By Daniel PalLlly and Chua Thia-Eng

A brief review of marine fishery development in Southeast Asia is given,with emphasis on the phase of rapid growth of catches that prevailed inthe 1960s-1970s. and on the high expectations this phase generated,especially in the six countries that make up the Association of SoutheastAsian Nations (ASEAN). The problems of the 1980s are related to stagnat-ing or even declining catches and serious environmental problems incoastal zones, aggravated by above-average growth of coastal popula-tions. Environmental interventions (e.g. construction of artificial reefs;replanting of seagrasses and mangroves; conducting environmentallybenign forms of coastal aquaculture; etc.) are proposed as necessarycomplements to any fishery-management or pollution-control scheme.

and the need for larger quantities of cheapfood for consumption within colonizedSoutheast Asia, e.g. for the plantationworkers.

The early Japanese efforts have beendocumented by Shin do (24). However,only scattered anecdotes exist on the colo-nial efforts (20-23), which still need to beintegrated into a comprehensive history ofthe region.

The destruction brought about by WorldWar II, the readjustments following Inde-pendence, in the Philippines (1946), in In-donesia (1949), and in Malaysia (1957),and the temporary rollback of Japaneseinfluence in the Southeast Asian region allcontributed to very low fisheries catches inthe second half of the 1940s and early1950s. However, fishery developmentfrom the mid-1950s onward was veryrapid, and was initially based on sources ofcapital and expertise from outside South-east Asia. These sources included:

HISTORICAL AND SOCIALBACKGROUNDOn June 30, 1597, Antonio de Morgawrote to King Philip II of Spain, in hisreport on "Conditions in the Philippines"(1) that: "Fish is the most abundant andmost general food supply. The Indians(sic) do not occupy themselves, as former-ly, in fishing but leave this work to theChinese. These (...) interested peoplehave raised the prices, an evil that must berestrained and checked." also: "Fishing isdone with 'salambaos' and with fine-meshed nets, with which they block up thebay and kill the small fish. These netsought not to be employed and the size offish will not be exhausted; for already ex-perience has demonstrated that they arenot so abundant as formerly." These fas-cinating quotes, now almost 400 years old,incorporate nearly all the problems pres-ently occurring in Southeast Asia in rela-tion to fishery research and management.These problems include:

.Colonial administrations, where thesehad lasted beyond the late 1940s, as wasthe case in what are now Malaysia, Sin-gapore, and Brunei (25-28).

.The technical cooperation agencies ofseveral Western developed countries;e.g. the German Agency for TechnicalCooperation (GTZ), the United StatesAgency for International Development(USAID), the UK Overseas Develop-ment Administration (ODA), and theirsister agencies and predecessors.

.The Asian Development Bank (found-ed 1966).

Table 1. Selected statistics relevant to fisheries development in Southeast Asia.

ABC D E F G H

236

31017

22

0.237

1696.2

16-3.3

572.6

5361

2.42.22.22.12.22.72.51.11.92.5

12000200500

951800

800800

6500700170

3443

160051

72613

127191

2100505

.Descriptive, rather than quantitativeaccounts of fisheries as the basis of ad-ministrative intervention.

.Near-zero understanding of fisherieseconomics.

.A tendency for prejudices, especiallythose of the long lasting, ethnic sort, toshort-circuit the painstaking task of dif-ferentiating causes from their effects.

As defined in this article the SoutheastAsian Region is from Burma in the north-west to Papua New Guinea (PNG) in thesouth-east; the "core" of this region iscomprised of the six members of theAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN); i.e. Brunei, Indonesia, Malay-sia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand(Figure 1).

200

Brunei 5.80Burma 677Indonesia .1919Kampuchea 181Malaysia 329Papua New Guinea 462Philippines 300Singapore 0.62Thailand 5.40Vietnam 330

A. Country. ASEAN countries are in italics.B. Area in km2 .103 (3).C. Coastline length in km (4-6).D. Population in millions (3)E Annual population growth rata (in percent) during period 1977-1984 (3).F. Annual per capita income (USD) (7).G. Annual marine landings in metric tons. 103 (8. 9)H. Demersal component of marine landings in metric tons. 103 (8. 10-12).I. Penaeid shrimp production in metric tons. 103 (11,13-16).

In discussing Southeast Asian develop-ment we refer principally to these six coun-tries, while the other four countries listedin Table I-linked geographically, histori-cally and culturally (2) to the ASEANcountries-are used here as background.

