. As muscle tissue shortens, it exerts physical forces on other tissues and organs to produce movement, these movements include voluntary motion of body parts, blood circulation, respiratory activites, propulsion of material through digestive tract, and waste elimination.

• Nervous Tissue: sometimes referred to as neural tissue. Consists of cells called neurons and a larger number of different types of glial cells (supporting cells) that support, protect, and provide framework for neurons.

• Describe the characteristics of epithelial tissue.

• Polarity: Every epithelium has an apical surface (free, top), which is exposed either to external environment or to some internal body space, and lateral surfaces having intercellular junctions. Additionally, each epithelium has a basal surface (bottom, fixed) where the epithelium is attached to the underlying CT.

• A-vascular: All epithelial tissue lack blood vessels. They obtain nutrients either directly across the apical surface or by diffusion across the basal surface from the underlying CT.

• Innervated: Epithelia are richly innervated to detect changes in the environment at a particular body or organ surface region.

• Regenerative ability: They are frequently damaged being exposed to the external environment. They are replaced as fast as they are lost. Continual replacement occurs through the mitotic division of the deepest epithelial Stem Cells: which are found @ the base of epithelial cells.

• Attachment: @ the basal surface, is bound to a thin basement membrane.

• Classification of Epithelial Tissue: Indicated by a two-part name. 1st part refers to the number of epithelial cell layers, and the second part refers to the shape of the cells at the apical surface.

• Classification by Number of Cell Layers:

• Simple: One cell layer thing. All cells in direct contact with basement membrane. Often covered by thin layer of mucous to prevent desiccation and help protect from friction and abrasion. Found in areas where stress in minimal and where filtration. Absorption or secretion is primary function. (Air sacs of lungs, intestines, and blood vessels)

• Stratified: contains two or more layers. On the cells in the deepest layer are in contact with the basement membrane. Resembles a brick wall. This type of cell layer make is strong and capable of resisting stress and protecting underlying tissue. Found in areas subject to abrasive activity and mechanical stress. (internal lining of esophagus, or vagina). Cells in the basal layer continue to regenerate as the cells in superficial layer are lost due to abrasive activities.

• Psuedostratified: looks layered, but is not. Because cells are distributed at different levels between apical and basal surfaces. All are attached to basement surface, but some of them do not reach apical surface. Those that do not reach surface often have mucus on them (ciliated psuedostratified) lines the nasal cavity and respiratory passageways.

• Classification by Cell Shape

• Squamous: are flat, wide, and somewhat irregular in shape. Nucleus looks like a flattened disc. Cells are arranged like irregular, flattened floor tiles.

• Cuboidal: Are about tall as they are wide. Nucleus is spherical and located within center of cell.

• Columnar: slender and taller than they are wide. Look like a group of hexagonal columns.

• Simple Squamous Amnion

• Simple Cuboidal Kidney Tubules

• Nonciliated Simple Columnar Mucosa of small intestine

• Ciliated Simple Columnar Uterine Tube

• Stratified Cuboidal Duct of sweat gland

• Stratified Columnar Male Urethra

• Non-Keratinized(not dead) Stratified Squamous Vagina

• Keratinized(dead) Stratified Squamous Epidermis of Skin

• Pseudostratified Columnar Nasal Cavity Lining

• Transitional Urinary Bladder: Epithelial appearance varies. Whether tissue is stretched or relaxed.

• Glands: Epithelial tissues develop invaginations. Perform secretory functions: Mucin, hormones, enzymes, and waste products.

Characterize the different types of connective tissue.

• The types of connective tissue are very diverse, all of them share 3 basic components: Cells, protein fibers, and ground substance. Connective tissue is designed to support, protect, and bind organs.

Types: Connective Tissue proper, Supporting Connective tissue (cartilage, bone) & Fluid Connective Tissue (blood)

• Connective Tissue Proper: Exhibit a mixture of both CT cell types and extracellular protein fibers suspended within a ground substance. The CT differ with respect to the types of cells and proportions of fibers and ground substance. Fibers include: Collagen, Elastic, Reticular.

Loose CT: Fewer fibers, more ground substance

1. Areolar

2. Adipose

3. Reticular

Dense CT: More fibers, less ground substance

1. Dense Regular

2. Dense Irregular

3. Elastic

• CT Proper: Loose CT

Areolar CT: Pappillary layer of dermis

Adipise CT: Subcutaneous layer (hypodermis)

Reticular CT: Stroma of Spleen

• CT Proper: Dense CT

Dense Regular CT: Tendon

Dense Irregular CT: Reticular layer of Dermis

Elastic: Aorta wall

• Supporting Connective Tissue: Cartilage and bones are this type. Form a strong framework.

o Cartilage: Semisolid Matrix

1. Hyaline

2. Fibrocartilage

3. Elastic

o Bone: Solid matrix

1. Compact

2. Spongy

• Fluid Connective Tissue:

o Blood: contains Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. Extracellular matrix is called plasma

Covering and Lining Membranes

• 2 Principle kinds of internal membranes are

o Mucous Membrane: also called mucosa, lines the body passageways and compartments that eventually open to the external environment; these include the digestive, respiratory, reproductive, and urinary tracts. Provides lubrication, and traps bacteria and foreign particles to prevent them from invading the body.

o Serous Membrane: also called serosa composed of simple squamous epithelium. It produces a thin, watery layer of serous fluid. Serous membrane is composed of two parts

Parietal Layer: lines the body cavity

Visceral layer: covers organs.

o Cutaneous Membrane: is the largest body membrane. Commonly known as skin. Composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

o Synovial Membrane: some joints of skeletal system are lined with this membrane.

• Describe the three types of muscle tissue.

• Skelatal: Composed of long, cylindrical muscle cells called muscle fibers. Skeletal muscles fibers are multi-nucleated. Striated and voluntary. Exhibit bands: striations.

• Smooth: Lacks striations, cells are fusiform (spindle-shape) and short. One centrally located nucleus. Involuntary

• Cardiac: Cells are short, bifurcated and striated, with one or two centrally located nucleus. Intercalated discs between cells. Involuntary contration.

• Explain the nature of nervous tissue.

• Sometimes referred to as neural tissue. It cosists of cells called Neurons (nerve cells) and a larger number of Glial cells(supporting cells) that support, protect, and provide framework for neurons.

Chapter 5

• Identify the major layers of the epidermis and dermis

• Epidermis

• Stratum Basale – Most deep

• Stratum Spinosum

• Stratum Granulosum

• Stratum Lucidum

• Stratum Corneum – Most superficial

• Dermis

• Papillary Layer – Superficial

• Reticular Layer – Deep

Describe the structure of the hypodermis.

• Deep to the integument is the subcutaneous layer: Hypodermis. Not considered a part of the integument. Layer consists of both areolar CT and adipose CT. This layer pads and protects the body and its parts, acts as an energy reservoir, and provides thermal insulation.

• Characterize the specialized cells

• Keratinocytes: Most abundant cell type in epidermis. The stratum basale is dominated by large keratinocyte stem cells, which divide to provide both replacement stem cell and new kertainocytes that replace the dead keratinocytes that shed from the surface.

• Melanocytes: have long branching cytoplasmic processes and are scattered among the keratinocytes of the stratum basale. These processes transfer pigment granules, called melanosomes into the kertatinocytes. Darker skin tones develop because of this

• Tactile Cells: Few in number, but these cells are sensitive to touch

• Name the appendages of the skin

• Nails: They are hard derivatives from the stratum corneum layer. Cells that form the nails are densely packed and filled with parallel fibers of hard keratin.

• Hair: Found almost everywhere but on the palms of the hands, side and soles of feet, the lops, and the sides of fingers and toes, and portions of the external genitalia. Hair protect, help with heat retention, allow for facial expressions, sensory reception, visual identification and chemical signal dispersal (attract opposite sex: pheromones)

• Sebaceous Glands: Holocrine glands that discharge an oily waxy secretion called sebum, usually into a hair follicle. Sebum acts as a lubricant to keep the skin and hair from becoming dry, brittle, and cracked. Sebum has bacterial killing properties.

• Sweat Glands

• Merocrine Sweat Glands: release their secretion onto the surface of the skin. Controlled by the nervous system

• Apocrine Sweat Glands: release their secretion onto hair follicles at the armpits, nipples, in the groin area and around the anus.

