fediaf nutritional guidelines - september 2008 · food intolerance / food idiosyncrasy a reaction...

Publication - September 2008

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F.E.D.I.A.F.

NUTRITIONAL GUIDELINES FOR

COMPLETE AND COMPLEMENTARY

PET FOOD FOR CATS AND DOGS

SEPTEMBER 2008

FEDIAF – EUROPEAN PET FOOD INDUSTRY FEDERATION / Av. Louise 89 / B-1050 Bruxelles / Tel.: +32 2 536.05.20 / www.fediaf.org


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sections Content Page I Glossary Definitions 3

II Introduction Objectives Scope

5

III

Complete pet food - Guidance - Recommendations (tables) - Substantiation

Guidance: - Nutrient recommendations - Energy contents of pet foods - Maximum level of certain substances - Product validation - Repeat analysis - Feeding instructions

Tables with nutrient recommendations:

- Dogs - Adult - Growth - Early growth & Reproduction

- Cats - Adult - Growth - Reproduction

Substantiation:

- Scientific literature - Legislation - Other clarifications

77 8 8 9 9 9

10 11

15

18

IV Complementary pet food Introduction Validation procedure

29 V Analytical methods Non-exhaustive list of analytical methods 31

VI

Feeding test protocols

Feeding trials Digestibility & Energy:

- Indicator method - Quantitative collection method

34

34 37

VII

Annexes

Nutrients - Energy - Taurine - Arginine - Vitamins

Food allergy Risk of some human foods regularly given to pets

- Grapes & raisins - Chocolate - Onions & garlic

Product families

42 44 47 48 50 55 55 57 60 64


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The glossary contains definitions of key words used in this Guideline followed by the source of the definition.

Whenever appropriate, definitions are adapted to pet food.

I. GLOSSARY

Allowance An Allowance or Recommendation for daily

intake (RDI) is the level of intake of a nutrient or food component that appears to be adequate to meet the known nutritional needs of practically all healthy individuals. It reflects the minimum requirement plus a safety margin for differences in availability between individual animals and for nutrient interactions. In practice this would be translated as the levels of essential nutrients that healthy individuals should consume over time to ensure adequate and safe nutrition.

FNB’94, Harper’90.

Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

Is the energy required to maintain homeostasis in an animal in a post-absorptive state (ideally after an overnight fast) that is lying down but awake in a thermo-neutral environment to which it has been acclimatised

Blaxter KL, 1989; in: Energy Metabolism in Animals and Man. Cambridge University Press … Edit.

Complementary pet food Pet food which has a high content of certain substances but which, by reason of its composition, is sufficient for a daily ration only if used in combination with other pet foods. See also FEDIAF explanation page 29

Directive 79/373 on the circulation of compound feedingstuffs (art. 2(e)) adapted to pet food.

Complete pet food Pet food which, by reason of its composition, is sufficient for a daily ration.

Directive 79/373 on the circulation of compound feedingstuffs (art. 2(d)) adapted to pet food.

Daily ration The average total quantity of feedingstuffs, calculated on a moisture content of 12%, required daily by an animal of a given species, age category and yield, to satisfy all its needs. The above-mentioned legal definition means the average total quantity of a specific pet food that is needed daily by a pet of a given species, age category and life style or activity to satisfy all its energy and nutrient requirements

D79/373 on the circulation of compound feedingstuffs (art. 2(c)).

Digestible energy (DE) Is the gross energy less the gross energy of faeces resulting from the consumption of that pet food

McDonald et al., 1995; in: Animal Nutrition 5th Edit.

DM Dry Matter Dry pet food Pet food with a moisture content of less then

14%. Hygienische productie en handel Huisdiervoeders 1997.

Gross energy Is the total energy arising from complete combustion of a food in a bomb calorimeter.

McDonald et al, 1995. Animal Nutrition. 5th edition.

Maintenance energy requirement (MER)

Is the energy required to support energy equilibrium, (where ME equals heat production), over a long period of time.

Blaxter k. L., 1989. Energy Metabolism in Animals and Man. Cambridge University Press.

Metabolizable energy (ME) Is the digestible energy less the energy lost in urine and combustible gases.

McDonald et al., 1995; in: Animal Nutrition 5th Edit.

NRC National Research Council (USA) is a council is organised by the US National Academy of Sciences. The NRC ad hoc Committee on dog and cat nutrition has compiled the nutritional requirements for dogs and cats 2006.

www.national-academies.org

Nutrient requirement Is the quantity of a nutrient that must be supplied to an animal in order to satisfy its metabolic needs. It reflects the minimum

Reeds PJ, PR Becket 1996; in: Present Knowledge in Nutrition 7th Edit.


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average level of intake of a nutrient, which, over time, is sufficient to maintain the desired biochemical or physiological functions.

Nutritional maximum limit Highest known level of a nutrient in a complete pet food at which no adverse effects have been reported in the target animal when fed according to the feeding instructions.

FEDIAF 2006

Pet food Any product produced by a Pet food manufacturer, whether processed, partially processed or unprocessed, intended to be ingested by pet animals after placing on the market.