Following centuries of close relation-ships between Southeast Asians and thesea, and a wide dependence on its prod-ucts for their sustenance (17-19), somefirst attempts to initiate "fishery develop-ment" in the modem sense were intro-duced, at the beginning of the present cen-tury. These first efforts were made in whatis now Indonesia (20). Following WorldWar I these efforts were extended to Kam-puchea and Vietnam (21), the Philippines(22), and present day Malaysia and Singa-pore (23). These early attempts wereprompted by different, and largely incom-patible interests, for example; Japan'sneed for fish for consumption in Japan,

163800800435400000500140580310

3400900

2752311.2

70417.1

1770250

0.51.0

1301.3

76.51.0

55.70.0

17449.1

of China0 , r3I 0

(,1. Taiwan~ _.1'""'0~ I

Burma ',. i~)~ -Hon9 Kon9 I' 0,", "/-"o.Laos," ~

o( / ~, South0 ,,' 0 '~\,\

I Thailand '\ i Vietnam

._o-i.-ii ( ,

N

1

~._.,/' ~./

("1 jPOCific Oc~on

"i -

I Gulf of Thailand

2 Gulf of Tonkin

3 San Miguel Bay4 Southern Samar Sea

5 Malacca Strait

FIgure 1. Map of South-east Asia, showing somaImportant fishinggrounds mentioned Inthe text.

d

f.China

Sea

Brunei

0

:>

;/~"~e, ~00.0' "

'F~ ~<;)"'Y' 1::0 cI

C;:1~

Easlern Indonesio[)

,t::J.. .p

6/-

~\ '-

"4,

~oWeslern Indonesia

~~-""'1-

Indian

Oc~an~I\.

~ f\ ..~~\\..,.~ ,

u I'O.c'U Q

K

860

~.s~~:)I('~)

~)"<1-'~J.<~-~I~~~ ~

~u

81..,'~ 0t ;~ ~.--= .8 8C L:"i: -c0 ~E 0

u

C zc ot

E ...0 U)c ot

8-.30

~c~0u

Z~'"'"~

'0

Figure 2. Evolution ofnominal marine fisheriescatches In the sixmember states ofASEAN,1955to 1983,based on FAO catchstatistics; annual datasmoothed using a 3-yearrunning average to em.phaslze Interannualtrends.

I 9.7% year-I I

840

820

800

7.80

7.60

740

7.20

l 700 .-, , " ,1955 1960 1965 1970 19~ 1980

Vear

AMBIO YOLo 17 NO.3. 1988 201

The aggregate impact of the measurestaken was stunning. Marine catches in thesix ASEAN countries rose from about 1.5million tons per year in the early 1960s toabout 5.5 million in the early 1980s-analmost fourfold increase (Figure 2). Thisincrease, predictably, occurred at differentrates in different countries. Nevertheless,two major phases can be distinguished(Figure 2). The first phase covered theperiod from 1959 to 1968, during whichtime overall ASEAN catches increased byalmost 10 percent per year. The secondphase lasted from 1969 to the mid-1980s,during this period catches rose on an aver-age by 3.7 percent per year. The very highrate of increase prevailing in the 1960s waslargely due to conditions in the Gulf ofThailand (29), into which trawl-fishingmethods-first developed in thePhilippines-had been transferred by aGerman team under K. Tiews and fromwhere trawling subsequently "spilled"over to Indonesia and Malaysia (30).

1980

(3.09)2.354.730.400.780.173.390.246.980.554.090.050.290.010.470.200.390.630.171.050.000.420.020.520.020.200.240.070.130.140.010.040.090.250.000.141.84

13.98

.48.14245

~

14.80 ",;2.86,,1.1411.30 ;""";"';; 6.64 c""";;,,, 1.657.40 ;"';""" 1.44 ",;""";,,, 0.33

c6.10 c; 8.55 6.427.60 ",;"",,'" 2.62 0.745.60 7.38 2.102.10 0.75 0.142.10 1.43 0.162.00 0.19 0.031.50 2.25 0.431.30 0.63 0.110.90 0.94 2.870.80 0.86 0.450.80 1.54 0.140.70 1.32 1.000.60 0.02 0.000.60 0.15 0.160.40 0.16 0.010.40 0.56 0.300.40 0.09 0.030.40 0.56 0.360.20 0.23 0.130.20 0.22 0.020.20 0.25 0.040.10 0.26 0.30(1.18) 0.40 0.09

'" (0.46) 0.21 0.01"",,;(12.86) 2.55 ;,0.69

-;:: (O.80) 0.86:c 0.18",t~; (1.20) 0.32 c"""c: 0.35;,'; (0.23) 0.07 '."'",0.37.

;;",; (5.32) ;;2.62 "",2.31"'c 14.40 ",15.14 c;c11.45, ; ; !"",,:

; ".",297.80 248.95 ",;",;97.24c;~ 46.99".' .; 133 200 c 718 c' 480:,;'1" """ c c c C /c,-cc.~~".~>,cc'c""" ;" .",'"

,'1.00

",114.89];!'c,15.00,,'.c 1000, .

