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ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT

PRESENTED BY

ANAM QAMAR (ROLL NO:09)

MADIHA ZUBERI (ROLL NO: 25)

SARWAT FATIMA (ROLL NO: 56)

SHAYAN ASIF ABASSI (ROLL NO: 58)

USAMA KHANZADA (ROLL NO: 72)

ZOHRA SALIM (ROLL NO: 81)

ATTITUDE

Your attitude, not your aptitude, will determine your altitude.

ZIG ZAGLAR

WHAT IS AN ATTITUDE?

An attitude is a mental state involving

beliefs, feelings, values and dispositions

to act in a certain way. It can further be

understood as a learned predisposition

to respond consistently in a positive or

negative manner towards different

aspects of the world”

REASONS FOR MEASURING ATTITUDES

Attitudes lead to behavior More feasible to ask questions on

attitudes than to observe and interpret behavior

Large capacity for diagnosis and explanation

ATTITUDE RESEARCH

Attitudes directly affect decisions and these in turn, directly affect behavior.

AttitudeAction/

Behavior

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF AN ATTITUDE

COGNITIVE

AFFECTIVE

BEHAVIORAL

COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE

COGNITIVE ATTITUDE INCLUDES:

Memories.

Evaluations.

Beliefs about the properties of the

object.


AFFECTIVE ATTITUDE INCLUDES:

• Feelings.

• Intuitions.

• Values and Emotions towards the

object .


BEHAVIORAL ATTITUDE INCLUDES:

• Behavioral Intentions towards an

object.


EXAMPLE: If a person says that he likes LAYS CHIPS

because they are tasty & crispy and always eats them, the statement comprises all these three components of an attitude.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATTITUDE & BEHAVIOR

The attitude-behavior relation is not straightforward but they can be linked. Behavior can influence attitude.

EXAMPLE A product or service usage will be maximum

if the person develops a positive attitude towards it. The converse is also true Attitudes of consumers towards products that they have never tried will be neutral When attitudes are developed based on actual trial and experience of a product, attitudes predict behavior effectively

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATTITUDE & BEHAVIOR

• Business researchers treat attitudes as hypothetical constructs due to their complexity & the fact that they are inferred from the measurement data not actually observe.

• Attitude provides researchers insights about behavior.

CHANGING ATTITUDES

• Marketers attempt to change existing attitudes to attract people and increase market value. For this, they resort to three major tactics:

Altering existing beliefs about a product. Changing attitudes by changing the

importance of beliefs. adding new beliefs

MEASUREMENT & SCALING OF AN ATTITUDE

Measurement Standardized process of assigning

numbers or other symbols to certain characteristics of objects of interests according to pre-specified rules

Characteristics for Standardization One-to-one correspondence between the

symbol and the characteristic in the object that is being measured

Rules for assignment should be invariant over time and the objects being measured

MEASUREMENT & SCALING OF AN ATTITUDE

Scaling Process of creating a range

on which objects are located according to the amount of the measured characteristic that the object possesses.

Type of Measurement Scale

Types of Attitude Scale

Rules for Assigning Number

Typical Application

Statistics / Statistical Tests

Nominal Dichotomous “yes” or “no” scales.

Objects are either identical or different

Classification (by sex, geographic are, social class)

Percentages, mode / chi -square

Ordinal or Rank Order

Comparative, Rank order, Itemized Category, Paired Comparison

Objects are greater or smaller

Rankings (preference, class standing)

Percentile, median, rank-order correlation / Friedman ANOVA

Interval Likert, Thurstone, Stapel, Associative Semantic-Differential

Intervals between adjacent ranks are equal

Index numbers, temperature scales, attitude measures

Mean, standard deviation, product moment correlations / t-tests, ANOVA, regression, factor analysis

Ratio Certain scales with special instructions

There is a meaningful zero, so comparison of absolute magnitudes is possible

Sales, incomes, units produced, costs, age

Geometric and harmonic mean, coefficient of variation

Types of Scales & Their Properties

MEASUREMENT SCALES: NOMINAL

Numbers identify and classify objects No ordering or spacing are implied Only possible arithmetic operation is a

count of each category Examples:

Players in a football team Colors of traffic light Gender

MEASUREMENT SCALES: ORDINAL

Objects are ranked in order Numbers indicate the relative

position of objects but not the magnitude of difference

Arithmetic operations are limited to statistics such as median or mode

Examples: Result of 100 meter dash Ranking of largest fast food companies

MEASUREMENT SCALES: INTERVAL

Object is measured on a continuum Arbitrary zero point Differences between objects can be

compared Entire range of statistical operations

can be employed (mean, correlation, ANOVA, regression)

Examples: Temperature Attitudes

MEASUREMENT SCALES: RATIO

Interval scale with fixed zero point

Ratio of scale values can be computed

Examples: Weight, length Age Store sales Market shares

ATTITUDE RATING SCALES

Present a respondent with a continuum of numbered categories that represent the range of possible attitude adjustments

Single item or multiple item scales

ATTITUDE SCALES

Attitude scales exist for each measurement type

The rating scale (interval data) is the most common type of attitude scale

CONTINUOUS SCALES

Respondents rate objects by placing a mark at appropriate position on a line running from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other.

