Chapter 4

Sensation and Perception – 8th Edition

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Sensation and Perception: The Distinction

Sensation : stimulation of sense organs

Perception: selection, organization, and

interpretation of sensory input

Psychophysics = the study of how physical stimuli

are translated into psychological experience

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Figure 4.1 The distinction between sensation and perception

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Psychophysics: Basic Concepts

Sensation begins with a detectable stimulus

– Psychological versus physical

Fechner: the concept of the threshold

– Absolute threshold: detected 50% of the time. – F 4.2

– Just noticeable difference (JND): smallest difference

detectable

• Weber’s law: size of JND proportional to size of initial stimulus

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Psychophysics: Concepts and Issues

Signal-Detection Theory: Sensory processes +

decision processes – F 4.3

– applications

Subliminal Perception: Existence vs. practical

effects

– 1957 study in a drive in movie

– Objective evaluation – critical thinking

Sensory Adaptation: Decline in sensitivity

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Vision: The Stimulus

Light = electromagnetic radiation - F 4.5

– Amplitude: perception of brightness

– Wavelength: perception of color

– purity: mix of wavelengths

• perception of saturation, or richness of colors. – F 4.6

Refraction

Reflection

Absorption

Diffraction

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The Eye: Converting Light into Neural Impulses

The eye: housing and channeling

Components:

– Cornea: where light enters the eye

• Anterior chamber

– Lens: focuses the light rays on the retina - presbyopia

– Iris: colored ring of muscle, constricts or dilates via amount

of light

– Pupil: regulates amount of light

Eye conditions – F 4.8

– Nearsightness – mypoia

– Farsightness - hyperopia

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Figure 4.7 The human eye

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Figure 4.8 Nearsightedness and farsightedness

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The Retina: An Extension of the CNS

Retina: absorbs light, processes images, and sends information to the brain

Optic disk: where the optic nerve leaves the eye/ blind spot

Receptor cells: - F 4.8 – Rods: black and white/ low light vision

– Cones: color and daylight vision

• Adaptation: becoming more or less sensitive to light as needed – F 4.10

Information processing: – Receptive fields

– Lateral antagonism

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Figure 4.9 The retina

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Hubel and Wiesel: Feature Detectors and the Nobel Prize

Early 1960’s: Hubel and Wiesel – Microelectrode recording of axons in primary visual cortex of

animals

– Discovered feature detectors: neurons that respond selectively to lines, edges, etc. – F 4.14

– Groundbreaking research: Nobel Prize in 1981

Later research: cells specific to faces in the temporal lobes of monkeys and humans

Cell specialization – F 4.16 – fusifacial form area (FFA) – Quiroga et al. (2005) - hippocampus cells- common name?

Greebles research – Gauthier et al. (1999) – F 4.17 – Facial recognition cells can be trained to recognize other

types of stimuli

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The Retina and the Brain: Visual Information Processing

Light -> rods and cones -> neural signals -> bipolar cells -> ganglion cells -> optic nerve -> optic chiasm -> opposite half brain ->

Main pathway: lateral geniculate nucleus (thalamus) -> primary visual cortex (occipital lobe) – magnocellular: where

– parvocellular: what

– Blindsight – Wesiskrantz (1994)

Second pathway: superior colliculus ->thalamus -> primary visual cortex

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Table of Contents Figure 4.15 The what and where pathways from the primary visual cortex

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Basics of Color Vision

Wavelength determines color

– Longer = red / shorter = violet

Amplitude determines brightness

Purity determines saturation

Computer generated colors and human color vision:

48 bit color scanners v. humans

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Figure 4.18 The color solid

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Figure 4.19 Additive versus subtractive color mixing

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Theories of Color Vision

Trichromatic theory - Young and Helmholtz

– Receptors for red, green, blue – color mixing – F 4.21

Opponent Process theory – Hering

– 3 pairs of antagonistic colors – negative afterimages

– red/green, blue/yellow, black/white

Current perspective: both theories necessary

Color vision defects

Color vision defects: simulations

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XXX

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Perception: Perceiving Forms, Patterns, and Objects

Reversible figures – F 4.23, F 4.31

Perceptual sets – readiness to perceive a stimulus in a particular way – ambiguous stimuli – F 4.24 – effects of motivational factors

Inattentional blindness/change blindness – http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nkn3wRyb9Bk&feature=related

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=38XO7ac9eSs

Feature detection theory - bottom-up processing.

Form perception - top-down processing

Subjective contours

Gestalt psychologists: the whole is more than the sum of its parts – Reversible figures and perceptual sets demonstrate that the

same visual stimulus can result in very different perceptions

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Principles of Perception

Gestalt principles of form perception:

– figure-ground, proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, and

simplicity

– Point of view effects – F 4.34

Recent research:

– Distal (stimuli outside the body) vs. proximal (stimulus

energies impinging on sensory receptors) stimuli.