[2.14]

"', 4.00

5.00[2.11]3.003.008.002.00

10.002.00(0.96)(0.84)2.00

(0.72)(0.48)0.20

(0.48)(0.48)(0.24)(0.24)

! 0.30!;'C' (0.12), !,c

(050 )',;c' .".'.';...,.(0.55);"

~

Loligo spp.ScolopsisPriacanthusSharksSphyraena spp.Thenus spp.LutjanidaePlectorhynchidaeTrichiuridaeSerranidaeRastrelliger neglectusCrabsLactarius lactariusShrimpsPomadasys spp.Scomberomorus spp.Pampus spp.Psettodes erumeiChirocentrus spp.Rachycentron canadusLethrinidaeMuraenesox spp"'cRhinobalidae c,'" c .

OVERFISHING: CAUSES ANDREMEDIESThe Gulf of Thailand demersal trawlfisheries have been rather well-documented (31, 32), and several theoreti-cal models (33) have been constructed thatimply prey/predator relationships, otherbiological interactions, and patterns ofchanges in species composition thataccompanied the reduction of overallstock biomass. Catch rates, proportionalto biomass, declined by almost one orderof magnitude between 1961 and the early1980s (Table 2).

However, principal-component analysisof the data in Table 2 shows that over 60percent of the variance in the data set canbe explained by the first component, at-tributable to the effect of fishing (35). Thisconfirms and extends a previous analysisby Pope (36) who found that 70 percent ofthe variance could be explained by the firstprincipal component. Pope's analysis wasbased on a subset of the data in Table 2,covering the years 1963-1975.

This finding is also in line with the grow-ing consensus among fishery biologistsworking on tropical multi-species stocks;

~

FIgure 3. Depth distribution of demersal fish concentrations In Southeast Asian waters, In little exploitedand strongly exploited stocks. Note that major conCElntrations occur at depth of about 30 m in the former

stocks (40).

Little exploited stocksAdjusted catch/effort (kg/h) Catch/effartlkg/hl

0 100 200 300 0 100 200

Strongly exploited stocks

300300 0

Burmo

(1979-B2,oll shelf)

AMBIO YOLo 17 NO.3. 1988

i.e. that complex biological interactions,although they may playa role, need not beinvoked to explain the gross changes in thestructure of exploited bottom-fish com-munities (33). Rather, the effects of thegear itself on the populations of differ-ently-sized and differently-shaped fish thatit exploits, and on their bottom habitats,which it modifies, appear sufficient to ex-

;:j~ ~"._"'c~,

plain most of the observed changes (37).The period of rapid growth of ASEAN

fisheries catches in the 1960s is psychologi-cally important, because at that time-when the leaders of present day SoutheastAsia were being formed-putting moretrawlers into the water, or putting enginesonto previously unmotorized boats did in-deed increase catches. There was, and still

Catch/effort (kg/h) Catch/effort (kg /h!

100 200 300 0 100 200

is, a widespread notion that fish resourceswere infinite and would provide fish asneeded for both domestic consumptionand export (particularly of shrimp).

Only recently has the failure of succes-sive loan schemes, the persistent (increas-ing) poverty of small-scale fishermen, andgrowing conflict within the fishery sector(mainly between small-scale fishermenand trawler operators) begun to influencethe thinking of administrators and the -1.fishery development plans they produce FIgure 4. Actual size of material used In various areas of the Philippines to line the(37, 38). Before turning to these issues, cod end of trawlers during the season when anchovies are abundan.t. The mesh

.however, a few potential misunderstand- shown here corresponds to 0.8 cm stretched and generates mean SIZes at firstings must be cleared up, especially in re- capture of 2-3 cm (42).

gard to various elements of the latter con-flict.

One of the prevailing views in high-latitude countries is that trawlers are largeboats that fish far from shore. This is truefor a part of the Thai trawler fleet (39), ofwhich some units have operated as far asOman. The over\Jihelming majority of FIgure 5. Surplus-production models of the Philippines demersal (A) and small pelaglcs (B)Southeast Asian trawlers however con- fisheries showing declining catches from the mid-70s onward, due to excessive effort. Bothform with Ommanney's (25) state'ment, fisheries would generate higher catches If efforts were reduced, particularly In the case of the"that nowhere in tropical countries is there small pelaglcs (anchovies, serdlnes, roundscads, mackerels, etc.). Both fisheries presently

generate pure profns (economic rent, or social benefits) that are probably near zero (I.e. a~ heavily capltahze~ ~echarnzed fishm.g atralght cost line and production curve are assumed to Intersect In the early 80s), but a veryIndustry such as we!md m Europe, .Amen- large rent (at Maximum Economic Yield, MEV) would be extracted If fishing effort and/orca or Japan. Nothmg compares WIth our fishing mortality were reduced by a factor of 2-3. MSY = Maximum Sustainable Yield (44-45).trawler industry with its costly ships, longvoyages and elaborate marketing organi-zation."