• Describe factors that contribute to skin color

• Normal skin color results from a combination of hemoglobin, melanin, and carotene.

• Hemoglobin: Exhibits a bright red color, giving blood vessels in the dermis a bright reddish tint that is most easily observed in the skin of lightly pigmented individuals.

• Melanin: is a pigment produced and stored in melanocytes. Occur is variations of yellow, reddish, tan, brown and black shades. The keratinocytes that receive the melanin are displaced towards the stratum corneum, thus giving color to the epidermis.

• Carotene: Yellow-orange pigment that is acquired in the body from eating yellow-orange vegetables—corn, carrots etc…

• Chapter 6

• List the three major types of cartilage tissue and where they are located in the adult body

• Hyaline: Most abundant type. Found in trachea, portions of the larynx, the articular joint cartilage on bones, epiphyseal plates, coastal cartilage, and in nose.

• Fibrocartilage: has thick collagen fibers that help resist stretching. Acts as a shock absorber. Located where strength is required. Intervertebral discs, pubic symphasis, Mensicus (knee joint) padding.

• Elastic: highly branched elastic fibers within the ECM. Found in regions requiring a highly flexible form of support: auricle of ear, external auditory canal, and the epiglottis.

• Describe how cartilage grows: appositional and interstitial growth

• Appositional Growth

1. Stem cells @ internal edge of perichondrium divide and form new stem cells and committed cells.

2. Committed cells differentiate to chondroblasts

3. Chondroblasts located at the periphery of the old cartilage secrete new cartilage matrix. As a result, they push apart and become chondrocytes.

4. The new matrix has been produced peripherally, and appositional growth has occurred.

• Interstitial Growth

1. Chrondrocytes housed in lacunae undergo mitotic division

2. After division, two new cells occupy a single lacunae

3. Cells begin to synthesize and secrete new cartilage matrix, they are pushed apart

4. New individual cells in their lacunae are called chrondrocytes. New matrix has been produced internally.

• Describe the gross anatomy of a long bone and a flat bone

• Long Bone Anatomy

• Shaft/Diaphysis: Elongated, usually cylindrical diaphysis

• Epiphysis: @ the end of each diaphysis. Knobby region, enlarged to strengthen the joint and provide added surface area for bone-to-bone articulation/tendon-ligament attachement.

• Metaohysis: region in a mature bone that is sandwiched between diaphysis and epiphysis.

• Medullary Cavity: contains yellow bone marrow.

• Endosteum: incomplete layer of cells that covers all internal surfaces of the bone

• Periosteum: Covers the outer surface of the bone, except areas covered by articular cartilage.

• Flat Bone Anatomy: have a flat, thin surface. Composed of roughly parallel surfaces of compact bone with a layer of internally placed spongy bone. Provide extensive surfaces for muscle attachment and protect underlying soft tissues. Flat bones form the roof of the skull, the scapulae, sternum, and ribs.

• Describe differences between compact and spongy bone.

• Compact Bone: Solid, and relatively dense

• Central Canal, concentric lamellae, Osteocytes, Canaliculi

• Spongy Bone: appears more porous, like a sponge. Forms an open lattice of narrow plates of bone: Trabeculae. Contains NO osteons Trabeculae of spongy bone is composed of Parallel Lamellae.

• Describe the chemical composition of bone.

• The matrix of bone CT has both organic and inorganic components. 1/3 of bone mass is composed of organic compounds: cells, collagen fibers, and ground substance. The inorganic components provide compresseional strength. Calcium phosphate (CaPO4) accounts for most inorganic components of bone.

• Distinguish between intramembranous and endochondral ossification as types of bone formation

• Intramembranous Ossification: “Bone growth within a membrane”. Produces the flat bones of the skull, some of the facial bones, the mandible, and the central part of the clavicle.

• Endochondral Ossification: Begins with a hyaline cartilage model and produces most of the other bones of the skeleton. Those of the upper and lower limbs, pelvis, vertebrae, and ends of clavicle.

• Chapter 9

• Be able to classify joints according to structure and well as function.

• Structure:

• Fibrous Joint: occurs where bone are held together by dense regular CT

• Cartilaginous Joint: occurs where bones are joined by cartilage

• Synovial Joint: has a fluid-filled, joint cavity that separates the articulating surfaces of the bones.

• Function:

• Synarthrosis: is an immobile joint

• Amphiarthrosis: slightly mobile joint

• Diarthrosis: freely mobile joint.

• Describe the general structure of fibrous joints, cartilaginous joints and synovial joints. Give examples of each

• Fibrous Joints: Articulating bones are joined by dense regular CT in fibrous joints. Fibrous joints have no joint cavity. 3 types of fibrous joints

• Gomphoses: Roots of individual teeth with the sockets of the mandible and maxilla. Synarthorisis

• Sutures: found only between certain bones of the skull Synarthrosis

• Syndesmoses: in which articulating bones are joined by long strands of dense irregular CT. Allows for slight mobility: Radius/Ulna and Tibia/Fibula Amphiarthrosis

• Cartilaginous Joints: Joints are attached to each other by cartilage. These joints lack a joint cavity. 2 types.

• Synchondroses: An articulation in which bones are joined by hyaline cartilage. All are immobile Synarthroses. Ex: Costochondral Joints: joints between each body rib and its respective costal cartilage.

• Symphyses: All are amphiathroses (slightly mobile) Ex: pubic symphysis, intervertrbral joints

• Synovial Joints: Freely mobile articulations. Seperated by a joint cavity Diarthroses. Ex: glenohumeral, TMJ, elbow joint, knee joint

• Distinguish between gliding, angular, and rotation types of movement.

• Gliding: simple movement in which two opposing surface slide back and forth or side to side. Angle between the bones does not change and limited movement is possible in any direction. Gliding motion typically occurs along plane joints.

• Angular: Either increases or decreases the angle between two bones. Movements may occur at many of the synovial joints: flexion, extension, hyperextension, lateral flexion, abduction and adduction and circumduction.

• Rotation: Pivoting motion in which bone turns on its own longitudinal axis: Lateral roation, medial rotation, pronation, supination.

• Distinguish between uniaxial, biaxial and multiaxial joints

• Uniaxial: If the bone moves in just one plane/axis.

• Biaxial: bone moves in two planes/axis.

• Multiaxial: bone moves in multiple planes/axis.

• Chapter 10

• Characterize skeletal muscle: location, cell shape and appearance, connective tissue components

• Skeletal muscles are not the only place muscle tissue is found. Muscle tissue is distributed all over the body

• Composed of long, cylindrical muscle cells called muscle fibers. Skeletal muscles fibers are multi-nucleated. Striated and voluntary. Exhibit bands: striations.

• Connective Tissue Components: 3 concentric layers of CT composed of collagen and elastic fibers, encircle each muscle itself. 3 layers are:

• Endomysium: innermost CT

• Perimysium: surrounds the fascicles

• Epimysium: superficial, surrounds the whole skeletal muscle

• Explain the sliding filament theory of muscular contraction

• According to the sliding filament theory, when muscle contracts, thick and thin filaments past each other, and the sacromere shortens.

• The width of the A band remains constant, but the H zone disappears.

• The Z discs in one sacromere move closer together.

• The sacromere narrows or shortens in length.

• The I bands narrow or shorten in length.

• Thick and think filaments maintain their same length, whether the muscle is relaxed or contracted. However, during muscle fiber contraction, the relative position between the thick and think filaments within the sacromeres changes markedly. Thick filaments in neighboring sacromeres move closer together, as do the thin filaments on either end of one sacromere.

• Describe cardiac muscle tissue with its unique features: intercalated discs, striations, and contractility

• Cardiac Muscle Tissue: Arranged in thick bundles within the heart wall. Cells are striated like skeletal, but shorter and thicker. They have only one or two nuclei. The cells for a “Y” shape branches @ junctions called intercalated discs. The ANS controls the rate of contraction. Cardiac muscle cells are autorythmic: individual cells can generate muscle impulse without nervous stimulation.