FEDIAF 2006

Pet food safety Is the assurance that, when eaten according to its intended use, the pet food will not cause harm to the pet animal.

EN ISO 22000:2005(E) adapted to pet food

RA Recommended Allowance. Recommendation See allowance Semi-moist pet food Pet food with a moisture content of 14% or

more and less then 60 %.

Wet pet food

Pet food with a moisture content of 60% or more.

Hygienische productie en handel Huisdiervoeders 1997.

Food allergy Immune-mediated reaction resulting in one or more of the clinical signs described in Annex V “Adverse reactions to food in dogs and cats” p.50.

Anaphylaxis Anaphylaxis is an acute life-threatening multi-system allergic reaction resulting from exposure to an offending agent. In people, foods, insect stings, and medication are the most common causes. a,b,c

a Tang AW. A practical guide to anaphylaxis. Am Fam Physician 2003; 68 (7): 1325-1332. b Oswalt M, Kemp SF. Anaphylaxis: office management and prevention Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 2007; 27 (2): 177-191. c Wang J, Sampson HA. Food Anaphylaxis. Clin Exp Allergy. 2007; 37 (5): 651-660.

Food intolerance / Food idiosyncrasy

A reaction to a food component that is not immune mediated, but causes clinical signs resembling an immune-mediated reaction to food (food allergy).

Food toxicity A reaction to a toxic food component (e.g. onion poisoning) or a toxin released by contaminating organisms (e.g. mycotoxins).

Pharmacologic reaction An adverse reaction to food as a result of a naturally derived or added chemical that produces a drug-like or pharmacological effect in the host; e.g. methylxanthines in chocolate or a pseudo-allergic reaction caused by high histamine levels in not well-preserved scromboid fish such as tuna.

Dietary indiscretion An adverse reaction resulting from such behaviour as gluttony, pica, or ingestion of various indigestible materials or garbage.


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II. INTRODUCTION

FEDIAF represents the national pet food industry associations in the EU and from Norway

and Switzerland, representing in the region of 450 pet food factories across Europe.

One of FEDIAF’s main objectives is to ascertain the well-being of pets by providing well

balanced and nutritionally sound pet food through its member companies. Therefore

FEDIAF has compiled the present “Nutritional Guidelines for Complete and Complementary Pet Food for Cats and Dogs”, which is based on the state of the art

knowledge on cat and dog nutrition, providing pet food manufacturers with nutritional

recommendations to ensure the production of well balanced and nutritionally sound pet food.

This document is reviewed yearly and updated whenever there are new relevant

technological, scientific or legislative developments in pet nutrition.

1. OBJECTIVES

The objectives of FEDIAF’s Guidelines for Complete and Complementary Pet Foods for Cats

and Dogs are:

i) To contribute to the production of nutritionally balanced pet food, while complying with

relevant EU legislation on animal nutrition. To achieve this objective, the guidelines

incorporate up-to-date scientific knowledge on cat and dog nutrition to:

• Provide practical nutrient recommendations for pet food manufacturers when

formulating their products for adult maintenance, growth and reproduction;

• Help pet food manufacturers to assess the nutritional value of practical pet foods for

healthy animals; ii) To be the reference document on pet nutrition in Europe for EU and local authorities,

consumer organisations, professionals, and customers. iii) To enhance cooperation between pet food manufacturers, pet care professionals and

competent authorities by providing scientifically sound information on the formulation

and assessment of pet foods. iv) To complement FEDIAF’s Guide to Good Practice for the Manufacture of Safe Pet

Foods and the FEDIAF’s Guide to Good Practice for Communication on Pet Food.


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2. SCOPE

FEDIAF’s Nutritional Guidelines provide:

i) Recommendations for adequate and safe nutrient levels in practical foods for dogs

and cats during growth, adult maintenance or reproduction;

ii) Tools for the assessment of the nutritional value of pet foods;

iii) Recommendations for energy intake.

iv) Annexes with advice on specific topics (e.g. taurine, garlic, raisins, allergens etc.)

FEDIAF’s Nutritional Guidelines give nutrient recommendations for healthy dogs or cats

eating typical commercial pet food.

• The levels in this guide reflect the amounts of essential nutrients in commercial products

that are required to ensure adequate and safe nutrition in healthy individuals when

consumed over time.

• These guidelines relate to dog and cat foods manufactured from ingredients with normal

digestibility (i.e. ≥ 70% DM digestibility; ≥ 80% protein digestibility) and average

bioavailability.

• They include a safety margin for individual animal variation, and nutrient interactions.

• It follows from the above statements that adequate and high quality pet foods can be

outside the recommendations based on the manufacturer’s substantiation of nutritional

adequacy.

Excluded from the FEDIAF’s nutritional Guidelines are pet foods for particular nutritional

purposes and some other specialised foods such as sporting dogs etc. Therefore specific

products may have nutrient levels that are different from those stated in these guidelines.


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III. COMPLETE PET FOOD

1 Guidance

Complete pet food means pet food which, by reason of its composition, is sufficient for a

daily ration (Directive 79/373/EC adapted). When a complete pet food is fed for an extended

period (i.e. covering the whole period of the life stage) as the only source of nutrients, it will

provide all the nutritional needs of the particular animals of the given species and

physiological state for which it is intended.