What has developed, in fact, are vastfleets of relatively small trawlers some ofwhich, e.g. the "baby trawlers" of the ~ 04Philippine archipelago, displace only three ~. ~gross tons. These small trawlers perform K -gshort trips (usually one-day trips) and ~ 0 IIImainly fish close inshore. This is because ~. 0.3 ; ~in Southeast Asian waters, concentrations ~ ~o ~ uof demersal (and indeed of pelagic fish ~ 100 -; ~ 't.also) occur down to depths of only approx- ~ 0.2 ~imately 50 meters (Figure 3), and also be- ~ :> 0;;:

cause penaeid shrimp, the most valuable -~ Epart of their catch, occur close inshore ~ 0.1 g 2(41). Thus, these trawlers usually operate ~ =in the only part of the shelf that is acces- ~ 0

sible to small-scale fisheries, whose fixed ~ 0 ,;gear (gill nets) they often destroy. >1

In addition, the trawlers in question usu- {r;l:;;:7:!';;V: Coally use very small meshes (often two cen- !:;!7~'i;i;~~~ ,;". I F. 4) d . bl ".c C;'<-etlmeters or ess, Igure an a slzea e "'J"" """"i:,,"'~' "'.; -,..,"' '- ,?C"",.c,c.,",.",'part of their catch consists of the young ofcommercially important fish such assnappers, sea bream, etc. (43). Figure 7ashows that increased fishing effort, princi-pally by such trawlers, in the demersalfisheries of the Philippines has completelydissipated the economic "rent", (econom-ic benefits above costs) potentially avail-able from the resources, and is actually in ~ ~ .

the process of reducing total catches. ~ -~Yield per recruit analyses, conducted on ~ g ~

the species mixes that typically occur in --.Einshore Southeast Asian waters suggest :> "0 ~

that mesh sizes of five centimeters and! ::more would be appropriate even if only g 0

the high-value shrimps are considered' III(46). However, traditional management ,ofmeasures patterned after the North Sea :':",!';~i"" d ." h h ..,'" para Igm suc as mes -size Increase ~~;;' ,"~~

and gradual reduction of effort, have usu- :i -":" ';;~',~ally been impossible to implement ",::~ ,;'\:';throughout Southeast Asia. This has f~t'1: :,forced fisheries administrators to resort to "':;;'c:"';l;':;nontraditional approaches, of which the ~ic,~;!,most prominent ones are, presently, trawl- ';..," ,]";"ing bans (in which the use of demersal ' c"c

AMBIO VOL. 17 NO, 3. 1988 203

trawling gear, used principally for shrimps,is totally banned), and construction of arti-ficial reefs.

An example of a local trawling ban is theban declared for the Southern Saw.ar Sea,Philippines, in November 1976. This banappears to have had a positive impact onthe fish stock as these increased (47) and anegative impact on total catches as thesedecreased (48). Strangely, the effect onthe catches of the small-scale fishermenwho actually demanded the ban is un-known. However, the most spectacularban so far effected is the Indonesian trawl-ing ban of 1980 (49). The full impact of thisparticular ban has yet to be fully assessed(38). It is thought that the effects of theban will probably be negative for overallcatches and positive for the incomes ofsmall-scale fishermen.

Generally, the construction of artificialreefs in Southeast Asia has three func-tions. These functions are ranked differ-ently-according to relevance and impor-tance-for different countries. Thesefunctiom include (50):

.Preventing inshore trawling.

.Increasing overall inshore production,or reestablishing original productionlevels.

.Effecting a transfer from active gearsand fuel-guzzling operations to passivegears (e.g. gill nets set near artificialreefs) in which the fish "catch them-selves."

.Effecting a transition, within popula-tions of coastal fishermen from "hunt-er" t? "rancher ," with genuine aquacul-ture as the long-term goal.

.Achieving a transfer of resources fromone segment of the population (trawloperators) to another (small-scalecoastal fishermen).

Governments, bilateral aid projects, andprivate institutions are now constructinglarge numbers of artificial reefs, especiallyin the Philippines, Thailand and Malaysia,and interest, and hopes, for these projectsare high.

Whatever the outcome, it is obvious thatfishery management in the SoutheastAsian region will have to change if fish,which provide over 50 percent of all theanimal protein consumed (51), is to con-tinue to play its present role.

POPULATION GROWTH ANDPOVERTYA major issue in Southeast Asia is popula-tion growth. Average doubling time of theaggregate population of the ASEAN coun-tries is presently 32 years. It is difficult toimagine Southeast Asian marine catchesalso doubling within this period. Thus, inthe Philippines, for example, where popu-lation growth rate has recently been re-ported to have increased to 2.9-3.0 per-cent per annum (doubling time = 23years), overall catch of marine fish hasdeclined over the last decade. This declinein catch has taken place in spite of-orrather because of-a tremendous increasein the fishing effort (Figure 5). Moreover,in coastal areas population growth is ex-acerbated by massive, increasing landless-

Figure 6. Range of coastal ectlvltles occurringalong Southeast Asian seas and Impacting thefishery sector In various (mostly deleterious) ways

(53).