• List the characteristics of smooth muscle tissue

• Composed of short muscle cells that have fusiform shape. Single, centrally located nucleus. They are not precisely aligned, so no visible striations are present. Z discs are absent. Contraction is slow, resistant to fatigue.

• Chapter 22

• Describe the location of the heart in the thoracic cavity

• Positioning of the Heart Slightly left of midline

deep to the sternum in the mediastinum Median space within the thoracic cavity

Right side or right border primarily formed by the right atrium and ventricle is located more anteriorly Left side or left border primarily formed by the left atrium and ventricle is located more posteriorly

The posterosuperior surface of the heart Formed primarily by the left atrium Is called the base of the heart The superior border is formed by the great arterial vessels

Ascending aorta Pulmonary trunk

the superior vena cava

The inferior conical end is called the apex The inferior border is formed by the right ventricle

• Explain the systemic, pulmonary and coronary circuits

Pulmonary Comprised of the right side of the heart, the pulmonary arteries and veins Function: Conveys blood to the lungs and back to the left side of the heart Systemic Comprised of the left side of the heart, arteries and veins Function: Conveys blood to most body tissues and back to the right side of the heart

• Distinguish between the following: Atrium and auricle, atrium and ventricle, pectinate muscle and trabeculae carnae, bicuspid valve and tricuspid valve

• Right Atrium Right atrioventricular valve tricuspid valve Separates the right atrium from the right ventricle Deoxygenated venous blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle through

the right atrioventricular valve The right atrioventricular valve is forced closed when the right ventricle begins to

contract, preventing blood backflow into the right atrium.

The heart also has four valves: 2 of which are: Right atrioventricular tricuspid Left atrioventricular bicuspid or mitral

Right Ventricle Receives deoxygenated venous blood from the right atrium An interventricular septum forms a thick wall between the right and left ventricles Trabeculae carneae Large, irregular muscular ridges located in the inner wall of each ventricle

The anteroinferior borders of the atria form a muscular extension called the auricle

• Pectinate Muscles: muscular ridges on the anterior wall of the atria and auricle.

• Describe blood flow through the heart and include valves and heart sounds

• @ the beginning of the cardiac cycle the L and R atria contract simultaneously, When the atria contract (atrial systole), blood is forced into the ventricles through the open AV valves. During this time, blood is still returning from the SVC and IVC and coronary sinus. After atria begin to relax (atrial diastole), L and R ventricular contractions (ventricular systole) occurs. When the ventricles contract, AV openings close as blood pushes against the cusps of the AV valve. The semilunar valves are forced open, and blood enters the pulmonary trunk and the aorta.

• SVC/IVC RA RAV(tricuspid) RV Pulmonary Semilunar Valve Pulmonary Trunk and Arteries LUNGS Pulmonary Veins LA LAV (Bicuspid) LV Aorta Body SVC/IVC

• Describe the conduction system and explain innervation to the heart

• Innervation: The heart is innervated by the ANS. Consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic components. The innervations by the ANS doesn’t initiate a heartbeat, but can increase or decrease the rate of the heartbeat.

• Sympathetic: Increases the rate and the force of the contractions

• Parasympathtic: Decreases the heart rate, but generally tends to have no affect on the force of the contraction.

• Conduction System

1. Muscle impulse generated @ the sinoatrial node. Then travels to the AV node

2. AV node communicates with the AV Bundle

3. AV Bundle (Bundle of His) conducts the impulse into the interventricular septum

4. In the interventricular septum, the bundles spilt into R and L

5. These bundles conduct the impulse to the conduction fibers: Purkinje Fibers located in each ventricle.

• Describe the blood supply to and from the heart muscle

• Chapter 23

• Name the three types of blood vessels.

• The three classes of blood vessels are arteries, capillaries and veins

• Describe the tunics of an artery, vein and capillary

Both artery and vein walls have three layers called tunics. From outer to inner:

• Tunica externa (adventitia) – connective tissue that helps anchor the blood vessel to an organ. Larger blood vessels require their own blood supply . The smaller arteries that supply the larger arteries are called vasa vasorum which runs through the tunica externa• Tunic media – comprised of circularly arranged smooth muscle. Sympathetic input causes this smooth muscle to contract resulting in vasoconstriction. Parasympathetic input results in vasodilation.• Tunica intima (interna) – composed of an endothelium (simple squamous epithelium lining the inside of the arteries and veins) and a subendothelial layer of areolar connective tissue

• Describe the differences between elastic arteries, muscular arteries and arterioles

Elastic Arteries• Largest of the arteries (aorta, pulmonary, brachiocephalic, common carotids, subclavians)• Most examples are near the heart• The elastic fibers present in all three tunics allows these arteries to stretch under the increased pressure generated by bloodflow from the heart• Elastic arteries branch into muscular arteriesMuscular Arteries• Medium diameter arteries• Possess elastic fibers in two concentric rings between the three tunics:– The internal elastic lamina which separates the tunica intima and tunica media– The external elastic lamina which separates the tunica media and the tunica externa• Muscular arteries have a proportionately thicker tunica media Arterioles• Smallest arteries• Have less than six cell layers of smooth muscle in their tunica media• Sympathetic innervation to the muscle fiber cells of the tunica media causes vasoconstriction resulting in elevation of blood pressure• Parasympathetic innervation causes vasodilation and a lowering of blood pressure

• List the three different kinds of capillaries.

There are three types of capillaries:• Continuous – most common type, endothelial cells form a continuous and complete lining (no physical holes) aided by the presence of tight junctions• Fenestrated – endothelial cells possess small “holes” to allow fluid exchange between blood and interstitial fluid• Sinusoid – have big gaps between endothelial cells that promotes transport of large molecules and cells to and from the blood

• Describe a capillary bed (the role of precapillary sphincters and the pathway of blood flow)

• Form capillary beds• Each bed is fed by a metarteriole whose proximal end is surrounded by smooth muscles while the distal end, called the thoroughfare channel lacks smooth muscles.• The thoroughfare channel connects to a postcapillary venule• Branches from the metarteriole that begin with a ring of smooth muscle on their walls are called true capillaries

• Explain the function of valves in veins

• Blood pressure in veins is too low to overcome the forces of gravity and possess valves• Valves are formed from the tunica intima and prevent blood from pooling in the limbs

• Define vasa vasorum

• The smaller arteries that supply the larger arteries are called vasa vasorum which runs through the tunica externa

• Chapter 14

• Define CNS and PNS

Central Nervous System (CNS) Brain skull Spinal cord vertebral canal

Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Cranial nerves Extend from the brain Spinal nerves Extend from the spinal cord Ganglia Clusters of neuron cell bodies located outside the CNS

• Explain the following types of sensory and motor information carried by the nervous system: somatic sensory, somatic motor, visceral sensory, visceral motor

Somatic sensory Voluntary Components

General somatic senses - touch, pain, pressure, vibration and proprioception Special senses – taste, vision, hearing, balance and smell Visceral sensory

Involuntary Components

Transmit nerve impulses from blood vessels and viscera to the CNS Somatic motor Voluntary nervous system Conducts impulses from the CNS to the skeletal muscles, causing them to contract Autonomic motor

Involuntary nervous system impulses from the CNS that regulate smooth and cardiac muscle and glands Two subdivisions

Parasympathetic Sympathetic

• Define reflex arc including its basic features: sensory neuron, interneuron and motor neuron

Sensory (afferent) transmit impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS Motor (efferent) Transmit impulses from CNS to muscles or glands Interneurons facilitate communication between sensory and motor neurons

Reflex Arc Is the neural “wiring” of a single reflex Always begins at a receptor in the PNS Communicates with the CNS Ends at a peripheral effector (muscle or gland) cell The number of intermediate steps varies depending on the complexity of the reflex

• Distinguish between gray and white matter in the CNS

Gray matter Houses

Motor neuron cell bodies Interneuron cell bodies Dendrites Telodendria Unmyelinated axons

White matter lies deep to the gray matter of the cortex made up of myelinated axons

• Distinguish between nerve and nerve cell (neuron)

Neurons (nerve cells) electrically excitable cells that initiate, transmit and receive nerve impulses

Nerve: a cable-like bundle of parallel axons

Describe the features of a nerve cell and their functions.