If a manufacturer labels a product as a complete pet food without specification of a

determined life stage, it is assumed to be complete for all life stages, and should be

formulated according to the levels recommended for early growth and reproduction. If the

product is designed for a specific life stage, then the label must clearly state this. For

example "Bloggo" is a complete pet food for breeding cats, or "Bloggo" is a complete pet

food for growing puppies.

FEDIAF recommends to all members of each National Association that before a complete

pet food is placed on the market:

i) It should be formulated to take account of current nutritional knowledge and using the

data compiled in this guide.

ii) If certain nutrient levels are outside the values stated in this guide, manufacturers

should be able to prove that the product provides adequate and safe intakes of all

required nutrients.

iii) Each family of products (annex VII p. 76) should be validated by chemical analysis of

the finished product. It is recommended to use an officially recognised method (pp

31-32).

1.1 Nutrient recommendations for cat and dog foods The nutrient requirements of cats and dogs are the subject of ongoing research. When

formulating pet foods, manufacturers should not use a reference to minimum requirements

but recommendations for adequate nutrient levels as contained in this guide. The nutritional

tables are provided in “units/MJ ME”, “units/1000 kcal ME” and “units/100 g DM”.

This FEDIAF Guide is based on published scientific studies (including NRC 2006) and


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unpublished data from the industry.

1.2 Energy contents of pet foods Feeding trials are the most accurate way to measure the energy density of a cat and dog

food (see pages 34-41 for the different methods).

A feeding trial normally measures digestible energy. By subtracting the energy lost in the

urine, the same trials allow also for determining the metabolizable energy. The energy lost in

the urine can be measured if urine is collected or, if urine is not collected, be calculated using

the following correction factors: 1.25 kcal g-1 digestible crude protein for dogs and 0.86 kcal

g-1 digestible protein for cats (see page 37).

Alternatively, formulae given in annex I page 42 can be used by manufacturers to calculate

the energy content of practical diets.

In addition, a bibliographic survey for calculating the energy needs of dogs and cats, in

relation to body weight, physiological state and specific activities, is reported in annex I (page

42).

1.3 Maximum levels of certain substances in pet food for cats and dogs FEDIAF has determined certain levels of nutrients which should not be exceeded (nutritional

maximum levels) because they may be harmful in certain circumstances if present in

excessive amounts.

In addition, maximum permitted levels have been determined by the legislator for several

nutrients if added as a nutritional additive (i.e. trace-elements & vitamin D) (legal maximum).

They are laid down in the Community Register of Feed Additives pursuant to Regulation

1831/2002/EC of the Parliament and the Council, concerning additives in feeding stuffs. They

are listed in a separate column on the right, because they apply to all life stages.

Both groups of maximum values are reported in the FEDIAF tables on pages 12 to 17. The

legal maximum only applies when the particular nutrient is deliberately added to the recipe as

an additive, and relates to the ‘total’ amount present in the finished product. If the nutrient

comes entirely from feed materials, then the FEDIAF nutritional maximum applies.

A non-exhaustive list of scientifically recognised analytical methods that can be used to

assess the nutrient levels in pet food is available pp. 31-33.

1.4 Product validation Before a product is placed on the market, it should have undergone the necessary


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procedures to ensure its adequacy.

The following components should be taken into consideration for evaluation of nutritional

adequacy.

NUTRIENTS

Major nutrients* Protein Fat

Essential fatty acids Linoleic acid Arachidonic acid (cats)

Alpha-linolenic acid Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)

Amino acids

Arginine Histidine Isoleucine Cystine Tyrosine Lysine Phenylalanine Threonine Tryptophan Leucine Methionine Valine

Minerals

Calcium Phosphorus Potassium Sodium Copper Iron Chloride Magnesium Iodine Manganese Zinc Selenium

Vitamins

Vitamin A Vitamin D Vitamin E Thiamine Riboflavin Pantothenic acid Niacin Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Biotin Cobalamin Folic acid Vitamin K

Vitamin-like substances Taurine (cats) Choline

Remarks See section on analytical method pp. for the appropriate method and other details.

Routine analysis for energy calculation includes moisture, crude protein, crude fat, crude ash, crude fibre (Weende analysis)

1.5 Repeat analyses Once a product has been passed and the formula remains essentially unchanged, there is no

need for further analysis. However, bearing in mind the fluctuations in raw materials, it is

recommended that regular analyses are conducted to make sure that the product still meets

the appropriate nutritional standards and / or truly satisfies its claim of belonging to a family.

The frequency of testing is the responsibility of the manufacturer.

If the manufacturer makes a major change in the formulation or processing, complete re-

analysis is recommended / required (QR).

1.6 Directions for use / feeding instructions The manufacturer is required to provide, as part of the statutory statement, directions for the

proper use of a pet food indicating the purpose for which it is intended. The feeding instructions should be clear and complete, and give an indication of the daily amounts to be

fed. Feeding instructions could also provide information about the frequency of feeding and


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possible need to adapt the amount according to activity. ANNEX 1 p. 42 can be used as

basis for the feeding instructions.