204 AMBIO YOLo 17 NO.3. 1988

ness. It has been estimated that 78 percent

of rural households in the Philippines own

no land. the figure for Indonesia (Java) is Envlrorvnental

, ..interventions

85 percent (52). Migration of landless

farmers toward coastal areas is critical be-

cause:

.There are far more tenant farmers than

fishermen, and hence a small change in

the percentage of tenant farmers will

tend to produce an even larger increase

Se I t". h 1 . f fi h agrass rep an inS

m t e popu atlon 0 s ermen.

.Agricultural populations live over virtu-

ally the whole surface of an island;

coastal zone processes take place, how-

l "

I ." t th .Closed area "

ever, a on

g a narrow me, a e m- -~ Mangrove reforestation

._N semons.terface of land and sea. Hence, agncul-

tural "causes" will have magnified r::O~~7..

"effect" along coastlines. [=~::::~~~J mana~ment .Migrants, i.e. "new" fishermen, are not " "restrained in the coastal zone by webs of .Effort control Sea randllnS

family and informal ties, nor do they

have (as "old" fishermen sometime do)

[ =:::::=J---~ L __{==::::=:J a small plot of land to resort to when

catches are poor. l:Ience, they will. USU- Limited entry Mariculturo

ally be among the first to use technIques

such as excessively fine mesh nets, dy-

namite, cyanide and bleaches. In the

Philippines and Indonesia these tech-..h ." fi h Temtorial Strict pollution

mques now constitute t e major s -users' ght control

ing gear," especially in coralline areas. " s

Because poverty is the root of an array of

fishery-related and other socioeconomic Figure 7. The dualistic nature of activities needed for coastal resources man-

problems, solutions to fishing problems agement, which must not be limited to fishery regulatlon(s) (left) but also

will be forthcoming only when the central Includa actlva Interventions aimed at habitat rehabilitation or actual enhance-

issue, poverty itself, has been resolved. ment (right).

INDUSTRIALIZATION,

ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

AND THE NEED FOR MANAGEMENT

After World War II and independence, photosynthesize metabolites and may even

most Southeast Asian nations underwent be buried by increased sedimentation. .increasing rates of coastal erosion;

rapid agricultural and industrial develop- Water pollution has also caused a .increased health hazards caused by wa-

ment. This growth provided vast invest- number of detrimental effects on the ter pollution;

ment opportunities, particularly in the fisheries resources, ranging from a decline. increased resource-use conflicts;

1960s and 1970s, and corresponded to the in fish stocks to poor quality of fishery. economic loss; and

rapid phase of fishery development shown products. In Juru River and a large. sociopolitical unrest.

in Figure 2. Most development took place number of the river systems in Peninsular

in the coastal zones that are inhabited by Malaysia, the fisheries resources are Overfishing of coastal waters should be

70 percent of the population of Southeast threatened by industrial discharges (54). considered as a management issue of the

Asia and where most major cities and In the state of Perak, the "sipat siam" coastal zone as a whole, which cannot be

towns are located. (snake-skin gouramy) fishery undertaken managed using simple regulatory mea-

The Southeast Asian countries are en- in paddy fields was nearly wiped out due to sures. Alternatives acceptable to the fish-

dowed with abundant primary resources indiscriminate use of agricultural pesti- ing communities affected must be found if

and these are exploited for food and as raw cides (55). regulatory measures are to be effective.

materials for industry. Among the eco- Unregulated sewage discharges into the While regulatory measures are impor-

nomic activities related to the exploitation bays of Manila and Jakarta make fishery tant and necessary in managing fish re-

of the nearshore or marine resources are products, especially clams and oysters, un- sources, other management interventions,

agriculture; lumbering; ports and ship- fit for human consumption. In Thailand, such as habitat enhancement and

.ping; light and heavy industries; fishing million-dollar losses to fishing and aqua- aquafarming, are necessary. Recent scien-

and aquaculture; human settlement; recre- culture industries resulted from disease tific achievements in the development of

ation and tourism (Figure 6). However, outbreaks in 1982 (56) caused mainly by fish aggregating devices such as artificial

unisectoral developments have caused pathogenic bacteria and viruses. In addi- reefs; seagrasses (58) and coral-reef re-

serious environmental stresses on the tion, the increased frequency of red tides habilitation; reforestation of mangroves;

coastal environment, especially coastal in recent years in Brunei, Malaysia, and the use of shallow flats for seaweed plant-

ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs, the Philippines may be an indication of the ing; and aquafarming of invertebrates such

beaches and seagrasses. In particular, es- changing conditions of the coastal aquatic as sea urchins and sea cucumbers are some

tuarine fisheries resources are greatly environment (57). of the alternatives that could be im-

affected by industrial and domestic pollu- These trends reflect an inadequate man- plemented. In addition, the raising of fish

tion. The latter includes uncontrolled dis- agement that is structured around unisec- in floating-net cages and eventually fish

charges of generally untreated industrial toral developments of coastal resources. ranching may increase yields and reduceeffluents, sewage and mine tailings. The Their consequences include: resource-use conflicts. Figure 7 illustrates

erosion, that has resulted from logging, the dualistic approach implied here, some

has killed coral reefs by increasing the tur- .depletion of living resources; forms of which will have to be im-

bidity of coastal waters, such that the coral. heavy stress on the coastal ecosystems plemented if the coastal resources of

polyps no longer have enough light to resulting in ecological imbalance; Southeast Asia are to remain productive.

