figure 4.3 (b) 24 the origin of species. species and speciation fundamental unit of classification...
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Figure 4.3 (b)
24 The Origin of species
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Species and Speciation
• Fundamental unit of classification is the species.
• Species = a group of populations in which genes are actually, or potentially, exchanged through interbreeding.
• Problems– Reproductive criterion must be assumed based on
phenotype and ecological information.– Asexual reproduction– Fossil – Geographical isolation
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• The origin of new species, or speciation– Is at the focal point of evolutionary theory,
because the appearance of new species is the source of biological diversity
• Evolutionary theory– Must explain how new species originate in
addition to how populations evolve
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Microevolution, Macroevolution, and Evidence of Macroevolutionary change
~ Bacteria gain resistance to antibiotics over time• A change in frequency of alleles in populations over time is
called Microevolution.
• Over longer timescales, microevolutionary processes result in large scale changes that result in formation of new species called Macroevolution (species level)
• Evidence of Macroevolution- patterns of plant and animal distribution, fossils, anatomical structures, and developmental processes
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• Concept 24.1: The biological species concept emphasizes reproductive isolation
• Species– Is a Latin word meaning “kind” or
“appearance”
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Reproductive isolation leads to Speciation
- the formation of new species• Requirement
– Subpopulations are prevented from interbreeding
– Gene flow does not occur (Reproductive isolation)
• Reproductive isolation can result in evolution• Natural selection and genetic drift can result in
evolution
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Speciation of Darwin’s Finches
Warbler
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Large ground finch
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Similarity between different species.
The eastern and western meadowlark (Sturnella magna, left) (Sturnella neglecta, right)
songs and other behaviors are different enough
to prevent interbreeding
(a)
Diversity within a species. As diverse as we
may be in appearance, all humans belong to
a single biological species (Homo sapiens),
defined by our capacity to interbreed.
(b)
Figure 24.3 A, B
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Reproductive Isolation
• Reproductive isolation– Is the existence of biological factors that
impede members of two species from producing viable, fertile hybrids
– Is a combination of various reproductive barriers
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• Prezygotic barriers– Impede mating between species or hinder the
fertilization of ova if members of different species attempt to mate
• Postzygotic barriers– Often prevent the hybrid zygote from developing
into a viable, fertile adult
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• Prezygotic and postzygotic barriers
Figure 24.4
Prezygotic barriers impede mating or hinder fertilization if mating does occur
Individualsof differentspecies
Matingattempt
Habitat isolation
Temporal isolation
Behavioral isolation
Mechanical isolation
HABITAT ISOLATION TEMPORAL ISOLATION BEHAVIORAL ISOLATION MECHANICAL ISOLATION
(b)
(a)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
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Viablefertile
offspring
Reducehybrid
viability
Reducehybridfertility
Hybridbreakdown
Fertilization
Gameticisolation
GAMETIC ISOLATION REDUCED HYBRID VIABILITY
REDUCED HYBRID FERTILITY HYBRID BREAKDOWN
(h)(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
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Limitations of the Biological Species Concept
• The biological species concept cannot be applied to– Asexual organisms– Fossils– Organisms about which little is known
regarding their reproduction
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Other Definitions of Species
• The morphological species concept– Characterizes a species in terms of its body shape, size,
and other structural features
• The paleontological species concept– Focuses on morphologically discrete species known only
from the fossil record
• The ecological species concept– Views a species in terms of its ecological niche
• The phylogenetic species concept– Defines a species as a set of organisms with a unique
genetic history
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(a) Allopatric speciation. A population forms a new species while geographically isolated from its parent population.
(b) Sympatric speciation. A smallpopulation becomes a new specieswithout geographic separation.
Figure 24.5 A, B
• Concept 24.2: Speciation can take place with or without geographic separation
• Speciation can occur in two ways– Allopatric speciation– Sympatric speciation
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Allopatric (“Other Country”) Speciation
• In allopatric speciation– Gene flow is interrupted or reduced when a
population is divided into two or more geographically isolated subpopulations
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Figure 24.6
A. harrisi A. leucurus
• Once geographic separation has occurred– One or both populations may undergo
evolutionary change during the period of separation
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Sympatric (“Same Country”) Speciation
• In sympatric speciation– Speciation takes place in geographically
overlapping populations
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Habitat Differentiation and Sexual Selection
• Sympatric speciation– Can also result from the appearance of new
ecological niches
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• In cichlid fish– Sympatric speciation has resulted from
nonrandom mating due to sexual selection
Figure 24.10
Researchers from the University of Leiden placed males and females of Pundamilia pundamilia and P. nyererei together in two aquarium tanks, one with natural light and one with a monochromatic orange lamp. Under normal light, the two species are noticeably different in coloration; under monochromatic orangelight, the two species appear identical in color. The researchers then observed the mating choices of the fish in each tank.