The basic structural unit of the nervous system Conduct nerve impulses from one part of the body to another part Characteristics High metabolic rate Extreme longevity Non-mitotic

Classified according to the direction that the nerve impulse is traveling relative to the CNS

Sensory (afferent) Motor (efferent) Interneurons

• Describe the structure of function of a myelin sheath

Myelination The process by which part of an axon is wrapped with a myelin sheath Myelin sheath

a protective fatty coating that gives the axon a glossy-white appearance supports, protects, and insulates an axon composed of the lipoprotein myelin

Concentric layers of myelin No change in voltage can occur across the membrane in the insulated portion of an axon In the PNS, myelin sheaths form from neurolemmocytes In the CNS, they form from oligodendrocytes

• Name six types of glial cells and describe them by their shape and function

Four types of glial cells are found in the CNS Astrocyte Ependymal cell Microglial cell Oligodendrocyte

Astrocytes Most abundant glial cells in the CNS Functions

Help to form the blood-brain barrier (BBB) Regulate tissue fluid composition

Form a structural network Replace damaged neurons Assist development of fetal neurons

Ependymal Cells Ciliated cuboidal epithelial cells Line the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord In conjunction with other glial cells, the ependymal cells produce cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) and form the choroid plexus

Microglial Cells Small cells that are motile Wander through the CNS and exhibit phagocytic activity, removing cellular debris from dead or dying cells

Oligodendrocytes Associated with CNS axons only

Wrap themselves around the axons like electrical tape wrapped around a wire Produce myelin which is an insulator of electrical activity

There are two types of cells found in the PNS Satellite cells Neurolemmocytes

Satellite Cells Flattened cells arranged around neuronal cell bodies in ganglia

Neurolemmocytes Also called Schwann cells Associated with PNS axons only

Wrap themselves around the axons like electrical tape wrapped around a wire produce myelin which is an insulator of electrical activity Same structure and function as oligodendrocytes

• Chapter 15

• Describe the embryological development of the brain, basic parts, and protection of the brain

EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRAIN Brain forms from the cranial part of neural tube different growth rates in different regions of neural tube

Three primary brain vesicles in 4-week embryo Prosenencephalon

the forebrain Mesencephalon

the midbrain Rhombencephalon

the hindbrain

Developing Human Brain (Four Weeks) By the late fourth week of development three primary vesicles have formed

Prosencephalon (forebrain) Mesencephalon (midbrain) Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)

Developing Human Brain (Fifth Week) By the fifth week of development, the three primary vesicles further develop into five secondary brain vesicles

Telencephalon Diencephalon

Mesencephalon Metencephalon Myelencephalon

Developing Human Brain (Fifth Week) Telencephalon

arises from the prosencephalon eventually forms the cerebrum

Diencephalon derives from the prosencephalon eventually form the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus

Mesencephalon is the only primary vesicle that does not form a new secondary vesicle

Developing Human Brain (Fifth Week) Metencephalon

arises from the rhombencephalon eventually forms the pons and cerebellum

Myelencephalon derives from the rhombencephalon eventually forms the medulla oblongata

Support and Protection of the Brain The brain is protected and isolated by multiple structures The bony cranium

provides rigid support Meninges

Protective connective tissue membranes surround and partition portions of the brain Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

acts as a cushioning fluid

Blood-brain barrier prevents entry of harmful materials from the bloodstream

Major Regions of Human Brain Cerebrum Diencephalon Brainstem Cerebellum

• Describe the gross anatomy of the cerebrum including sulci, gyri, fissures, and lobes

Cerebrum Divided into two halves (superior view) left cerebral hemisphere right cerebral hemisphere Each hemisphere is subdivided into five functional areas called lobes

Cerebrum Outer surface of an adult brain exhibits folds called gyri (gyrus) shallow depressions between the gyri called sulci (sulcus)

• Locate the ventricles of the brain and describe the flow of CSP from the lateral ventricles to the arachnoid villi

Ventricles Cavities or expansions within the brain that are derived from the lumen (opening) of

the embryonic neural tube continuous with one another and the central canal of the spinal cord

Lateral ventricles (two) are in the cerebrum separated by a thin medial partition called the septum pellucidum

Third ventricle Smaller ventricle within the diencephalon each lateral ventricle communicates with the third ventricle through an opening called the

interventricular foramen

Fourth ventricle located between the pons and cerebellum

CSF Circulation CSF produced by choroid plexus in the ventricles CSF flows from Lateral ventricles interventricular foramina 3rd ventricle mesencephalic aqueduct

4th ventricle lateral (2) and median apertures subarachnoid space (& central canal)

CSF leaves ventricles and enters subarachnoid space But CSF must be continuously removed from this space Arachnoid vili (arachnoid granulations) extend through dura mater; CSF drains and mixes

with the blood within the dural venous sinus

• Distinguish between commissural tracts, association tracts, and projection tracts in white matter

• Commisural tracts: Extend between the cerebral hemispheres through axonal bridges called commissures. Ex: Corpus callosum/anterior/posterior commissures.

• Association tracts: connect different regions of the cerebral cortex within the same hemisphere. Ex: Composed of arcuate fibers in the tract that connects the primary motor cortex

• Projection tracts: link cerebral cortex to the posterior brain regions and the spinal cord. Ex: Brainstem and spinal cord.

• Name the distinctive Cerebral (basal) nuclei and describe their general function

are paired irregular masses of gray matter buried deep within the central white matter in the basal region of the cerebral hemispheres inferior to the floor of the lateral ventricles

Caudate Nucleus -- produces patterned arm and leg movements associated with walking Amygdaloid body -- expression of emotions, control of behavioral activities, development of

moods Lentiform Nucleus is composed of:

The putamen -- subconscious muscular movement The globus pallidus -- excites and inhibits activities of thalamus to control and adjust muscle tone

Claustrum -- processes visual information at a subconscious level Corpus Striatum -- striped appearance of internal capsule as it passes among the caudate

nucleus and lentiform nucleus

• Name the three parts of the brain stem

Three regions form the brainstem Mesencephalon Pons Medulla Oblongata

• Explain the limbic system and reticular formation

Comprised of multiple cerebral and diencephalic structures The above structures work together to process and experience

emotions

The structures of the limbic system form a ring around the diencephalon

The limbic system affects memory formation through the integration of past memories of physical sensations with emotional states

The reticular formation is a part of the brain that is involved in actions such as awaking/sleeping cycle, and filtering incoming stimuli to discriminate irrelevant background stimuli.[1] It is essential for governing some of the basic functions of higher organisms

• Describe the structure and function of the cerebellum

Cerebellum Composed of left and right cerebellar hemispheres Each hemisphere consists of two lobes the anterior lobe the posterior lobe are separated by the primary fissure Partitioned into three regions An outer gray matter layer of cortex An internal region of white matter, called the arbor vitae Cerebellar nuclei in the deepest layer of gray matter

Cerebellar Functions Coordinates and fine-tunes skeletal muscle movements Ensures that skeletal muscle contraction follows the correct pattern leading to smooth, coordinated movements Stores memories of previously learned movement patterns Adjusts skeletal muscle activity to maintain equilibrium and posture Receives proprioceptive (sensory) information from the muscles and joints and uses this information to regulate the body’s position Monitors the position of each body joint and its muscle tone

Chapter 16

Describe the gross anatomy of the spinal cord including the location, enlargements and conus medullaris

Length: 42-45 cm Roughly cylindrical, slightly flattened posteriorly and anteriorly Two longitudinal depressions on external surface Posterior median sulcus

Swallow groove on posterior surface Anterior median fissure Deeper groove on anterior surface Conus medullaris The tapering inferior end of the spinal cord is the official “end” of the spinal cord proper, usually at the level of the first lumbar vertebra The cervical enlargement located in the inferior cervical part of the spinal cord Contains neurons that innervate the upper limbs The lumbar enlargement extends through the lumbar part of the spinal cord Contains neurons that innervate the lower limbs 31 pairs of spinal nerves

Describe the function of the spinal cord

Provides a vital link between the brain and the rest of the body Functions of spinal cord and attached spinal nerves Provide a pathway for sensory and motor impulses Responsible for reflexes are the quickest reactions to a stimulus

Describe the meningeal coverings of the spinal cord and the epidural, subdural and subarachnoid spaces

The spinal cord is protected and encapsulated by spinal cord meninges are continuous with the cranial meninges The epidural space Lies between the dura mater and periosteum covering the inner walls of the vertebra Houses areolar connective tissue, blood vessels, and adipose connective tissue Space where epidural anesthetic is given The subdural space separates the dura mater from the arachnoid This is a potential space The subarachnoid space is a real space filled with cerebral spinal fluid

Distinguish between dorsal and ventral roots

• Dorsal Root: contain sensory axons only

• Ventral Root: contain motor axons only.