AMBIO YOLo 17 NO.3. 1988 205

References and Notes

1. Blair, E.H. and Robertson, J.A. (eds.). 26. Ommanney, F.D. 1962. Malayan Offshore Trawl-1903-1?09. The Philippine Islands 1493-1898. i!lg Grounds. The Experimental and ExploratoryPhIlIppIne ~dn. Cachos Hermanos Inc., Man- Fishing of the FRV Manahine in Malayan and Bor-daluyong, Rlzal. vol. 10, p. 85-86. neo Waters, 1955-56. Colon. Off. Fish. Publ. No.

2. Cowan, C.D. and Wolters, O.W. (eds.). 1976. 18, London, 95 p.Southeast Asian History and Historiography: 27. Jeffries, C. (ed.). 1964. A Review of Colonial Re-Essays Presented to D.G.E. Hall. Cornell Univer- search, 1940-1960. Her Majesty's Stationarysity Press, Ithaca and London, 436 p. Officc, London, 238 p.

3. MacLachlan,M.(ed.).1986.Asial986Yearbook. 28. Beales, R.W., Currie, D.J. and Lindley, R.H.Far Eastcrn Economic Review, Hongkong, 272 p. (eds.). 1982. Investigations into fishery resources

4. For aU countrics except Burma and PNG: from in Brunei. Monogr. Brunei Mus. J. 5, Brunei.Marr ,} .C. 1976. The ~ealities of fisheries manage- 29. Tiews, K. 1972. Fishery devclopmcnt and manage-ment U1 Southeast Asia. Resources for the Future, ment in Thailand. Arch. Fisch. Wiss. 24, 271-300.RFF/PISFA Pap. No.7, Washington, 62 p. 30. Pauly, D. 1988. Fisheries research and the demer-

5. Anonymous. 1982. Notes on Fisheries of Burma. sal fisheries of Southeast Asia. In Gulland, J.A.Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma, Minis- (ed.). Fish Population Dynamics, 2nd edn.,t~ o~ Agnculture and Forests, 23 p. Academic Press (in press).

6. Fneltnk,.A.B. Jr. 1981. Coastal Fisheries in Papua 31. Ritragsa, S. 1976. Results of studies on the statusNew GuInea: The Current Situation. Fisheries Di- of demersal fish resources in the Gulf of Thailandvision, Dept. Prim. Ind. Res. Rep. 83-10, Port from trawling Surveys 1963-1972. In Tiews, K.M.oresby, 33 p. (ed.). Proceedings af the International Seminar on

7. Hmton, H.C. 1985. East Asia and the Western the Fisheries Resources and Their Management inPacific 1984. Skye Corporation, Styker-Post Publi- Southeast Asia. Fcd. Res. Board for Fisheries/Ger-cations, v.:es.tinghouse, 104 p. man Foundation for International Developmentl

8. FA? StatistIcs for 1983, except PNG re annual FAO, West Berlin, p. 198-223.manne landIngs (see ref. 9), and Burma, Kam- 32. Boonyubol, M. and Pramokchutima, S. 1982.puchea, PNG and Vietnam redemersa! compo- Trawl Fisheries in the Gulf of Thailand. ICLARMnents (see refs. 10-12). Translation 4, Manila, 12 p.

9. A,?nual catch figure for PNC} excludes tuna and 33. Pauly, D. and Murphy, G.I. (eds.). 1982. Theorybaltfish, whose fishery essentially stopped in 1981, and Management of Tropical Fisheries. ICLARMa.s well as.beche-de-mer and pearl shells. Informa- Conference Proceedings 9, Manila, 360 p.lIon ootamed from Dalzell, P., ICLARM and 34. Pauly, D. 1988. Theory and practice of overfish-Wnght, A., PNG Dept. Prim. Ind. ing: a Southeast Asian perspective. Proceedings of

10. Annual de'?1ersal catch in PNG based on Wright, a Symposium on the Exploitation and ManagementA. arK! RIchards, A.H. 1985. A multispecies of Marine Fishery Resources in Southeast Asia.fishery associated with coral reefs in the Tigak Indo-Pacific Fishery Commission, Darwin, Aus-Islands, Papua New Guinea. Asian Mar. Bioi. 2, tralia, 16-19 February 1987 (in press).69-.84. 35. Analysis kindly performed by Ms. Mina Soriano