Easy to construct

How would you rate Sears as a department store?Version 1:Probably the worst --------------------------------------------

Probably the best

Version 2:Probably the worst --------------------------------------------

Probably the best 0 2 4 6 8 10

SINGLE ITEM SCALES Only have one item to measure a construct Itemized-category scale is most widely

used by marketing researchers Other single item scales

Comparative Rank-order Pictorial Constant sum

ITEMIZED CATEGORY SCALES

Scales in which the respondent selects from a limited number of categories

What is your overall satisfaction with McDonalds Hamburgers?

Very satisfied Quite Satisfied Somewhat satisfied Not at all satisfied

RANK ORDER SCALES

Scale in which the respondent compares one item with another or a group of items against each other and ranks them

Brand AFlavor BSize A

Brand AFlavor BSize A

Brand BFlavor CSize C

Brand BFlavor CSize C

Brand BFlavor ASize A

Brand BFlavor ASize A

CONSTANT SUM SCALES

Respondents allocate a fixed number of rating points among several objects to reflect relative preference

Divide 100 points among the following attributes of a PC

Clock Speed: 30Hard drive size: 20RAM size: 10Price: 40

PICTORIAL SCALES

Various categories of the scale are depicted pictorially Format must be comprehensible to respond and allow

accurate response

Example: The taste of Honey Munch Cereal is:

DESIGNING SINGLE ITEM SCALES

Number of Scale Categories 2 to 15

Strength of the Anchors colorful vs. very colorful vs. extremely colorful

Labeling of the Categories no labels vs. some labels vs. all labels

Balance of a Scale balanced vs. unbalanced

MUTIPLE ITEM SCALES

Developed to measure a sample of beliefs toward the attitude objects and combine the set of answers into an average score

Multiple item Scales Likert Semantic Differential Stapel Associative Scaling

LIKERT SCALES

Requires respondent to indicate degree of agreement or disagreement with a variety of statements related to the attitude object

Typically used for intangible constructs. Each item (statement) measures some aspect of the common construct.

Scores on individual items are summed to give total score for respondents

LIKERT SCALES

Satisfaction survey for a bank:Strongly

Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree

1. The bank offers courteous service

2. The bank has convenient locations

3. The bank has convenient hours 4. The bank offers low interest

rate loans

Together, the 4 items constitute the scale

This is a single item

ANALYSIS OF BANK SURVEY

Assign numbers to categories 1 2 3 4 5

Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree

2. Compute results:a) for each item compute mean across respondents (e.g. the average score for all respondents for item 1 is 3.5)b) for all items compute mean for each respondent (e.g. the average satisfaction score for respondents 1 is 3.0)

SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE

Respondents rate each attribute object on a number of five or seven-point rating scales bounded by polar adjectives or phrases

With bipolar scale, the midpoint is a neutral point Used for image analysis, profile analysis

SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE

The semantic differential is a seven-point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar labels that have semantic

meaning.

SEARS IS:Powerful --:--:--:--:-X-:--:--: WeakUnreliable --:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: ReliableModern --:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-fashioned

The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the left side of the scale and sometimes at the right.

This controls the tendency of some respondents, particularly those with very positive or very negative attitudes, to mark the right- or left-hand sides without reading the labels.

Individual items on a semantic differential scale may be scored on either a -3 to +3 or a 1 to 7 scale.

Characteristics of Semantic Differential

Pairs of objects or phrases must be meaningful in market being studied and often correspond to product/service attributes

Avoid "halo" effect by placing negative pole on either side

Category increments are treated as interval scales so group mean values can be computed for each object on each scale

May also be analyzed as a summated rating scale

Characteristics of Semantic Differential (Contd.)

Profile Analysis Application of semantic differential scale Plot mean ratings of each object on each scale for visual

comparison Overall comparison of brands hard to grasp with many

brands and attributes Not all attributes are independent

Multiple-item Scales (Contd.) The Stapel scale is a unipolar rating scale with ten

categories numbered from -5 to +5, without a neutral point (zero).

This scale is usually presented vertically.

SEARS

+5 +5+4 +4+3 +3+2 +2X+1 +1

HIGH QUALITY POOR SERVICE-1 -1-2 -2-3 -3-4X -4-5 -5

The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be analyzed in thesame way as semantic differential data.

Balanced & Unbalanced Scales

Jovan Musk for Men is Jovan Musk for Men is Extremely good Extremely good Very good Very goodGood GoodBad Somewhat goodVery bad BadExtremely bad Very Bad

GRAPHIC RATING SCALE

Respondents select a point on a graphic continuum anchored at the extremes

CUMULATIVE SCALES

The cumulative scale or Guttman scale measures to what degree a person has a positive or negative attitude to something. It makes use of a series of statements that are growing or descending in how positive or negative a person is towards the subject. If for instance on a scale with seven statements the respondent agrees with the fifth statement, it implies that he or she also agrees with the first four statements, but not with statement number six and seven.