EXPERIMENT
P. nyererei
Normal lightMonochromatic
orange light
P. pundamilia
Under normal light, females of each species mated only with males of their own species. But under orange light, females of each species mated indiscriminately with males of both species. The resulting hybrids were viable and fertile.
RESULTS
The researchers concluded that mate choice by females based on coloration is the main reproductive barrier that normally keeps the gene pools of these two species separate. Since the species can still interbreed when this prezygotic behavioral barrier is breached in the laboratory, the genetic divergence between the species is likely to be small. This suggests that speciation in nature has occurred relatively recently.
CONCLUSION
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Allopatric and Sympatric Speciation: A Summary
• In allopatric speciation– A new species forms while geographically
isolated from its parent population
• In sympatric speciation– The emergence of a reproductive barrier
isolates a subset of a population without geographic separation from the parent species
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Adaptive Radiation• Adaptive radiation
– Is the evolution of diversely adapted species from a common ancestor upon introduction to new environmental opportunities (typical for long-distance dispersal)
Black noddy ternAustralian coast
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• The Hawaiian archipelago– Is one of the world’s great showcases of
adaptive radiation
Dubautia laxa
Dubautia waialealae
KAUA'I
5.1millionyears O'AHU
3.7millionyears
LANAI
MOLOKA'I
1.3 million years
MAUI
HAWAI'I0.4
millionyears
Argyroxiphium sandwicense
N
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• The punctuated equilibrium model – Contrasts with a model of gradual change
throughout a species’ existence
Figure 24.13
Gradualism model. Species descended from a common ancestor gradually diverge more and more in their morphology as they acquire unique adaptations.
Time
(a)Punctuated equilibrium model. A new species changes most as it buds from a parent species and then changes little for the rest of its existence.
(b)
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25 Phylogeny and Systematics
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• Overview: Investigating the Tree of Life
• This chapter describes how biologists trace phylogeny– The evolutionary history of a species or group
of related species
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• Biologists draw on the fossil record– Which provides information about ancient
organisms
Figure 25.1
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• Biologists also use systematics– As an analytical approach to understanding
the diversity and relationships of organisms, both present-day and extinct
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• Currently, systematists use– Morphological, biochemical, and molecular
comparisons to infer evolutionary relationships
Figure 25.2
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• Concept 25.1: Phylogenies are based on common ancestries inferred from fossil, morphological, and molecular evidence
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The Fossil Record
• Sedimentary rocks– Are the richest source of fossils– Are deposited into layers called strata
Figure 25.3
1 Rivers carry sediment to the ocean. Sedimentary rock layers containing fossils form on the ocean floor.
2 Over time, new strata are
deposited, containing fossils from each time period.
3 As sea levels change and the seafloor is pushed upward, sedimentary rocks are exposed. Erosion reveals strata and fossils.
Younger stratum with more recent fossils
Older stratum with older fossils
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• The fossil record– Is based on the sequence in which fossils have
accumulated in such strata
• Fossils reveal– Ancestral characteristics that may have been
lost over time
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• Though sedimentary fossils are the most common– Paleontologists study a wide variety of fossils
(a) Dinosaur bones being excavated from sandstone (d) Casts of ammonites,
about 375 million years old
(f) Insects preserved whole in amber
(b) Petrified tree in Arizona, about 190 million years old
(c) Leaf fossil, about 40 million years old
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Morphological and Molecular Homologies
• In addition to fossil organisms– Phylogenetic history can be inferred from
certain morphological and molecular similarities among living organisms
• In general, organisms that share very similar morphologies or similar DNA sequences– Are likely to be more closely related than
organisms with vastly different structures or sequences
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Sorting Homology from Analogy
• A potential misconception in constructing a phylogeny– Is similarity due to convergent evolution,
called analogy, rather than shared ancestry
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• Convergent evolution occurs when similar environmental pressures and natural selection– Produce similar (analogous) adaptations in
organisms from different evolutionary lineages
Figure 25.5
Marsupial Australianmole
Eutherian North Am. mole
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• Analogous structures or molecular sequences that evolved independently– Are also called homoplasies
Figure 25.6
C C A T C A G A G T C C
C C A T C A G A G T C C
C C A T C A G A G T C C
C C A T C A G A G T C C
G T A
Deletion
Insertion
C C A T C A A G T C C
C C A T G T A C A G A G T C C
C C A T C A A G T C C
C C A T G T A C A G A G T C C
1 Ancestral homologous DNA segments are identical as species 1 and species 2 begin to diverge from their common ancestor.