11. Estimate for Kampuchea based on Aoyama, T. (ICLARM), who applied the appropriate routine1973. The South China Sea Fisheries: Demersal of the SPSS software package to transformed dataResources. South China Sea Fisheries Develop- (log,. (X+1) except for "miscellaneous fishes"ment and Coordinating Programme, SCS/DEVI and "total catch."73/3, Manila, 80 p., and refers to pre-war (1971) 36. Pope, J.G. 1979. Stock Assessment in Multispeciestrawler catches. Fisheries, With Special Experience to the Trawl

12. Demersal components of total Burma and Viet- Fishery of the Gulf of Thailand. South China Seanam marine catch set at 90 percent and 50 percent, Fisheries Development and Coordinating Pro-respectively, based on structure of fishing fleet. gramme, SCS/DEVn9/19, Manila, 106 p.

13. From FAO Statistics for 1983, except for Burma, 37. Smith, I.R. 1979. A Research Frameworkfor Trod-Brunei, Kampuchea, and PNG. itional Fisheries. ICLARM Studies and Reviews 2,

14. Burma shrimp production, from Price, A.R.G. Manila, 40 p.and Kyaw Htin. 1984. Preliminary Stock Assess- 38. Bailey, C., Dwiponggo, A. and Marahudin, F.ment of the Marine Shrimp Resources of Burma. 1987. Indonesian Marine Capture Fisheries. IC-FI:DP/BURmI003/Field Document 4, FAO, LARM Studies and Reviews 10, Manila, 195 p.Rome, 28 p. 39. Panayotou, T. and Jetanavanich, S. 1987. The

15. Currie, D.J. 1982. Studies on the biology of Economics and Management of Thai Marinepenaeid prawns and the prawn fishery in the Fisheries. ICLARM Studies and Reviews 14, Man-Brunei estuary. Monogr. Brunei Mus. J. 5, ila, 82 p.134-188. 40. Pauly, D. 1988. Theory and practice of overfish-

16. Anonymous. 1979. Fisheries Research. Fisheries ing: a Southeast Asian perspective. Proceedings ofDivision, Dept. Prim. Ind., Ann. Rep. 1978, Port a Symposium on the Exploitatian and ManagementMoresby, 98 p. of Marine Fishery Resources in Southeast Asia.

17. Ochotorena, M. 1981. Ag Tobig nog Keboklagan: Indo-Pacific Fishery Commission, Darwin, Aus-a Suoonon Folk Epic. Kinaadman, J. South. tralia, 16-19 February 1987 (in press).Philipp. 3, 348-543. 41. Pauly, D. and Neal, R. 1985. Shrimp vs Fish in

18. Firth, R. 1966. Malay FIShermen, Their Peasant Southeast Asia: the biological, technological andEconomy. W.W. Norton, New York, 398 p. social problems. In Yahez-Arancibia, A. (ed.).

19. Ruddle, K. and Johannes, R.E. (eds.). 1985. The Recursos Pesqueros Potenciales de Maxico: LaTraditional Knowledge and Management of Coast- Pesca Acompanante del Camaron. Prog. Univ. deal Systems in Asia and the Pacific. UNESCO Re- Aliment., Inst. Cien. Mar y Limnol. Inst. Nac!. degional Office for Science and Technology, Jakarta, PeSta. UNAM, Mexico, DF, p. 487-510.313 p. 42. Pauly, D. and Mines, A.N. (eds.). 1982. Small-

20. Van Rosendaal, A.M. and Van Kampen, P.N. scale Fisheries of San Miguel Bay, Philippines:1909. Verslag van de Verrichtingen van het Onder- Biology and Stock Assessment. ICLARM Tech.zoekingvaartuig "Gler", etc. Mededelingen van Rep. 7, 124 p.het vi~cheijstation te Batavia (3), Buitenzorg (in 43. Unar, M. and Naamin, N. 1984. A review of theDutch). Indonesian shrimp fisheries and their manage-

21. Chevey,P.1934.Themethodofreadingscalesand ment. In Gulland, J.A. and Rothschild, B.J.the fish of the intertropical zone. In Proceedings of (eds.). Penaeid Shrimps-Their Biology and Man-the Fifth Pacific Science Congress, Univ. of Toron- agement. Fishing News Books Ltd., Farnman,to Press, p. 3817-3829. (This account is one of the Surrey, England, p. 104-110.few available in English from this period. It illus- 44. Silvestre, G. and Pauly, D. 1988. Estimate of yieldtrates, mostly through remarks made en passant, and economic rent from Philippine demersalthe scope of fishery research activities undertaken stocks, 1946-1984. Proceedings of the WESTPACby the then French-run Oceanographic Institute in Symposium on Marine Science in the WesternNha-Trang, Vietnam). Pacific: The Indo-Pacific Convergence, Townsvil-