CUMULATIVE SCALES

PAIRED-COMPARISON SCALES

- Paired comparison scales ask a respondent to pick one of two objects from a set based upon a given criterion

Example - Which brand do you prefer? ___ Coca-Cola ___ Pepsi ___ Pakola ___ Pepsi___ Coca-Cola ___ Seven-Up___ Pakola ___ Seven-Up

Q-SORT METHODOLOGY

In the Q-sort method, the judge or evaluator is given a set of statements or items previously developed or fixed upon. This set of statements constitutes the entire vocabulary the judge is permitted to employ. A language, however, is more than a vocabulary; it requires a grammar as well. In order to complete the requirements for comparability of descriptions, we must ensure that this vocabulary is used, at least formally, in identical ways.

Q-SORT METHODOLOGY

Example: Personality & Psychology Assessment

Tests

FORCED CHOICE RATING SCALES

A forced-choice rating scale will bias results by eliminating the undecideds and/or those with no opinion. Some researchers will purposely leave out the response choice of "undecided," "no opinion," "uncertain," or "don't know." This approach may be reasonable when the researcher has good reason to believe that virtually all subjects have an opinion and you do not want them to "cop out" by indicating they are uncertain. What happens if many subjects are indeed undecided and we do not allow them the option of no opinion? Most will probably select a rating from the middle of the scale, e.g., "average" or "fair." This will cause two biases: (a) it will appear that more subjects have opinions than actually do (b) the mean and median will be shifted toward the middle of the scale. (The "undecided" category is not part of the scale.)

Steps in multiple-item scale development

Determine clearly what you are going to measure

Generate as many items as possible

Ask experts in the field to evaluate the initial pool of items

Determine the type of attitudinal scale to be used

Include some items that will help in the validation of the scale

Administer the items to an initial sample

Evaluate and refine the items

Finally, optimize the scale length

Potential Sources of Error on Measurement

1) Other relatively stable characteristics of the individual that influence the test score, such as intelligence, social desirability, and education.

2) Short-term or transient personal factors, such as health, emotions,and fatigue.

3) Situational factors, such as the presence of other people, noise, and distractions.

4) Sampling of items included in the scale: addition, deletion, or changes in the scale items.

5) Lack of clarity of the scale, including the instructions or the items themselves.

6) Mechanical factors, such as poor printing, overcrowding items in the questionnaire, and poor design.

7) Administration of the scale, such as differences among interviewers.

8) Analysis factors, such as differences in scoring and statistical analysis.

COMMON ERRORS THAT OCCUR WHILE MEASURING ATTITUDE

Central tendency error refers to a type of rating error in which a rater consistently rates all employees in the middle of the scale, regardless of their actual levels of performance.

EXAMPLE: In performance appraisals or recruitment interviews, tendency of managers and interviewers to rate all or most of the employees or interviewees as average.


Linenacy error : A systematic error where pieces of data are consistently overly positive. This is usually due to the researchers tendency to be too positive or tolerant or shortcomings in the research.

EXAMPLE: A manager or interviewer rates an employee or the candidate too positively, causing a performance appraisal or interview bias.


Halo effect The halo effect is a term used to describe how a

manager can be influenced by a single or outstanding employee characteristic, clouding his judgment on the employee's other traits. The halo effect can impair judgment to such a degree that hiring decisions are negatively affected and the company suffers. The employee pool can end up being one-dimensional rather than comprised of people with multiple layers of talent and ability.

Accuracy of Attitude Measurements

Validity An attitude measure has validity if it

measures what it is supposed to measure

Face Validity The extent to which the content of a

measurement scale appears to tap all relevant facets of the construct

Construct Validity A scale evaluation criterion that relates to

the underlying question "what is the nature of the underlying variable or construct measured by the scale?"

Accuracy of Attitude Measurements (Contd.)

Convergent Validity A form of construct validity that represents the

association between the measured construct and measures of other constructs with which the construct is related on theoretical grounds

Discriminant Validity A form of construct validity that represents the

extent to which the measured construct is not associated with which the construct is related on theoretical grounds

Accuracy of Attitude Measurements (Contd.)

Reliability The consistency with which the measure produces

the same results with the same or comparable population

Sensitivity Extent to which ratings provided by a scale are able

to discriminate between the respondents who differ with respect to the construct being measured

Relevancy Relevance = reliability * validity

Reliable? Valid?

Generalizable?

Scales in Cross-national Research

Responses Can Be Affected by Low literacy and educational levels Culture in a country Semantic differential scale is closest to

pan cultural scale Adapting response formats, particularly

their calibration, for specific countries and cultures

THATS AN ATTITUDE!

My attitude is that if you push me towards something that you think is a weakness, then I will turn that perceived weakness into a strength.

MICHAEL JORDAN

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