Describe the organization of white and gray matter

Gray Matter is centrally located, and its shape resembles an “H”. May be subdivided into the following components:

• Anterior Horns

• Lateral Horns

• Posterior Horns

• Gray Commissure: contains un myelinated axons and communication route between right and left sides of the gray matter.

White Matter External to the gray matter. Is partitioned into three regions:

• Posterior Funiculus

• Anterior Funiculus

• Lateral Funiculus

• White Commissure

• Funiculus contains axons of both motor and sensory nerves

Chapter 19

Distinguish between a stimulus and a sensation

• Sensation = the conscious or unconscious awareness of external or internal stimuli.

• Stimulus = Changes in internal/external environments

Distinguish between mechanoreceptor, chemoreceptor, and photoreceptor

• Mechanoreceptors respond to a change in pressure; (i.e. touch, pressure, vibrations, stretch)

• Photoreceptors (in retina of eye) respond to light energy

• Chemoreceptors respond to changes in chemical concentrations

Understand the eye and vision

SENSE OF SIGHT: Vision

Introduction: The organ of vision is the retina of eye. The sensory receptors are called photoreceptors. When photoreceptors are stimulated, impulses travel within the optic nerve (CN II) to the visual (occipital) cortex for interpretation

A. Accessory organs of the eye:

1. Eyelids = protective shield for the eyeball.

a. Conjunctiva= inner lining of eyelid; = red portion around eye.

2. Lacrimal apparatus = tear secretion & distribution.

a. Lacrimal gland = tear secretion; located on upper lateral surface

• Tears contain an enzyme called lysozyme, which functions as an anti-bacterial agent.

b. Nasolacrimal duct = duct which carries tears into nasal cavity (drainage)

3. Extrinsic muscles hold eyeball in orbital cavity and allow for eye movement.

a. superior rectus muscle

b. inferior rectus muscle

c. lateral rectus muscle

d. medial rectus muscle

e. inferior oblique muscle

f. superior oblique muscle

B. Eye Structure:

The eye is composed of three distinct layers or tunics:

1. Outer (fibrous) Tunic = protection.

a. Cornea = transparent anterior portion; Function: helps focus (75%) incoming light rays.

* See green box, page 484 on cornea transplant.

b. Sclera = white posterior portion, which is continuous with eyeball except where the optic nerve and blood vessels pierce through it in the back of eye. Functions:

1. protection

2. attachment (of eye muscles)

2. Middle vascular tunic = nourishment...

a. Choroid coat = membrane joined loosely to sclera containing many blood vessels to nourish the tissues of the eye.

b. Ciliary body = anterior extension from choroid coat which is composed of 2 parts:

Ciliary muscles which control the shape of the lens (i.e. Accommodation);

Ciliary processes which are located on the periphery of the lens.

1. Suspensory ligaments extend from the ciliary processes on the lens to the ciliary muscles (i.e. they connect above structures), and function to hold the lens in place.

* Accommodation = the process by which the lens changes shape to focus on close objects.

1. The lens is responsible (with cornea) for focusing incoming light rays.

2. If light rays are entering the eye from a distant object, the lens is flat.

3. When we focus on a close object, the ciliary muscles contract, relaxing the suspensory ligaments. Accordingly, the lens thickens allowing us to focus

2. Middle vascular tunic (continued)

c. Iris = colored ring around pupil; thin diaphragm muscle; lies between cornea and lens;

The iris separates the anterior cavity of the eye into an anterior chamber and posterior chamber.

The entire anterior cavity is filled with aqueous humor, which helps nourish the anterior portions of the eye, and maintains the shape of the anterior eye.

3. Inner nervous (sensory) tunic

a. Retina = inner lining of the eyeball; site of photoreceptors.

There are two types of visual receptors (photoreceptors) in the retina:

1.Cones = photoreceptors for color vision;produce sharp images.

2. Rods = photoreceptors for night vision;produce silhouettes of images.

The optic disk is the location on the retina where nerve fibers leave the eye & join with the optic nerve; the central artery & vein also pass through this disk.

No photoreceptors are present in the area of the optic disk = blind spot.

The posterior cavity of the eye is occupied by the lens, ciliary body, and the retina.

The posterior cavity is filled with vitreous humor, which is a jelly-like fluid, which maintains the spherical shape of the eyeball.

C. The Pathway of Incoming Light:

1. Intro: Incoming light rays are refracted (bent) onto the retina due to the convex surface of both the cornea and the lens.

2. Visual Pathway to Brain for Interpretation:

a. cornea

b. aqueous humor

c. lens

d. vitreous humor

e. photoreceptors in retina.

Once the rods and/or cones are stimulated, a sensory impulse is carried on the:

f. optic nerve (CN II) which crosses at the

g. optic chiasma forming optic tracts that carry the impulse to the

h. thalamus for direction to the

i. primary visual cortex (occipital lobe) for interpretation.

Understand the ear and hearing

• SENSE OF HEARING

• Intro: The organ of hearing is the Organ of Corti which is present in the cochlea of inner ear. The sensory receptors are called mechanoreceptors. Once these mechanoreceptors are stimulated, the impulse travels on the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear (CN VIII) nerve which leads to the primary auditory cortex (temporal cortex) of the cerebrum.

• A. EAR STRUCTURE:

• 1. External Ear:

• a. Auricle = outer ear (cartilage); Function = collection of sound waves.

• b. External auditory meatus = ear canal; Function = starts vibrations of sound waves and directs them toward tympanic membrane

• 2. Middle Ear: Function = to amplify and concentrate sound waves

• a. Tympanic membrane = eardrum.

Tympanic Reflex = protective mechanism for hearing mechanoreceptors; Loud noises cause 2 muscles associated with the tympanic membrane to contract; This decreases amplification effect of ossicles (see below).

• b. Tympanic cavity = air-filled space behind eardrum; separates outer from inner ear.

• c. Auditory ossicles = 3 tiny bones in middle ear:

• Malleus (hammer) is connected to tympanic membrane;

• Incus (anvil) connects malleus to stapes;

• Stapes (stirrup) connects incus to the

Oval window = the entrance to inner ear.

• d. Auditory (Eustachian) tube = passageway which connects middle ear to nasopharynx (throat).

• Function = to equalize pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane, which is necessary for proper hearing.

• 3. Inner Ear:

• a. The inner ear consists of a complex system of intercommunicating chambers and tubes called a labyrinth. Actually, two labyrinths compose the inner ear:

• Osseous labyrinth = bony canal in temporal bone;

• Membranous labyrinth = membrane within osseous labyrinth.

• b. Two types of fluid fill the spaces in the labyrinths:

• Perilymph fills the space between the osseous and membranous labyrinth;

• Endolymph fills the membranous labyrinth.

• c. The inner ear labyrinth can further be divided into three regions (cochlea, vestibule & semi-circular canals), each with a specific function:

• Cochlea = snail shaped portion; Function = sense of hearing.

• Semi-circular canals = three rings; Function = dynamic equilibrium.

• Vestibule = area between cochlea and semi-cicular canals; Function = static equilibrium.

• d. The osseus labyrinth of the cochlea can be divided into two compartments:

• Scala vestibuli = upper compartment which extends from oval window to apex;

• Scala tympani = lower compartment which extends from apex to round window.

• Both compartments are filled with perilymph.

• E. Between the two bony compartments, we find the membranous labyrinth = cochlear duct.

• The cochlear duct is filled with endolymph.

• 3. Inner Ear:

• f. There are membranes that separate the cochlear duct from the bony compartments:

• Vestibular membrane separates the cochlear duct from the scala vestibuli;

• Basilar membrane separates the cochlear duct from the scala tympani;

• g. The mechanoreceptors responsible for the sense of hearing are contained in the Organ of Corti = 16,000 hearing receptor cells located on the basilar membrane.