– Perceptual hypotheses

• Context

– Object recognition – object background consistency – F 4.35

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Depth and Distance Perception

Binocular cues – clues from both eyes together

– retinal disparity – up to 25 feet

– Convergence

– Creating 3D effects – stereoscope – after Wheatstone and

Viewmasters, random dot stereogram- after Brewester, Red-

green anaglyphs, and autostereograms – Magic Eye

– strabismus or "wandering eye" – stereoblindness (5 – 10%), the

case of “Stereo Sue”

Monocular cues – clues from a single eye – Figure 4.36

– motion parallax

– accommodation

– pictorial depth cues

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Wheatstone's original stereoscope

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Schematic of red-green anaglyphs

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Random Dot stereograms

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Emphasis on linear

perspective during the

Western Renaissance

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Stability in the Perceptual World: Perceptual Constancies

Perceptual constancies – stable perceptions amid

changing stimuli

– Size

– Shape

– Brightness

– Hue

– Location in space

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Optical Illusions: The Power of Misleading Cues

Optical Illusions - discrepancy between visual appearance and physical reality

Famous optical illusions: Muller-Lyer Illusion, Ponzo Illusion, Poggendorf Illusion, Upside-Down T Illusion, Zollner Illusion, the Ames Room, and Impossible Figures

Cultural differences: Perceptual hypotheses at work

http://www.michaelbach.de/ot/ - website with visual illusions and other visual effects

Art and Illusion – pages 175 - 179

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Hearing: The Auditory System

Stimulus = sound waves (vibrations of molecules traveling in air) – Amplitude (loudness)

– Wavelength (pitch)

– Purity (timbre)

Wavelength described in terms of frequency: measured in cycles per second (Hz)

– Frequency increase = pitch increase

Sound pressure (SPL) – decibels – F 4.48

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The Ear: Three Divisions

External ear (pinna): collects sound.

Middle ear: the ossicles (hammer, anvil, stirrup)

Inner ear: the cochlea

– a fluid-filled, coiled tunnel

– contains the hair cells, the auditory receptors

– lined up on the basilar membrane

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Figure 4.49 The human ear

Table of Contents Figure 4.50 The basilar membrane

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The Auditory Pathway

Sound waves vibrate bones of the middle ear

Stirrup hits against the oval window of cochlea

Sets the fluid inside in motion

Hair cells are stimulated with the movement of the

basilar membrane

Physical stimulation converted into neural impulses

Sent through the thalamus to the auditory cortex

(temporal lobes)

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Theories of Hearing: Place or Frequency?

Hermann von Helmholtz (1863)

– Place theory

Other researchers (Rutherford, 1886)

– Frequency theory

Georg von Bekesy (1947)

– Traveling wave theory

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Auditory Localization: Where Did that Sound Come From?

Two cues critical:

Intensity (loudness)

Timing of sounds arriving at each ear – F 4.51

– Head as “shadow” or partial sound barrier

Timing differences as small as 1/100,000 of a second

Table of Contents Figure 4.51 Cues in auditory localization

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The Chemical Senses: Taste

Taste (gustation)

Physical stimulus: soluble chemical substances

– Receptor cells found in taste buds

Pathway: taste buds -> neural impulse -> thalamus

-> cortex

– Four primary tastes: sweet, sour, bitter, and salty

– Taste: learned and social processes

Culture and taste – F 4.53

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The Chemical Senses: Smell

Smell (Olfaction)

Physical stimuli: substances carried in the air – dissolved in fluid, the mucus in the nose

– Olfactory receptors = olfactory cilia

Pathway: Olfactory cilia -> neural impulse -> olfactory nerve -> olfactory bulb (brain) – Does not go through thalamus

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Figure 4.54 The olfactory system

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Skin Senses: Touch

Physical stimuli = mechanical, thermal, and chemical energy

impinging on the skin. - receptors/detector – F 4.55

Pathway: Sensory receptors -> the spinal column ->

brainstem -> cross to opposite side of brain -> thalamus ->

somatosensory (parietal lobe)

Temperature: free nerve endings in the skin

Pain receptors: also free nerve endings

– Two pain pathways: fast vs. slow

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Figure 4.56 Pathways for pain signals

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Other Senses: Kinesthetic and Vestibular

Kinesthesis - knowing the position of the various

parts of the body

– Receptors in joints/muscles

Vestibular - equilibrium/balance

– Semicircular canals

Synesthesia – “The man who tasted shapes”

MIT Synesthesia Project