discovery + design

FIELD BOOK

2010

WHAT IS ETHNOGRAPHY?Both a methodology and a product of research, ethnography is a grounded, inductive method, that heavily relies on participant-observation. These days, the term “ethnography” is used fairly loosely and expectations and final outcomes vary as much as the people calling themselves ethnographers.

• It meets people where the action occurs • It is inductive• It does not go into the field with answers running• It is focused on systems, practices, and beliefs• Everything is data• It is focused for business objectives• It is best done in teams• It uses culture and shared knowledge as the center of investigation

WHAT IS ANTHROPOLOGYIn a nutshell, anthropology is the study of all that it means to be human and the cultural context within which we live. In essence, anthropology answers the question:

“Whatdoesitmeantobehuman?"

It's the scientific study of humankind; from species origins through development to modern day (including the mall, boardrooms, and offices).

Anthropology encompasses a holistic view of a person and their environment by blending sociology, linguistics, biology and psychology into a more complete picture. As with all social sciences, it embraces an inductive approach to understanding and starts from a cultural perspective.

Anthropology is also “comparative” and “cross-cultural”. It is a comparative field in that it examines all societies, ancient and modern; simple and complex. It systematically compares data from different populations and time periods. However, the other social sciences tend to focus on a single society whereas anthropology offers a unique cross-cultural perspective by constantly comparing the customs of one society with those of others.

ANTHROPOLOGY & CULTUREEverything begins with culture.

Culture is a set of shared, learned beliefs, values, norms, traditions and taboos.

Every purchase decision is made within the cultural context:• Geographic culture (Indian, American, NorCal, Silicon Valley)• Industry culture (engineers, product managers, nurses, taxi drivers)• Company culture (Microsoft, Yahoo, P&G, Harley Davidson)• Lifestyle culture (surfer, emo, techie, biker, neat-freak)• Religious culture (Buddhist, Hindu, Catholic, Atheist)

INDUCTIVE METHODS INDUCTIVE METHODS

THE INDUCTIVE APPROACH

• Begins with specific things - observations or discussion with informants. Based on the accumulation of observation, you may want to build a

general idea on that observation.

• Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories.

• Start with specific observations and measures, begin to detect patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that we can explore and finally develop conclusions or theories.

• Inductive reasoning is more open-ended, holistic and exploratory, especially at the beginning.

• Uncover the unexpected activities, intrusions, and interactions that ultimately impact decision making, use and performance.

• Attempts to understand why, not simply what.

• Attempts to understand the contexts (processes) in which people live and work.

PATTERNS

OBSERVATION

INITIAL HYPOTHESIS

THEORY

RESOURCE FLOW

The study of the complex issues around how resources are attained, used, repurposed and disposed of within a household or community is called resourceflow. In essence, it is a process by which people or companies catalog the purchase journey.

Statistically, humans are alone only a small percentage of their lives. We exist in family units, social webs, neighborhoods, work structures and other organizations. All resource input (salary, crops, material goods, other captial) will inevitably be filtered directly or indirectly by multiple individuals, including pets. This is true even for those who live alone, except in extreme cases. For ethnography in a business context, you should rarely concept resource flow in a 1:1 ratio.

• A good way to start is to ask an individual in the group to draw representations of those things in the home, office or community that bring in money or goods.

• Next, have them do the same - but focus on those things that take out money or goods.

• There will be debate about these representations from other members of the group (in public and in private).

• The goal is to get people talking about how the process works and the factors influencing it.

• Make sure to document observations and diagram the resource flow.

• Try to keep any and all participants actively engaged through discussion and cooperative diagraming. It's okay to hand your informant your pen and paper.

SOCIAL NETWORKS SOCIAL NETWORKS

The old adage "no man is an island" and "nobody lives in a vacuum" are true. We live in a complex network of relationships and communities that shape our worldview, behavior and influence our daily behavior.

A social network is the socio-cultural group made up of individuals or institutions called "nodes." These are connected by one or more specific types of interdependency, such as profession, title, kinship, common interest, dislike, etc. They can also be constructed around relationships of beliefs, knowledge or power. Social webs help illustrate the multivariate roles people play across a range of socio-cultural strata.