• The receptor cells are called "hair cells";

• The hair cells are covered by the tectorial membrane which lies over them like a roof.

Pathway of sound waves from outside to the Organ of Corti:

• 1. auricle

• 2. external auditory meatus

• 3. tympanic membrane

• 4. malleus

• 5. incus

• 6. stapes

• 7. oval window

• 8. perilymph of scala vestibuli

• 9. endolymph of cochlear duct

• 10. hair cells in Organ of Corti.

Once these mechanoreceptors are stimulated, a sensory impulse is triggered and then travels on the

• 11. cochlear branch of vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) to the

• 12. thalamus for direction to the

• 13. primary auditory cortex (temporal lobes) of cerebrum for interpretation.

• VI. SENSE OF EQUILIBRIUM

• A. Static Equilibrium functions to sense the position of the head and help us maintain posture while motionless.

• 1. The vestibule of the inner ear contains the two membranous chambers responsible for static equilibrium.

• a. The utricle communicates with the semi-circular canals;

• b. The saccule communicates with the cochlear duct.

• c. Each of these chambers contains a macula = organ of static equilibrium.

• The macula is composed of "hair cells" that are in contact with a jelly-like fluid containing calcium carbonate crystals (=otolith).

• When the head is moved, the gelatin sags due to gravity and the hair cells bend.

• This triggers a sensory impulse which travels on the vestibular branch of the VC nerve to the pons which directs the impulse to the cerebellum for interpretation.

• B. Dynamic Equilibrium functions to prevent loss of balance during rapid head or body movement.

• 1. The three semi-circular canals contain the organ responsible for dynamic equilibrium.

a. Each semi-circular canal ends in an enlargement called the ampulla.

b. Each ampulla houses a sensory organ for dynamic equilibrium called the crista ampullaris, which contains a patch of "hair cells" in a mass of gelatin.

c. When the head is moved, the gelatin stays put due to inertia, causing the hair cells to bend. This triggers a sensory impulse which travels on the vestibular branch of the VC nerve to the pons which directs the impulse to the cerebellum for interpretation.

Chapter 20

List the endocrine glands and the hormones each produces.

b. Hypothalamus Secretes: ADH, Oxytocin

c. Pituitary Gland Anterior Pituitary: ACTH, FSH,GH,LH,MSH,PRL,TSH

d. Pituitary Gland Posterior Pituitary: Stores: ADH, Oxytocin

e. Pineal Gland Melatonin

f. Thyroid Gland Calcitonin, TH

g. Adrenal Gland Cortex: Corticosteroids Mineralcorticoids: Aldosterone Glucocorticoids: Cortisol

h. Adrenal Gland Medulla: Epinephrine, Norepinephrine

i. Thymus Thymosins, Thymopoietin

j. Kidney Calcitriol, Renin, Erythropoietin

k. Pancreatic Islets Glucagon, Insulin, Somatostatin, Pancreatic polypeptide

l. Testes Testosterone

m. Ovaries Estrogen, Progesterone

n. Heart Atriopeptin

Describe how the hormones are classified based on chemical structure

o. a. Peptide Hormones i. Produced by all except adrenal cortex, ovaries and testes.

ii. Activate existing enzymes in cells, therefore relatively rapid acting.

p. b. Steroid Hormones

i. Produced by adrenal cortex, ovaries or testes.

ii. Complex rings of carbon and hydrogen atoms.

iii. Trigger synthesis of new proteins, therefore slower acting but more sustained effect.

Explain the basics of hormonal action, defining target cells

• Function along with the nervous system to coordinate and regulate body activities. • Compared to nervous system, endocrine system is slower due to diffusion of hormone in

bloodstream to organs.

q. Hormones travel in blood throughout bloodstream; organ that responds to presence of hormone is target organ.

r. Target organ contains cells with specific receptors to hormone; receptors combine with hormone in lock- and-key manner.

NEW MATERIAL 60 QUESTIONS WILL COME FROM THIS INFORMATION!

24: Lymphatic System:

Lymphatic System: involves several organs as well as systems of lymphatic cells and lymph vessels located throughout the body. Together, these structures transport fluids and help the body fight infection.

- Function of the Lymphatic System:o Fluid that is pushed out into the interstitial space due to capillary blood pressure. The LS

Carries interstitial fluid back to the bloodstream, transports dietary lipids

- Why are fluids lost from the bloodstream: At the arterial end of a capillary bed, blood pressure forces fluid from the blood into the interstitial spaces around cells. This fluid is called the interstitial fluid.

- Transporation of dietary lipids: Although most nutrients are absorbed directly into the bloodstream, some larger materials such as lipids and lipid-soluble vitamins are unable to enter the bloodstream directl from the GI tract. These materials are transported via tiny lymph vessels called “lacteals”, which eventually drain into larger lymph vessels and eventually into the bloodstream.

o Lymph vessels that transports from the small intestine to the thoracic ducto Fig. 24. 2- Lymphatic Capillaries “Lacteals” small intestine contains lacteals

“Milky color due to lipids”o Fig.24.1 Thoracic Duct: Largest lymphatic vessel. Receives lymph from most regions of

the bodyo cisterna chyli- sac like feature that collects the fatty material from the small intestine;

stores in sac.. Transporation of fatty material to small intestine.- Lympathtic capillaries- unique? –dead end vessel; it doesn’t going anywhere; another unique

feature, endothelial cells overlap each other. Analogy is “go back to the door and push the door open; “Pressure draws fluids fluid back into the lymphatic vessels.

- Lymphatic Capillaries o Are closed-ended tubes that are interspersed among most blood capillary networks. Is

similar to a blood capillary in that its wall is an endothelium. Larger in diameter, lack a basement, and have overlapping endothelial cells.

o These overlapping endothelial cells act as one-way flaps; when interstitial fluid pressure rises, the margins of the cells push into the lymphatic capillary, allowing interstitial fluid to enter. When the pressure increases in the lymphatic capillary, the cell wall margin pushes back into lace next to the adjacent endothelial cell. The fluid is now “trapped” in the lymph capillary and cannot be released into the interstitial fluid. Analogous to open/close door.

- Lympathetic vessels- Resemble small veins, in that both contain all three tunics (intima, media, externa) and both have valves within the lumen

o Trunks: R and L trunks form from merging lymphatic vesselso Ducts: Lymphatic trunks drain into the largest vessels, called lymphatic ductso At the end of the line there 2 ducts(R and L Lymphatic Ducts); taking up fluid from the

left side of the body and taking fluid from right side body.

24.4- Thoracic duct; major duct; draining all the fluid from lime green section body(left side of head/neck, left upper limb, left thorax, and all body regions inferior to thorax; right lymphatic duct is picking up the fluid: right side head/neck, right upper limb, and right thorax.

- Houses and develops lymphocytes o Lymphatic cells are located in the lymphatic system and cardiovascular system. The

work together to elict a immune response.o Lymphocytes are the most abundant cells in the LS. There are 3 types of

lymphocytes(T,B, and NK Lymphocytes). T-Lymphocytes: make up about 70-80% of body’s lymphocytes: lymphocyte

plasma contains a coreceptor that recognizes a particular antigen. Helper T-lymphocytes: Needed to begin effective defense against

antigens. Initiate and oversee the immune response Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes: Come in direct contact with infected or

foreign cells and kill them Memory T-lymphocytes: Patrol the body, and if they encounter the

same antigen again, the mount an even faster immune response than occurred at the first exposure to the antigen.

Suppressor T-lymphocytes: appear to “turn-off” the immune response once it has been activated to help regulate its performace

B-Lymphocytes: make up about 15-30% of the lymphocytes in the body. B-lympocytes contain antigen receptors that respond to one particular antigen and stimulate the production of antibodies that response to a particular antigen

If activated go on to become Plasma Cells, mature cells that produce and secrete large amounts of antibodies.