22. Umali, A.F. 1932. The Japanese beam trawl used Ie, Australia, 1-6 December 1986 (in press).in the Philippine waters. Philipp. J. Sci. 48, 45. Dalzell, P. 1987. Estimation of Maximum Sustain-389-410. able Yield and Maximum Economic Rentfrom the

23. Birtwistle, W. and Green, C.F. 1927. Report on Philippine Small Pelagic Fisheries. Technical Paperthe Working of the S. T. Tongkol for the Period 28 Series, 10 (3), 23 p. Bureau of Fisheries and Aqua-May to 31 December 1926. Govt. Print. Off., Sin- tic Resources, Manila, Philippines.gapore. 46. Sinoda, M., Tan, S.M., Watanabe, Y. and

24. Shindo, S. 1973. General Review of rhe Trawl Meemeskul, Y. 1979. A method for estimating theFishery and the Demersal Fish Stocks of the South best cod end mesh size in the South China SeaChina Sea. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap. (120). Rome, area. Bull. Chosi Marine Lab. 11,65-80. (The49 p. method proposed in this paper is rather crude, and

25. Ommanney, F.D. 1960. Eastern Windows. Long- more sophisticated alternatives exist; they givemans, London, 245 p. similar results, however).

47. Saeger, J. 1981. Do Trawling Bans Work in Tropi-cal Waters? ICLARM Newsletter 3, 3-4.

48. Silvestre, G.T. 1986. Assessment of the Multi-species Demersal Stock of the Samar Sea,Philippines. University of the Philippines in theVisayas, CoDege of Fisheries, Tech. Rep. Dept.Mar. Fish. 7, Quezon City, 65 p.

49. Sardjono, I. 1980. Trawlers Banned in Indonesia.ICLARM Newsletter 3, 3.

50. Pauly, D. 1985. Artisanal Fishing and Environ-mental Conservation in Southeast Asian Seas.Wallaceana (Kuala Lumpur), September 1985,3-5.

51. For aU countries except Burma and PNG: fromMarr, J.C. 1976. The realities of fisheries manage-ment in Southeast Asia. Resources for the Future,RFF/PISFA Pap. No.7, Washington, 62 p.

52. Sinha, R. 1984. Landlessness, A Growing Prob-lem. FAO Economic and Social DevelopmentSeries (28), p. 112.

53. From the brochure of the ASEAN/USAill/IC-LARM Coastal Resources Management Project,based on a painting by Mark Anthony Go-oco.

54. Rajeandran, D. 1984. The double burden of en-vironmental health problems in Malaysia. In Envi-ronment, Development and Natural ResourcesCrisis in Asia and the Pacific. Proceedings of aSymposium, Sahabat Alam, Malaysia, p. 225-235.

55. Tan, C.E., Chong, B.J., Sier, H.K. and Moulton,T. 1973. A Report On Paddy and Paddy-Field FishProduction in Krian, Perak. Ministry of Agricul-ture and F;sheries, Malaysia. BuD. No. 128, 57 p.

56. Chinabut, S. and Danayadol, Y. 1983. Countrypaper: Thailand. In UNDPIFAOISCFDCPIIDRCFish Quarantine and Fish Diseases in SoutheastAsia. Report of a workshop held in Jakarta, In-donesia, 7-10 December 1982, p. 64-67.

57. White, A., Anraku, M. and Hooi. K.K. (eds.).1984. Toxic Red Tides and Shellfish Toxicity inSoutheast Asia. Proceedings of a consultativemeeting held in Singapore, 11-14 September 1984.SEAFDEC/IDRC.

58. See Seagrass alert: marine pastures need protec-tion. In Environment and Energy, A Bulletin ForInformation Dissemination and Exchange, No. I,Environment and Energy Programme Coordinat-ing Centre, FAO, Rome, p. 8.

59. This is International Center for Living AquaticResources Management (ICLARM) ContributionNo. 394. ICLARM'S address: M.C. P.O. Box1501, Makati, Metro Manila, Philippines.

Dr. Daniel Pauly is the director of IC-LARM's Resource Assessment andManagement Program. His majorareas of interest are the biology andpopulation dynamics of tropicalfishes and the management of tropi-cal aquatic resources, with emphasison the development of methodolo-gies for Implementation in third worldcountries. Dr. Chua Thla-Eng Is asenior scientist at ICLARM. Follow-Ing a longer stint with FAO, as senioraquaculturlst, he Is at present theproject coordinator of the jointASEANIUS Coastal Resources Man-agement Project which is being ex-ecuted by ICLARM and will lead tothe development of coastal re-sources management plans for theASEAN nations. He Is also the found-ing and current president of theAsian Fisheries Society. Both au-thors have taught at Asian Univer-sities and elsewhere and have pub-lished numerous articles and books.Their address is: International Centerfor LIving Aquatic Resources Man-agement (ICLARM), M.C. P.O. Box1501, Makatl, Metro Manila, Philip-pines.

206 AMBIO YOLo 17 NO.3. 1988