Simply put, knowing a target's social network is the gateway to ethnographic insight. Remember, in a social network:

• Subjects and their actions are viewed as interdependent rather than independent or autonomous units

• Relational ties (linkages) between subjects are channels for resource flow (either material or nonmaterial)

• Network models focusing on individuals view the network structural environment as providing opportunities for or constraints on individual action

• Network models conceptualize structure (social, economic, political and so forth) as lasting patterns of relations among subjects

When conducting fieldwork, it is imperative that you document, diagram and explore a subject or group's social web. This knowledge will help you discover motivating or influential factors; negotiated self-images, relationships, resource flow and the foundation for structural/functional behavior.

RECIPROCITY

Reciprocity is how we define the informal exchange of goods, labor and even ideas. Since virtually all humans live in some kind of society and interact with others, reciprocity is fundamental to the nature of all cultures.

Knowing and diagraming reciprocity allows the researcher to explore the transfer of resources (resource flow) and the give-and-take of links in a social network. There are three types of reciprocity:

• Generalized reciprocity: The same as virtually uninhibited sharing or giving. It occurs when one person shares goods or labor with another person without expecting anything in return. What makes this interaction "reciprocal" is the sense of satisfaction the giver feels and the social closeness that the gift fosters. Between people who engage in generalized reciprocity, there is a maximum amount of trust and a minimum amount of social distance.

• Balanced or Symmetrical reciprocity: Occurs when someone gives to someone else, expecting a fair and tangible return at some undefined future date. It is a very informal system of exchange. The expectation that the giver will be repaid is based on trust and social consequences; that is, a "mooch" who accepts gifts and favors without ever giving himself will find it harder and harder to obtain those favors. Balanced reciprocity involves a moderate amount of trust and social distance.

• Negative reciprocity: Includes what economists call barter. A person gives goods or labor and expects to be repaid immediately with some other goods or labor of the same value. Negative reciprocity can involve a minimum amount of trust and a maximum social distance - it can take place among strangers.

GENDER, CLASS & POWER

Gender, Class and Power can’t be overlooked when doing fieldwork. While these are often topics we avoid in our society, they are part of the cultural landscape and have to be considered when capturing data.

Power can vary from hegemony, perceived as legitimate, to the threat of violence. Class is the relation to the means of production, especially the right of direct access to the fruits of production. Gender is best understood as the relations between men and women. The three together constitute the fundamental social, economic, cultural and political relations that determine any social system or network.

When taking in a setting and taking notes consider the following:

• What roles do men and women play in the context?

• How are communities divided along economic lines?

• How important are racial and ethnic distinctions for the group and how is this expressed?

• How is power exercised within the group?

• How do these considerations shape both the research plan and the final design of a product, service or message?

DOCUMENTATION

Capturing everything in the field can be a daunting task. But there are some basic tips that will help make the process smoother:

• Write notes as soon as possible to avoid information being lost.

• Capture major themes and broad ideas within 24 hours and share them with your team.

• Write down all personal details about the setting (number of people, location, use of space, gender dynamics, product use, etc.).

• Note direct quotes as well as your impressions.

• Note moments that produced changes in the context of discussion. - Achangeinstorysetting,topicortemporalshift.

• Note moments that produced emotional responses.

• Note or draw expressions, body language, and non-verbal communication.

Remember, the camcorder is only one of the tools you bring to the field. Field guides, notebooks, sketchpads and cameras are all part of the toolkit, but more importantly, so are you.

HANDSPOSTURE

FEET

EXPRESSION ATTENTION

OTHER

WHY THE INTERVIEW?

The interview is where you will receive a large percentage of your information on subjects or groups. The ability to conduct a successful and insightful interview will determine the depth of information you will be able to collect and the and the validity of that information.

KEEP IN MIND:

• Reading off a line of questions will create a barrier between the researcher and the subject as well as produce a stale wooden rapport.

• Ask open-ended questions rather than simple yes/no queries. Don’tleadthesubject.

• Questions should be clear and phrased in contextually intelligible and appropriate language.

• It’s an interview, not an interrogation. Establish a rapport.

• Get to know the subject(s). Ask them questions about the house, family, life, etc. It’s important for them to trust the relationship and to be open.