See also FEDIAF’s “Guide to Good Practice for Communication on Pet Food”

2 Tables of Nutrient Recommendations

- How to read the tables -

Values are expressed as follows: recommended value [nutritional maximum]

The legal maximum levels of nutrients are listed in a separate column (right column),

because they apply to all life stages (Reference? 1831/2003)

For commercial dog and cat foods it is recommended that the nutrient levels are at or above

the levels listed in the tables and do not exceed the nutritional or legal maximum. If the

protein digestibility of ≥ 80% mentioned in the scope on page 6 cannot be guaranteed, it is

recommended to increase the essential amino acid values by a minimum of 10%.

An asterix (*) indicates that there is further information in the substantiation section which

follows the nutrient recommendations

The nutritional tables provide nutrient allowances in “units/100 g dry matter (DM)”,

“units/1000 kcal ME” and “units/MJ ME”.

Conversion factors:

units/1000kcal ← x 2.5 units/100g DM x 0.598 → Units/MJ

units/100g DM ← x 0.4 units/1000kcal x 0.239 → Units/MJ

units/100g DM ← x 1.6736 Units/MJ x 4.184 → units/1000kcal

These conversions assume an energy density of 16.7kJ (4.0kcal) ME/g DM. For foods with

energy densities different from this value, the recommendations should be corrected for

energy density.

Specific recommendations for nutrient intake during reproduction are only available for a few

nutrients. Hence, until more data become available, recommendations in the tables combine

early growth and reproduction for dogs, and growth and reproduction for cats. Where there

are proven differences between the two life stages both values are stated. They are declared

as follows: value for growth / value for reproduction.


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TABLE A1,2,3 – Nutrient Recommendations for Dogs

A1 Nutrient recommendations for dogs: unit per 100g of dry matter (DM)

A2 Nutrient recommendations for dogs: unit per 1000 kcal of metabolizable energy (ME)

A3 Nutrient recommendations for dogs: unit per MJ of metabolizable energy (ME)

TABLE B1,2,3 – Nutrient Recommendations for Cats

B1 Nutrient recommendations for cats: unit per 100 of dry matter (DM)

B2 Nutrient recommendations for cats: unit per 1000 kcal of metabolizable energy (ME)

B3 Nutrient recommendations for cats: unit per MJ of metabolizable energy (ME)


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TABLE A1 Nutrient Recommendations for Dogs – Unit per 100 g dry matter

Nutrient UNIT Adult Early Growth

(< 14 weeks) & Reproduction

Late Growth (≥ 14 weeks)

Legal maximum

Recommendation [nutritional maximum]

Protein* g 18.0 25.0 20.0 - Arginine* g 0.52 0.82 0.69 -

Histidine g 0.23 0.39 0.25 -

Isoleucine g 0.46 0.65 0.50 -

Leucine g 0.82 1.29 0.80 -

Lysine* g 0.42 0.88 [max. 2.80] 0.70 [max. 2.80] -

Methionine* g 0.31 0.35 0.26 -

Methionine-cystine* g 0.62 0.70 0.53 -

Phenylalanine g 0.54 0.65 0.50 -

Phenylalanine-tyrosine* g 0.89 1.30 1.00 -

Threonine g 0.52 0.81 0.64 -

Tryptophan g 0.17 0.23 0.21 -

Valine g 0.59 0.68 0.56 -

Fat* g 5.5 8.50 8.50 - Linoleic acid n-6* g 1.32 1.30 [max. 6.50] 1.30 -

Arachidonic acid mg - 30.0 30.0 -

Alpha-linolenic acid* g - 0.08 0.08 -

EPA + DHA* g - 0.05 0.05 -

Minerals - - - - - Calcium* g 0.50 [2.5] 1.00 [max. 1.6] 0.80 [max. 1.8] -

Phosphorus g 0.40 [1.60] 0.90 0.70 -

Ca / P ratio 1/1 – 2/1 1/1 – 1.6/1 1/1 – 1.8/1 -

Potassium g 0.50 0.44 0.60 -

Sodium* g 0.10 [max. 1.8] 0.22 0.22 -

Chloride g 0.15 [max. 2.25] 0.29 0.33 -

Magnesium g 0.07 0.04 0.04 -

Trace elements* - - - - - Copper* mg 0.72 1.10 1.10 2.8

Iodine* mg 0.11 0.15 0.15 1.1

Iron* mg 3.60 8.80 8.80 142

Manganese mg 0.58 0.56 0.56 17.0

Selenium* µg 30.0 35.0 35.0 56.8

Zinc* mg 7.2 10.0 [max. 100] 10.0 [max. 100] 28.4

Vitamins - - - - - Vitamin A* IU 500 [max. 40,000] 500 [max. 40,000] 500 [max. 40,000] -