Memory B-lymphocytes: “remember” the initial antigen attack and stand guard to mount a faster, more efficient immune respose should the same antigen attack again.

o Fig. 24.7- T lymphocytes are produced by all blood but they mature in the thymus gland; endocrine gland that is superior to the heart. T-lymphocytes matures and circulate in the blood cell and reside in lymph nodules and lymph nodes

Fig. 24.8 Lymphatic Nodules: Are oval clusters of lymphatic cells with some

extracellular connective tissue matrix that are NOT surrounded by a tissue capsule. The pale center of a lymphatic nodule is called germinal center; it contains B-lymphocytes. T-lymphocytes are located outside of the germinal center.

Tonsils are large clusters of lymphatic cells and extracellular connective tissue matrix that are not completely surrounded by connective tissue capsule.

Pharyngeal tonsils nasopharynx Palantine tonsils Oropharynx Lingula tonsils Laryngopharynx

o Lymphatic organs- Consists of lymphatic cells within an extracellular connective tissue matrix and is completely surrounded by a connective tissue capsule. Main lymphatic organs are: Thymus, Lymph nodes, and Spleen.

Thymus: Is large in childhood, and diminishes in adulthood, aging and immune system is going to bring a decline; Thymus functions as a site for T-lymphocyte maturation and differentiation

Fig. 24.9 and 24.10 Lymph nodes: filter antigens from lymph and initiate an immune response when

necessary Afferent Lymphatic Vessels: carry lymph to the lymph node Efferent Lymphatic Vessels: Lymph exits the lymph node by these

vessels. Efferent LV originate at the indented portion of the lymph node called the Hilum.

Has valves

Fig. 24.11 Spleen Largest lymphatic organ.

left side of the greater curvature of the stomach White pulp: Associated with the arterial supply of the spleen and

consists of circular clusters of lymphatic cells As blood enters the spleen and flows through the central arteries, the

white pulp lymphatic cells monitor the blood for foreign materials, bacterial, and other antigens.

If antigens are found, T –B Lymphocytes elicit an immune response Red Pulp: Associated with the venous supple of the spleen, since blood

that enters the spleen in the central arteries travel through blood vessels in the red pulp.

o Splenic Cords: contain erythrocytes, platelets, macrophages, and some plasma cells.

o Splenic Sinusoids: act like enlarged capillaries that carry blood. Macrophages lining the lumen phagocytize bacteria and foreign debris from blood, and also phagocytize old defective erythrocytes/platelets.

- lympathtic tissue; outer cortex, inner germinal centero Outer cortex= t cellso Germinal- B cells

Aging and Immune Systemo The lymphatic system’s ability to provide immunity and fight disease decreases as we get older.

o When an adult reaches adulthood, the thymus no longer matures and differentiates T-lymphocytes. New T-lymphocytes can be produced only by division(mitosis) of pre-existing lymphocytes.

o Helper T-lymphocytes do not respond to antigens as well and no not always reproduce rapidly.

Chapter 25

Upper Respiratory Tract:

Composed of the nose and nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharanyx, and associated structures Nose: main conducting airway for inhaled air. Supported by nasal bones

o The internal surface of the nose leads to the nasal cavity. o The nasal cavity is continuous with the nasopharynx via paired opening called choanaeo The nasal cavity is lined with Psuedostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

Fig. 25. 2

Paranasal Sinuses

Air spaces, which together decrease skull bone weight.o Frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal, and maxillary sinuses.

Nasopharynx

Superiormost region of the pharynx. Nasopharynx is located directly posterior to the nasal cavity In the lateral walls of the nasopharynx, paired auditory tubes connect the nasopharynx to the

middle ear

Lower Respiratory Tract

Larynx: Also called the voice box.

Supported by 9 pieces of cartilage (3 individual pieces and 3 cartilage pairs)o 3 Individual Pieces

Thyroid Cricoid Epigottis

o 3 Paired Cartilage pieces Arytenoid Corniculate Cuneiform

Difference between true vocal/ false vocal cord

True Vocal Cordso Inferior ligaments called: Vocal ligaments, are covered by a mucous membrane. These

ligaments together with their mucosa are called the vocal folds. These are the true vocal cords because they produce sound when air passes between them

False Vocal Cordso Superior ligaments called: Vestibular ligaments, are covered by a mucous membrane.

These are called the vestibular folds. These are the false vocal cords because they have no function in sound production, but to protect vocal folds.

Trachea: Flexible, slightly rigid tubular organ. The anterior walls are supported by the tracheal cartilages.o The mucosa lining the trachea is pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

o The trachea bifurcates into two smaller tubes: R and L Primary Bronchio Each primary bronchus then branches into Secondary Bronchio They further divide into Tertiary Bronchio The Terminal Bronchioles are the final segment of the conducting pathway. They give rise to:

o Respiratory bronchioles alveolar ducts alveoli: air sacs that are surrounded by capillaries of the circulatory system.

o Alveolar Wall: Contain two cell types Alveolar Type I (squamous alveorlar cell): Simple squamous epithelial cell

promotes rapid gas diffusion across the alveolar wall. Alveolar Type II (septal cell): cuboidal shape, secrete pulmonary surfactant

Pulmonary Surfactant: Fluid that coats the inner alveolar surface to reduce surface tension and prevent the collapse of the alveoli

Alveolar Macrophages (dust cells): may be either fixed or free. Engluf any microorganisms or particulate material that has reached the alveoli.

Lungs

o Primary organs of respiration.

o Wide, concave base which rests inferiorly upon the muscular diaphragm.

o Apex: blunt, projects superiorly to a point that is slightly superior and posterior to the clavicle

o Costal Surface: relatively broad, rounded surface in contact with the thoracic wall.

o Mediastinal Surface of the lung is directed medially, facing the mediastinum and slightly concave in shape.

o Hilum: through which bronchi, pulmonary vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves pass.

Right lung 3lobes

Left lung 2 lobes: because it has to accommodate heart.

Thoracic Cavity

o Inhalation: Diaphragm contracts, ribs are elevated and thoracic cavity widens, inferior portion of sternum moves anteriorly.

o Exhalation: Diaphragm relaxes, ribs are depressed and thoracic cavity narrows, inferior portion of sternum moves posteriorly

o External Intercostal Muscles: cause the ribs to elevate upon contraction of the external intercostals

o Internal intercostals Muscles: lie @ right angles to the external intercostals and deep to them. Contraction of the internal intercostals depresses the ribs, but this only occurs during forced exhalation. Normal exhalation requires no active muscular effort.

Primary Muscle in thoracic cavity Diaphragm

Boyle’s Law: movement of gases into and out of the respiratory system follows this law.

o “The pressure of a gas decreases if the volume of the container increases, and vice versa.” Thus, when the volume of the thoracic cavity increases even slightly during inhalation, the intrapulmonary pressure decreases slightly, and air flows into the lungs through the conducting airways. Therefore, air flows from a region of higher pressure(atmosphere) into a region of lower pressure within the lungs.

“Fig 25.17- there are 2 areas w/in the brainstem- that regulate breathing rates; strength the breath”

o The respiratory rhythmicity center in the medulla oblongata establishes the rate and dept of breathing. Two distinct autonomic nuclei form this center.

o Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG): Inspiratory center that controls inhalation

o Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG): expiratory center for forced exhalation. Only functions during forced exhalation.

DI: INSPIRE

VE: EXPIRE

o Apneustic Center: Stimulates inspiration through the DRG

o Pneumotaxic Center: Inhibits both the activity of the DRG and that of the apeneustic center.

Ex: During vigorous exercise, when your repiratory rate must be increased, respiratory gases must be exchanged more frequently than when at rest. Thus, DRG, once stimulated, must be inhibited fairly quickly, with the simultaneous activation of the VRG, so that forced exhalation can occur and the next inhalation can begin.