2 Deletion and insertion mutations shift what had been matching sequences in the two species.
3 Homologous regions (yellow) do not all align because of these mutations.
4 Homologous regions realign after a computer program adds gaps in sequence 1.
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
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• Concept 25.2: Phylogenetic systematics connects classification with evolutionary history
• Taxonomy– Is the ordered division of organisms into
categories based on a set of characteristics used to assess similarities and differences
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Binomial Nomenclature
• Binomial nomenclature– Is the two-part format of the scientific name of
an organism– Was developed by Carolus Linnaeus 1707-
1778 (Father of Taxonomy or Systematics)
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• The binomial name of an organism or scientific epithet– Is latinized– Is the genus and species
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Hierarchical Classification
• Linnaeus also introduced a system– For grouping species in increasingly broad
categories
Figure 25.8
Pantherapardus
Panthera
Felidae
Carnivora
Mammalia
Chordata
Animalia
EukaryaDomain
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
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Linking Classification and Phylogeny
• Systematists depict evolutionary relationships– In branching
phylogenetic trees
Figure 25.9
Panthera pardus
(leopard)
Mephitis mephitis
(striped skunk)
Lutra lutra (European
otter)
Canis familiaris
(domestic dog)
Canislupus (wolf)
Panthera Mephitis Lutra Canis
Felidae Mustelidae Canidae
Carnivora
Ord
er
Fa
mil
yG
enu
sS
pe
cie
s
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• Each branch point– Represents the divergence of two species
Leopard Domestic cat
Common ancestor
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• Concept 25.3: Phylogenetic systematics informs the construction of phylogenetic trees based on shared characteristics
• A cladogram– Is a depiction of patterns of shared characteristics
among taxa
• A clade within a cladogram– Is defined as a group of species that includes an
ancestral species and all its descendants
• Cladistics– Is the study of resemblances among clades
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Cladistics
• Clades– Can be nested within larger clades, but not all
groupings or organisms qualify as clades
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• A valid clade is monophyletic– Signifying that it consists of the ancestor
species and all its descendants
Figure 25.10a
(a) Monophyletic. In this tree, grouping 1, consisting of the seven species B–H, is a monophyletic group, or clade. A mono-phyletic group is made up of an ancestral species (species B in this case) and all of its descendant species. Only monophyletic groups qualify as legitimate taxa derived from cladistics.
Grouping 1
D
C
E G
F
B
A
J
I
KH
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• A paraphyletic clade– Is a grouping that consists of an ancestral
species and some, but not all, of the descendants
Figure 25.10b
(b) Paraphyletic. Grouping 2 does not meet the cladistic criterion: It is paraphyletic, which means that it consists of an ancestor (A in this case) and some, but not all, of that ancestor’s descendants. (Grouping 2 includes the descendants I, J, and K, but excludes B–H, which also descended from A.)
D
C
E
B
G H
F
J
I
K
A
Grouping 2
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• A polyphyletic grouping– Includes numerous types of organisms that
lack a common ancestor
Figure 25.10c
(c) Polyphyletic. Grouping 3 also fails the cladistic test. It is polyphyletic, which means that it lacks the common ancestor of (A) the species in the group. Further-more, a valid taxon that includes the extant species G, H, J, and K would necessarily also contain D and E, which are also descended from A.
D
C
B
E G
F
H
A
J
I
K
Grouping 3
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Shared Primitive and Shared Derived Characteristics
• In cladistic analysis– Clades are defined by their evolutionary
novelties (new chars)
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Outgroups
• Systematists use a method called outgroup comparison– To differentiate between shared derived
(unique to a clade but not found in beyond that taxon) and shared primitive (ancestral) characteristics
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• As a basis of comparison we need to designate an outgroup– which is a species or group of species that is
closely related to the ingroup, the various species we are studying
• Outgroup comparison– Is based on the assumption that homologies
present in both the outgroup and ingroup must be primitive characters that predate the divergence of both groups from a common ancestor
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• The outgroup comparison– Enables us to focus on just those characters
that were derived at the various branch points in the evolution of a clade
Figure 25.11a, bSal
aman
der
TAXA
Tur
tle
Leop
ard
Tun
a
Lam
prey
Lanc
elet
(out
grou
p)0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1
Hair
Amniotic (shelled) egg
Four walking legs
Hinged jaws
Vertebral column (backbone)
Leopard
Hair
Amniotic egg
Four walking legs
Hinged jaws
Vertebral column
Turtle
Salamander
Tuna
Lamprey
Lancelet (outgroup)
(a) Character table. A 0 indicates that a character is absent; a 1 indicates that a character is present.
(b) Cladogram. Analyzing the distribution of these derived characters can provide insight into vertebrate phylogeny.