Vitamin D* IU 50.0 [max. 320] 55.2 [max. 320] 50.0 [max. 320] 227

Vitamin E* IU 3.60 5.00 5.00 -

Thiamine mg 0.23 0.14 0.14 -

Riboflavin* mg 0.60 0.53 0.53 -

Pantothenic acid mg 1.00 1.50 1.50 -

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) mg 0.15 0.15 0.15 -

Vitamin B12 µg 2.20 3.50 3.50 -

Niacin mg 1.10 1.70 1.70 -

Folic acid µg 18.0 27.0 27.0 -

Biotin* µg - - - -

Choline mg 120 170 170 -

Vitamin K* µg - - - -


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TABLE A2 Nutrient Recommendations for Dogs – Unit per 1000 kcal of metabolizable energy (ME)




Legal maximum


Histidine g 0.58 0.98 0.63 -

Isoleucine g 1.15 1.63 1.25 -

Leucine g 2.05 3.23 2.00 -

Lysine* g 1.05 2.20 [max. 7.0] 1.75 [max. 7.0] -

Methionine* g 0.78 0.88 0.65 -




Threonine g 1.30 2.03 1.60 -

Tryptophan g 0.43 0.58 0.53 -

Valine g 1.48 1.70 1.40 -




EPA + DHA* g - 0.13 0.13 -

Minerals - - - - - Calcium* g 1.25 [max. 6.25] 2.50 [max. 4.0] 2.00 [max. 4.5] -

Phosphorus g 1.00 [max. 4.00] 2.25 1.75 -

Ca / P ratio 1/1 – 2/1 1/1 – 1.6/1 1/1 – 1.8/1 -

Potassium g 1.25 1.10 1.50 -

Sodium* g 0.25 [max. 4.5] 0.55 0.55 -

Chloride g 0.38 0.73 0.83 -

Magnesium g 0.18 0.10 0.10 -


Iodine* mg 0.26 0.38 0.38 2.8

Iron* mg 9.00 22.0 22.0 355

Manganese mg 1.44 1.40 1.40 42.6

Selenium* µg 75.0 87.5 87.5 142

Zinc* mg 18.0 25.0 [max. 250] 25.0 [max. 250] 71.0

Vitamins - - - - Vitamin A* IU 1250 [max. 100,000] 1250 [max. 100,000] 1250 [max. 100,000] -

Vitamin D* IU 125 [max. 800] 138 [max. 800] 125 [max. 800] 568

Vitamin E* IU 9.00 12.50 12.5 -

Thiamine mg 0.56 0.35 0.35 -

Riboflavin* mg 1.50 1.31 1.31 -



Vitamin B12 µg 5.50 8.75 8.75 -

Niacin mg 2.75 4.25 4.25 -

Folic acid µg 45.0 67.5 67.5 -

Biotin* µg - - - -

Choline mg 300 425 425 -



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TABLE A3 Nutrient Recommendations for Dogs – Unit per MJ of metabolizable energy (ME)




Legal maximum


Histidine g 0.14 0.23 0.15 -

Isoleucine g 0.27 0.39 0.30 -

Leucine g 0.49 0.77 0.48 -

Lysine* g 0.25 0.53 [max. 1.67] 0.42 [max. 1.67] -

Methionine* g 0.19 0.21 0.16 -




Threonine g 0.31 0.48 0.38 -

Tryptophan g 0.10 0.14 0.13 -

Valine g 0.35 0.41 0.33 -




EPA + DHA* g - 0.03 0.03 -

Minerals - - - - - Calcium* g 0.30 [max. 1.49] 0.60 [max. 0.96] 0.48 [max. 1.08] -

Phosphorus g 0.24 [max. 0.96] 0.54 0.42 -

Ca / P ratio 1/1 – 2/1 1/1 – 1.6/1 1/1 – 1.8/1 -

Potassium g 0.30 0.26 0.36 -

Sodium* g 0.06 [max. 1.08] 0.13 0.13 -

Chloride g 0.09 0.17 0.20 -

Magnesium g 0.04 0.02 0.02 -


Iodine* mg 0.06 0.09 0.09 0.68

Iron* mg 2.15 5.26 5.26 84.9

Manganese mg 0.34 0.33 0.33 10.2

Selenium* µg 17.9 20.9 20.9 33.9

Zinc* mg 4.30 5.98 [max. 60] 5.98 17.0

Vitamins - - - - - Vitamin A* IU 299 [max. 23,900] 299 [max. 23,900] 299 [max. 23,900] -

Vitamin D* IU 29.9 [max. 191] 33.0 [max. 191] 29.9 [max. 191] 136

Vitamin E* IU 2.20 1.80 3.00 -

Thiamine mg 0.13 0.08 0.08 -

Riboflavin* mg 0.36 0.31 0.31 -



Vitamin B12 µg 1.31 2.09 2.09 -

Niacin mg 0.66 1.02 1.02 -

Folic acid µg 10.8 16.1 16.1 -

Biotin* µg - - - -

Choline mg 71.7 102 102 -



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TABLE B1 Nutrient Recommendations for Cats – Unit per 100 g dry matter

Nutrient UNIT Adult Growth and / Reproduction*

Legal maximum

Recommendation [nutritional maximum]

Protein g 25.0 28.0 / 30.0 Arginine* g 1.00 1.07 / 1.11 [max. kittens 3.5]