•Add depth with follow-up questions.

• Have the subject actively demonstrate their points if possible. - “Mytruckmakesasound.”=Getinthetruckandcheckitout

NON-VERBAL PROMPTS

What you do and how you interact with your subject(s) is just as important as what you say. Body-language and signage by your subject(s) is also important. Make sure to pay attention to the detials even if you're making notes. Remember:

• Remove coat (coats and objects are interpreted as barriers).

• Mind that your notes or camera are not directly between you and the subject.

• Maneuver subject(s) into a seated position not facing an immediate point of egress.

• The subject should feel secure, but not enclosed.

• Be aware of your body language and inflection.

• Be observant of the body language, gesture-calls, posture, eye movement etc. of the subject(s).

• Silence is your friend.

• Nodding but not saying anything will produce silence, which the subject will often try to fill by continuing deeper into a line of explanation or discovery.

THE ART OF THE INTERVIEW

THE ART OF THE INTERVIEW

GENERAL INTERVIEW OUTLINE

Establish rapport

Transition to a broad category-oriented line of questioning

Transition to brand/product specific line of questioning

Focus conversation

Thank subject(s) and distribute incentive

QUESTION CATEGORIES

Self-Philosophy - Ask the applicant about how they feel or think about a particular

topic/product.- Examine how a change of perspective could or would change the

direction of future actions.

Leading- Asks general questions that motivate the subject to elaborate more

on the current line of questioning or on a specific topic.

Cultural Framework - Ask questions about how the applicant believes other people in his/

her situation would feel.

Context - Asksabout past situations involving the topic of conversation, and

asking how the situation occurred.- Describe setting/location.- Log time/date

Mapping - Diagram - mentally or on paper - how people, places or things

regarding the topic are connected

PROBE DEEPER

- How do they treat the brand/product? Is it a commodity? Is it used to satisfy the subject or is it being purchased for someone else?

- Are there any inherent biases? Are these linked to socio-economic status, ethnicity, religion, region, sex, age or gender?

- How does the category play into daily life or social sphere?

- What emotions or feelings are directly associated with the specific brand/product?

THINGS TO LOOK FOR

NORMS

Cultural norms guide good marketing, design, and development. For example, cultures shape how people understand what is “food.” While it is seen as strange to eat bugs in the West, they are a major source of protein in many parts of the world. Uncovering how people internalize these cultural norms gives us insight into what “makes sense” and allows us to design brands that will resonate rather than confuse or offend.

• What do people wear in a given context? • How do people greet each other when meeting for the first time?

PROCESSES

How people get things done is another significant point of investigation for an ethnographer. It shows us how cultural roles, beliefs about what is correct, and the order in which events take place shape interaction with place, and tool or a brand.

• What rituals accompany preparing dinner? • How do people find their way in a retail environment?

Note all the steps in any activity described by the subject(s).

MEANING

People have to make sense of the world around them and assign meaning to their shared lives.

Rituals, morality, cosmology, even how we choose to clean our teeth are all endowed with meaning. For example, knowing that you wear black to a funeral stems from associations we have between that color and death.

• How do people define cleanliness?• How do people pray?

Ethnography uncovers not only the meaning people assign to the world, but how that meaning comes about.

WHAT PEOPLE SAY vs. WHAT PEOPLE DO

It isn’t enough to ask people questions, because what they say and what they do aren’t always the same.

Look for what is going on in the physical space, look for body language, and look for interactions between people.

• People may call themselves “green,” but what do they drive? • Do people have a “tell” when asked a question?

Look for contradictions and make sure to ask people to demonstrate what they say.

THINGS TO LOOK FOR

HOW PEOPLE SOLVE PROBLEMS

Look for ways people adapt things to solve problems in unusual ways. For example, using stickers on cell phones to “tag” what belongs to them.

• Look for the tools people use to accomplish tasks.• Look for work-arounds people develop to manage and control

their environment.

HOW PEOPLE ORGANIZE

How people organize things can tell you a lot about how they understand and manage their world. Ask people to explain how they conceptualize things and how they relate to each other.

• How do people organize their refrigerator?• Where do people store their "important" papers?