CH
AR
AC
TE
RS
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The Universal Tree of Life • The tree of life– Is divided into three great clades called domains: Bacteria,
Archaea, and Eukarya
• The early history of these domains is not yet clear
Figure 25.18
Bacteria Eukarya Archaea4 Symbiosis of
chloroplast ancestor with ancestor of green plants
3 Symbiosis of mitochondrial ancestor with ancestor of eukaryotes
2 Possible fusion of bacterium and archaean, yielding ancestor of eukaryotic cells
1 Last common ancestor of all living things
4
3
2
1
1
2
3
4
0B
illio
n ye
ars
ago
Origin of life
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26 The Tree of LifeAn Introduction to Biological Diversity
• Overview: Changing Life on a Changing Earth
• Life is a continuum– Extending from the earliest organisms to the
great variety of species that exist today
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• Geological events that alter environments– Change the course of biological evolution
• Conversely, life changes the planet that it inhabits
Figure 26.1
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• The analogy of a clock– Can be used to place major events in the
Earth’s history in the context of the geological record
Figure 26.10
Land plants
Animals
Multicellulareukaryotes
Single-celledeukaryotes
Atmosphericoxygen
Prokaryotes
Origin of solarsystem andEarth
Humans
Ceno-zoicMeso-
zoic
Paleozoic
ArchaeanEon
Billions of years ago
ProterozoicEon
1
2 3
4
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• Concept 26.3: As prokaryotes evolved, they exploited and changed young Earth
• The oldest known fossils are stromatolites– Rocklike structures
composed of many layers of bacteria and sediment
– Which date back 3.5 billion years ago
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The First Prokaryotes
• Prokaryotes were Earth’s sole inhabitants– From 3.5 to about 2 billion years ago
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Electron Transport Systems• Electron transport systems of a variety of
types– Were essential to early life– Have: some aspects that possibly precede life itself
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Photosynthesis and the Oxygen Revolution
• The earliest types of photosynthesis– Did not produce oxygen
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• Oxygenic photosynthesis– Probably evolved about 3.5 billion years ago
in cyanobacteria
Figure 26.12
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• When oxygen began to accumulate in the atmosphere about 2.7 billion years ago– It posed a challenge for life– It provided an opportunity to gain abundant
energy from light– It provided organisms an opportunity to exploit
new ecosystems
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• Concept 26.4: Eukaryotic cells arose from symbioses and genetic exchanges between prokaryotes
• Among the most fundamental questions in biology– Is how complex eukaryotic cells evolved from
much simpler prokaryotic cells
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The First Eukaryotes
• The oldest fossils of a simple eukaryotic cell– Date back 2.1 billion years
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Endosymbiotic Origin of Mitochondria and Plastids
• The theory of endosymbiosis– Proposes that mitochondria and plastids were
formerly small prokaryotes living within larger host cells
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• The prokaryotic ancestors of mitochondria and plastids– Probably gained entry to the host cell as
undigested prey or internal parasites
Figure 26.13
CytoplasmDNA
Plasmamembrane
Ancestralprokaryote
Infolding ofplasma membrane
Endoplasmicreticulum
Nuclear envelope
Nucleus
Engulfingof aerobic
heterotrophicprokaryote Cell with nucleus
and endomembranesystem
Mitochondrion
Ancestralheterotrophiceukaryote Plastid
Mitochondrion
Engulfing ofphotosyntheticprokaryote insome cells
Ancestral Photosyntheticeukaryote
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• In the process of becoming more interdependent– The host and endosymbionts would have
become a single organism
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• The evidence supporting an endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria and plastids includes– Similarities in inner membrane structures and
functions– Both have their own circular DNA
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• Concept 26.5: Multicellularity evolved several times in eukaryotes
• After the first eukaryotes evolved– A great range of unicellular forms evolved– Multicellular forms evolved also
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The Earliest Multicellular Eukaryotes
• Molecular clocks– Date the common ancestor of multicellular
eukaryotes to 1.5 billion years
• The oldest known fossils of eukaryotes– Are of relatively small algae that lived about 1.2
billion years ago
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• Larger organisms do not appear in the fossil record– Until several hundred million years later
• Chinese paleontologists recently described 570-million-year-old fossils– That are probably animal embryos
Figure 26.15a, b
150 m 200 m(a) Two-cell stage (b) Later stage
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The Colonial Connection
• The first multicellular organisms were colonies– Collections of autonomously replicating cells
Figure 26.16
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• Some cells in the colonies– Became specialized for different functions
• The first cellular specializations– Had already appeared in the prokaryotic
world
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Colonization of Land by Plants, Fungi, and Animals
• Plants, fungi, and animals– Colonized land about 500 million years ago
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• Robert Whittaker proposed a system with five kingdoms– Monera, Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and
Animalia
Figure 26.21
Plantae Fungi Animalia
Protista
Monera
Eukaryo
tes
Prokaryotes
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Reconstructing the Tree of Life: A Work in Progress
• A three domain system– Has replaced the five kingdom system– Includes the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and
Eukarya
• Each domain– Has been split by taxonomists into many
kingdoms