Histidine g 0.30 0.33

Isoleucine g 0.49 0.54

Leucine g 1.17 1.28

Lysine* g 0.39 0.85

Methionine* g 0.20 0.44 [max. kittens 1.3]

Methionine-cystine* g 0.39 0.88

Phenylalanine g 0.46 0.50

Phenylalanine-tyrosine* g 1.76 1.91

Threonine g 0.60 0.65

Tryptophan* g 0.15 0.16 [max. kittens 1.7]

Valine g 0.59 0.64

Taurine (canned pet food)* g 0.20 0.25

Taurine (dry pet food)* g 0.10 0.10

Fat g 9.0 9.0 Linoleic acid n-6 g 0.50 0.55

Arachidonic acid mg 6.00 20.0

Alpha-linolenic acid g - 0.02

EPA + DHA* g - 0.01

Minerals Calcium* g 0.59 1.00

Phosphorus g 0.50 0.84

Ca / P ratio* 0.65 – 2.0 0.65 – 1.5

Potassium g 0.60 0.60

Sodium* g 0.08 [max. 1.8] 0.16

Chloride g 0.11 0.24

Magnesium* g 0.04 0.05

Trace elements* Copper* mg 0.50 1.00 2.8

Iodine* mg 0.06 0.18 1.1

Iron mg 8.00 8.00 142

Manganese mg 0.50 1.00 17.0

Selenium µg 30.0 30.0 56.8

Zinc mg 7.50 [max. 60.0] 7.50 28.4

Vitamins - - - Vitamin A* IU 333 [max 40,000] 900 [max 40,000/33,333]

Vitamin D* IU 25.0 [max.3,000] 75.0 [max.3,000] 227

Vitamin E* IU 3.80 3.80

Thiamine mg 0.56 0.55

Riboflavin mg 0.40 0.40

Pantothenic acid mg 0.58 0.57

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)* mg 0.25 0.40

Vitamin B12 µg 2.25 2.00

Niacin mg 4.00 4.00

Folic acid µg 80.0 80.0

Biotin* µg 7.50 7.00

Choline mg 240 240

Vitamin K* µg 10.0 10.0


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TABLE B2 Nutrient Recommendations for Cats – Unit per 1000 kcal of metabolizable energy (ME)

Nutrient UNIT Adult Growth and Reproduction Legal maximum

Protein g 62.5 70.0/75.0 Arginine* g 2.50 2.68/2.78 [max. kittens 8.75]



Leucine g 2.93 3.20

Lysine* g 0.98 2.13







Valine g 1.47 1.60






EPA + DHA* g - 0.03



Ca / P ratio* 0.65 – 2 0.65 – 1.5


Sodium* g 0.19 [max 4.5] 0.40




Iodine* mg 0.15 0.45 2.8

Iron mg 20.0 20.0 355


Selenium µg 75.0 75.0 142

Zinc mg 18.8 [max 150] 18.8 71.0

Vitamins - - - Vitamin A* IU 833 [max 100,000] 2250 [max 100,000/83,325]

Vitamin D* IU 62.5 [max 7,500] 188 [max 7,500] 568







Niacin mg 10.0 10.0

Folic acid µg 200 200


Choline mg 600 600



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TABLE B3 Nutrient Recommendations for Cats – Unit per MJ of metabolizable energy (ME)

Nutrient UNIT Adult Growth / Reproduction Legal maximum

Protein g 14.94 16.73 / 17.93 Arginine* g 0.60 0.64/0.66 [max. kittens 2.09]



Leucine g 0.70 0.76

Lysine* g 0.23 0.51







Valine g 0.35 0.38






EPA + DHA* g - 0.01



Ca / P ratio* 0.65 – 2 0.65 – 1.5


Sodium* g 0.05 [max 1.08] 0.10




Iodine* mg 0.04 0.11 0.68

Iron mg 4.78 4.78 84.9


Selenium µg 17.9 17.9 33.9

Zinc mg 4.48 [max 35.9] 4.48 17.0

Vitamins Vitamin A* IU 199 [max 23,901] 538 [max 23,901/19,917]

Vitamin D* IU 14.9 [max 1,793] 44.8 [max 1,793] 136







Niacin mg 2.39 2.39

Folic acid µg 47.8 47.8


Choline mg 143 143



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III – COMPLETE PET FOOD (cont.)

3 Substantiation of nutrient recommendations’ tables

The following section provides substantiation and explanation for the recommended

allowances (RA) (nutrient recommendations) for dogs and cats in the previous tables. These

recommendations are based on scientific publications, NRC 2006 and data from the pet food

industry.

TABLE A4 – Substantiation of nutrient recommendations for dogs

GENERAL

1 Amino acids, trace elements, vitamins (Adult dogs)

Unless indicated with an * and substantiated

hereafter, the values recommended for adult

dogs are the levels recommended by NRC

2006 increased by 20% to compensate for the

lower energy requirement of household dogs

(see Annex I, pp. 42) compared to the energy

intake assumed by NRC.

a NRC Chapter 15. Nutrient Requirements and Dietary Nutrient Concentrations. In: Nutrient Requirements of Dogs and Cats. The National Academic Press, Washington, DC. 2006: pp. 359-360, table 15-4.