ROLES PEOPLE ASSUME

How does behavior change in a given context? What sort of things are socially unacceptable in a given context? You should look for changes and roles people seem to adopt in a given setting. Systems of hierarchy and power are typically a visually obvious example.• How do people react when they have to leave something behind?• How do people take turns when talking?• How does body language change between people?

Try to uncover the social and cultural roles people are playing.

PEOPLE'S "STUFF"

What kinds of “stuff” people have with them can signal what it is they

see as important.• What do people carry with them? • What do they wear? • How does the setting change this?

HOUSE KEEPING

• Get permission before you start filming, sketching or taking pictures.• Make sure your equipment is working properly.• If working in teams, assign roles and determine expectations for

each team member.• Determine who you want to talk to and why you want to talk with

them.

CAPTURING DATA

• While it sounds daunting, try to capture everything you see, hear, smell, taste and feel.

• Use video, photos, notes, maps and sketches. Include details about family, friends, food and environment.

• Include details about emotional responses as well as your own feelings (uncovering personal biases will help improve analysis in the long run).

• Be sure to get your thoughts recorded as soon as possible after leaving the field.

OBSERVATION

• Observe reality, not just what people want to show you. • While observing, look for adaptations and inventions, body

language, events that change behavior, social hierarchies, things people care about, anything you see as irrational or surprising.

• Engage in what you are observing. It is through action that many of the best questions and observation occur.

INTERVIEW

• Remember that you are talking, not interrogating. Listen long enough to put your participant at ease and feel like he/she is being heard.

• Be focused enough to get useful information, but general enough that the participant can guide the conversation into unexpected areas.

• Ask open-ended questions, do not use a script, and be willing to ask naïve or obvious questions.

• The key is remembering that the participant is the expert, not you.

ETHNOGRAPHIC METHODS

WHAT NOW?

Setting Objectives

Fieldwork always produces vast amounts of interesting data. It's what you do with that data that makes a difference.

The first step after leaving the field is to set objectives and end results for the insights.

This means defining:

• Budgets• Time frames• Innovation vs. improvements• Back and front end needs

Cultural Practices

Abovethewaterline,Aspects of culture that are explicit, visible, taught.

AtthewaterlineThe area where implicit understandings become talked about, explained.

Belowthewaterline“Hidden" culture: the habits, assumptions, understandings, values, judgments. The things we know but do not or cannot articulate.- “Irrational” behavior is perfectly rational to the person doing it.

Domains, Variables and Factors

The next step is to start to articulate the broad topics (domains), variables within domains and specific factors that create variables.It is a little like molecular biology. Atoms combine to make molecules, molecules combine to make compounds.

Uncovering insights and making sense of behavior is similar to uncovering layers and linkages that build to form an organism.

Things to Consider Before You Dive In

Where and how will your idea be used by the consumer?• Are they an adult? A nine-year old? A soldier?

Understanding the context of use and users should direct where the product will be used.• Is it in the car? On a laptop? In the backyard? In a retail

environment?

What functions your product must fulfill?

CulturallyIs it about your product or something bigger?Design for how people live, not what they tell you.

TechnicallyWhat are the elements of that task in a real life setting?What are people doing now to make do?

WHAT NOW?

What are the barriers?

• Define cultural barriers.• Define cost barriers.• Define platform barriers.• Define biological barriers.

All of this comes down to understanding the context and cultural process of the user, shopper or consumer.

What Now: Nuts and Bolts

Now that you have categorized data, brainstorm as many possible insights as possible.

• Selectthe5keyinsightsandwriteonpost-its. - Post on easel, whiteboard or wall. - Cluster insights into similar categories. - Vote down to 5-7 key insights on which to focus. • Break into “action groups.”

• Groups will generate long list of potential solutions.

• Brainstorming Tools: WriteIt,SayIt,PostIt;BrainWriting;ForcedConnections

• Evaluate and converge on 3 ideas.

• Decision Tools: Cluster;DotVoting/SilentVote

• Facilitator assists groups in refining 3 ideas to solve the problem.

• Groups will evaluate ideas and develop rough prototypes of ideas.

• Tools: Pluses,Potentials,ConcernsandOvercoming.

• Who, What, When, Why, How – focus on what it will take to implement.