Chapter 26

Digestive System

o Includes the organs that ingest the food, transport the ingested material, digest the material into smaller useable components, absorb necessary digested nutrients into the bloodstream, and expel the waste products from the body.

o Digestive Organs

o Make up the GI tract

Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine

o Accessory Digestive Organs

o Not apart of the GI tract, but often develop as outgrowths from and are connected to the tract

Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas

o 6 Main Functions:

o Ingestion: introduction of solids and liquids materials into the oral cavity

o Digestion: breakdown of large food items into smaller structures and molecules

Mechanical Digestion: physically breaks down ingested materials into smaller

Chemical Digestion: breaks down ingested material into smaller molecules using enzymes.

o Propulsion: Movement of materials swallowed through the GI tract: Peristalsis

o Secretion: Producing and releasing mucin or fluids such as acid, bile, and digestive enzymes

o Absorbtion: passive/active movement of electrolytes, digestion products, vitamins, and water across the GI tract epithelium

o Elimination of wastes: compacted into feces and eliminated by GI tract by the process of: defecation

Toungue: Covered with stratified squamous epithelium

o Taste receptors Papillae: small projections cover the superior surface of tongue

Salivary Glands:

o Parotid: largest salivary gland

o Submandibular: Produce most of the saliva

o Sublingual: contribute a very small amount of saliva

o Salivary amylase- digests carbs,

Teeth

o Collectively known as dentition

o 32 permanent teeth

Pharynx

o Common space used by both the respiratory and digestive systems.

Abdominal GI Organs

o Retroperitoneal Organs: typically lie directly against the posterior abdominal wall, so only their anterolateral portions covered with peritoneum

o Only the Urinary Bladder’s fundus is covered by peritoneum

o Parietal Peritoneum: Portion of the serous membrane that lines the inside surface of the bosy wall

o Visceral Peritoneum: Portion of the serous membrane that reflects to cover the surface of internal organs.

o Peritoneal Cavity: between these two layers.

Layers are found within the digestive tract

o Four layers

o Mucosa: 3 components

Superficial epithelium lining the lumen of the GI tract

Underlying areolar connective tissue: Lamina propria

Thin layer of smooth muscle: muscularis mucosae

o Submucosa: Composed of either areolar or dense irregular CT

o Muscularis: Contains 2 layers of smooth muscle

Inner circular layer

Outer longitudinal layer

o Advetniots (Serosa):

Adventitia: composed of areolar CT

Serosa: composed of areolar CT, but is covered by a visceral peritoneum

Stomach: muscular, J shaped sac. Contains: Chyme

o Internally, the stomach lining is composed of numerous gastric folds: Rugae allow the stomach to expand greatly when it fills

o Stomach has 3 layers of Muscularis

o Longitudinal (outer)

o Circular(middle)

o Oblique (inner)

o Stomach pits are made up from: Simple Columnar Epithelium

o Mucous Neck Cells: Secretes acidic mucin

o Parietal Cell: secretes HCL acid

o Chief Cells: secretes pepsinogen

o Enteroendocrine cells: secretes gastrin

Small Intestine:

o Plicae Circulares: mucosal and submucosal tunics are thrown into these folds.

o Increase the surface area through which nutrients can be absorbed.

o Villi: Fingerlike projections of mucosa only. Further increase surface area. Simple columnar epithelial cells

o Microvilli – further increase surface area

Cells found in the lumen of the espophagus

o Thick, nonkeratinized stratified squamous epitheleam

Liver

o Made up of hepatic lobules Are the classic structural and functional units of the liver

o At the center of each lobule is a central vein drains blood from the lobule. Merge throughout the liver to form numerous hepatic veins that eventually dump into the IVC

Hepatic Portal vein- carries blood from the small intestine to the liver

GallBladder

o Attached to inferior surface of liver

o Saclike organ: concentrates bile produced by the liver and stores this concentrate until needed for digestion.

Pancreas

o Mixed gland: both endocrine/exocrine functions.

o Exocrine function: secretion of digestive enzymes, and bicarbonate= digestive juices

o Retroperitoneal organ

o Acinar cells: simple cuboidal epithelial

Chapter 27:

Urinary System

o Storage of urine

o Excretion of urine

o Regulation of blood volume

o Regulation of erythrocyte production

Trace blood

Renal artery interlobar artery arcuate arteryinterlobular arteryafferent arteriolesGlomerousefferent arterioles paratubular capillaries or vasa rectaminterlobular vein Arcuate vein interlobar vein Renal Vein

Cortical nephron:

o 85% of nephrons

o Reside in cortex

o Nephron loops just barely penetrate the medulla

Juxtamedullary nephron:

o Long nephron loops extend deep into medulla

Renal Corpuscle

o Enlarged, bulbous region of a nephron

o Composed of two structures:

o Glomerulus: thick tangle of capillaries

o Glomerulus capsule: Epithelial capsule surrounding the glomerulus (Bowman’s Capsule)

Visceral Layer of Glomerulus Capsule has:

Podocytes: specialized cells which have long processes called:

Pedicels: Feet, that wrap around the glomerulus capillaries to support capillary wall. They are separated by:

Filtration slits: which allow material from the blood plasma to pass into capsular space.

Collectively make up Filtration membrane of the glomerulus

What waste material has to be removed?

o Urea has to be removed

Proximal Convoluted Tubule

o The cells of the proximal convoluted tubule actively reabsorb almost all nutrients, ions, and vitamins.

Nephron Loop

o Descending limb: extending from the cortex and into the medulla

o Ascending limb: returns back to the renal cortex

o Primary Function: facilitate reabsorption of water and solutes from the tubular fluid.

o H20 and Na+ and Cl-

Distal Convoluted Tubule

o Primary function: secrete ions such as potassium K+ and hydrogen H+ into the tubular fluid.

o Aldosterone is secreted here to increase Na+ and H20 reabsorption from tubular fluid.

Trigone : Posteroinferior triangular area of urinary bladder wall. Formed by imaginary lines connecting the two ureteral openings and the urethral opening.

Female Urethra;

o 6 cm in female

o Only function: eliminate urine

Male Urethra:

o 19 cm in male

o Double function: eliminate urine and reproductive passage

Chapter 28:

Perineum

o diamond shape area pubic area

Principle gonad?

o ovaries

o Testes

Ovarian Follicles:

o Primordial follicle consists of a primary oocyte: NOT capable of mitosis. Cannot divide and make two oocytes

o Primary follicle haploid. Secretes estrogen as it continues to mature

o Secondary follicle Haploid. Forms from the primary follicle, contains a primary oocyte

o Fluid filled sac called: Antrum surrounds the primary oocyte

o Vesicular follicle Mature/Graafian follicle forms from the secondary follicle. Contains a secondary oocyte

o Vesicular follicle ruptures expels oocyte (ovulation). The remnants of the follicle are yellowish, called the Corpus luteum: secretes the sex hormone progesterone and estrogen. These hormones stimulate the continual lining of the uterine lining and prepare the uterus for possible implantation of fertilized oocyte.

o Corpus luteum breaks down, turns white, is then called the corpus albicans. Will be reabsorbed.

Female child has all the potential eggs she will need at birth.

How many eggs cell happen during her lifetime? 400

Follicular Phase

o Occurs during days 1-13

o FSH and LH stimulate primordial follicles to mature into primary follicles

Ovulation: occurs on day 14. Defined as the release of the secondary oocyte from the vesicular follicle

Luteal Phase

o Occurs during days 15-28

o Remaining follicle cells in the ruptured vesicular follicle turn into corpus luteum

o CL secretes progesterone and estrogen that stabilize the build up of the uterine lining

o CL has a life span of 10-13 days if the secondary oocyte is fertilized

o After this time, CL regresses, its levels of progesterone and estrogen drop

o Uterine lining begins to shed Menstruation

Ovarian cycle-28 days

28.15

The male reproductive system

The seminiferous tubules contain two types of cells:

o Sustentacular Cells: a group of non-dividing support cells. Help is sperm development

o Population of dividing germ cells that continually produce sperm cells beginning at puberty.

Spermatogenesis: process of sperm development that occurs within the seminiferous tubules

o All sperm form from primordial germ(stem) cells called: Spermatoginia

o Spermatogonia: are DIPLOID cells (23 pairs of chromosomes = 46)

o Divide by mitosis

o Other cell is a “committed cell” called primary spermatocyte: diploid and exact copy of spermatogonia

o Primary spermatocyte: undergo meisosis. The two cells produced from this is called: Secondary spermatocytes: HAPLOID, only 23 chromosomes.

o Secondary spermatocytes complete meisos and form: Spermatids= HAPLOID

o Final state of spermiogenesis: newly formed spermatids differentiate to become anatomically mature spermatozoa or sperm

Spermatagonium- can go through mitosis

Secondary spermacocyte- haploid