PROTEIN

Total protein 1 Total protein

(Adult dogs) NRC-2006 RA of 25g/1000kcal for adult dogs

is based on Sanderson et al. (2001) a.

However the diet in this study had a high

protein digestibility and the energy intake was

around 130kcal/KgBW0.75. FEDIAF has

adjusted the protein value to take into account

a digestibility of 75% and added a further 20%

to account for lower energy intakes for pet

dogs, giving a FEDIAF RA of 40g/1000kcal.

This value has been increased to

45g/1000kcal to cover requirements of older

dogs b,c,d. This is equivalent to 18g per 100g

DM (10.8 g/MJ). If formulating below 18g

protein/100g it is particularly important to

ensure that the amino acid profile meets

FEDIAF guidelines for adult maintenance.

a Sanderson SL, Gross KL, Ogburn PN, et al. (2001) Effects of dietary fat and L-carnitine on plasma and whole blood taurine concentrations and cardiac function in healthy dogs fed protein-restricted diets. Am. J. Vet. Res. 62: 1616-1623. b Williams CC, Cummins KA, Hayek MG, Davenport GM. Effects of dietary protein on whole-body protein turnover and endocrine function in young-adult and aging dogs. J. Anim. Sci. 2001; 79: 3128-3136. c Finco DR, Brown SA, Crowell WA, et al. Effects of aging and dietary protein intake on uninephrectomized geriatric dogs. Am. J. Vet. Res. 1994; 55: 1282-1290.

2 Total protein The recommendation for protein assumes the a Romsos DR, Palmer HJ, Muiruri KL, et


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(Reproduction) diet contains some carbohydrate to decrease

the risk of hypoglycaemia in the bitch and

neonatal mortality. If carbohydrate is absent or

at a very low level, the protein requirement is

much higher, and may be double. a, b, c

al. Influence of a low carbohydrate diet on performance of pregnant and lactating dogs. J. Nutr. 1981; 111: 678-689. b Kienzle E, Meyer H, Lorie H. Einfluß kohlenhydratfreier Rationen mit unterschied-lichen Protein/Energierelationen auf foetale Entwicklung und Vitalität von Welpen sowie die Milchzusammensetzung von Hündinnen. Fortschnitte in der Tierphysiologie und Tierernährung. 1985; Suppl. 16: 73-99. c Kienzle E, Meyer H. The effects of carbohydrate-free diets containing different levels of protein on reproduction in the bitch. In: Nutrition of the dog and cat. Burger IH, Rivers JPW edits. Cambridge University Press Cambridge, UK. 1989: pp. 229-242.

3 Total protein (Growth)

For practical foods made from cereals and

various animal by-products, the crude protein

level needed for maximum nitrogen retention

appears to be about 25 per cent dry matter for

newly weaned puppies, whereas for puppies

over 14 weeks of age it is 20 per cent dry

matter. a

a NRC. Nitrogen (Crude Protein) minimum requirements, recommended allowances, and adequate intakes In: Nutrient Requirements of Dogs and Cats. The National Academic Press, Washington, DC. 2006: pp. 116-120.

Arginine

1 Arginine (All life stages)

The arginine requirement increases with

increased protein content owing to its role as an

intermediate in the urea cycle. For every gram

of crude protein above the stated values, an

additional 0.01g of arginine is required a.

See ANNEX XX p. YY

a NRC Chapter 15. Nutrient Requirements and Dietary Nutrient Concentrations. In: Nutrient Requirements of Dogs and Cats. The National Academic Press, Washington, DC. 2006: pp. 357-363 tables 15-3, 15-5 and 15-8.

Lysine 1 Lysine

(nutritional maximum for puppies)

Czarnecki et al. (1985) a showed that excess

dietary lysine (4.91% DM [basal diet 0.91% +

4% from a supplement]) decreases weight gain

in puppies but not 2.91 % DM (basal diet + 2%

from a supplement). It was concluded that the

highest no-effect-level of lysine for puppies was

2.91% DM (energy density 4156 kcal/kg). This

is equivalent to 7.0 g/1000 kcal or 2.8% DM (at

4 kcal/g DM) and this is therefore the FEDIAF

maximum for puppy growth.

a Czarnecki GL, Hirakawa DA, Baker DH. (1985) Antagonism of arginine by excess dietary lysine in the growing dog. J. Nutr. 1985; 1115: 743-752.

Methionine-cystine 1 Methionine-cystine

(Adult dogs) The recommended values are based on a dog

food containing a very low taurine content, i.e.

<100 mg/kg dry matter a. For products

containing higher levels of taurine the RA for

a Sanderson SL, Gross KL, Ogburn PN, et al. (2001) Effects of dietary fat and L-carnitine on plasma and whole blood taurine concentrations and cardiac function in healthy dogs fed protein-restricted diets. Am. J. Vet. Res. 62:


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sulphur amino acids can be lower than the

values quoted in the table. For further

information see taurine section on page XX.

1616-1623.

2 Methionine

In the case of lamb and rice foods, the

methionine level may have to be increased. a

a For details and references see annex II - taurine p. 44

Tyrosine 1 Tyrosine

(All life stages)

For maximisation of black hair colour, the

tyrosine content may need to be 1.5 to 2 times

higher than the amount stated a,b.

a NRC Chapter 15. Nutrient Requirements and Dietary Nutrient Concentrations. In: Nutrient Requirements of Dogs and Cats. The National Academic Press, Washington, DC. 2006: pp. 357-363 tables 15-3, 15-5 and 15-8. b Biourge V., and R. Sergheraert (2002). Hair pigmentation can be affected diet in dogs. Proc. Comp. Nutr. Soc. Number 4, Kirk-Baer, C.L., 103-104.

FAT

Total fat

1 Total fat (All life stages)

Dogs fed foods containing normal levels of

protein tolerate very high levels of fat (e.g. sled

dogs). However very high fat foods with very

low protein content have been linked with

adverse effects in dogs. a

a Lindsay S, Entenman C, Chaikoff IL. Pancreatitis accompanying hepatic disease in dogs fed a high fat, low protein diet. Arch. Path. 1948; 45: 635-638.

Omega 3 and 6 fatty acids 1 Omega-3 and

Omega-6 poly-unsaturated long chain fatty acids (Growth & Reproduction)

During gestation and early life after birth, DHA

and arachidonic acid (AA) are selectively

accumulated within the brain and retina. f

Supplementation with α-linolenic acid (ALA) and

linoleic acid during gestation and lactation is an

ineffective means of increasing the milk content

of DHA and AA respectively a. Although very

young puppies have the capacity to convert

some ALA into DHA, after weaning puppies

lose this capacity. c

Moreover, electroretinograms have revealed

improved vision in puppies from mothers fed n-

3 long chain poly-unsaturated fatty acids and

fed the same food after weaning. b,d,e

Consequently it is preferable to have small

amounts of DHA and/or EPA, as well as AA in

foods for growth and reproduction to supply

enough for neonatal nutritional modifications.

a Bauer JE, Heinemann KM, Bigley KE, et al. Maternal diet alpha-linolenic acid during gestation and lactation does not increase docosahexaenoic acid in canine milk. J. Nutr. 2004; 134 (8S): 2035S-2038S. b Bauer J, Heinemann KM, Lees GE, Waldron MK. Retinal functions of young dogs are improved and maternal plasma phospholipids are altered with diets containing long-chain n-3 PUFA during gestation, lactation and after weaning J. Nutr. 136: 1991S-1994S, 2006. c Bauer JE, Heinemann KM, Lees GE, Waldron MK. Docosahexaenoic acid accumulates in plasma of canine puppies raised on α-linolenic acid-rich milk during suckling but not when fed α-linolenic acid-rich diets after weaning. J. Nutr. 2006; 136: 2087S-2089S. d Heinemann KM, Waldron MK, Bigley KE, et al. Long-Chain (n-3) Polyunsa- turated fatty acids are more efficient than α-linolenic acid in improving electroretinogram responses of puppies exposed during gestation, lactation, and weaning. J. Nutr. 2005; 135: 1960–1966. e Heinemann KM, Waldron MK, Bigley KE, Bauer JE. Improvement of retinal function in canine puppies from mothers


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fed dietary long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids during gestation and lactation. J Vet Int Med 2005; 19 (3): 442-443, Abstr. 155. f Heinemann KM, Bauer JE. Timely Topics in Nutrition - Docosahexaenoic acid and neurologic development in animals. J. Am Vet Med Assoc 2006; 228 (5): 700-705.

2 Omega 3 fatty acids (Adult dogs)

Although there is increasing evidence of

beneficial effects of omega-3 fatty acids, the

current information is insufficient to recommend

a specific level of omega-3 fatty acids for adult

dogs.

NRC 2006

3 Omega 3 vs. 6 FA (Adult dogs)

The effects of omega-3 fatty acids depend on

the level as well as on the ratio of omega-6 to

omega-3 fatty acids. Very high levels of long

chain omega-3 fatty acids can decrease cellular

immunity, particularly in the presence of a low

level of omega-6 fatty acidsa, b.

a Hall JA, Wander RC, Gradin, Jewell DE. Effect of dietary n-6-to n-3 fatty acid ratio on complete blood and total white blood cell counts, and T-cell subpopulations in aged dogs. Am. J. Vet. Res. 1999; 60 (3): 319-327. b Wander RC, Hall JA, Gradin JL, et al. The ratio of dietary (n-6) to (n-3) fatty acids influences immune system function, eicosanoid metabolism, lipid peroxidation and vitamin E in aged dogs. J Nutr 1997; 127: 1198-1997.

MINERALS

Calcium

1 Calcium (Adult dogs)

As the calcium level approaches the stated

nutritional maximum, it may be necessary to

increase the levels of certain trace elements

such as zinc and copper.

-

2 Calcium (RA for puppies)

A calcium level of 0.8g/100gDM has been

shown to be adequate for growing dogs a-c, f.

However, this level has been reported to be

marginal for some breeds d,e particularly during

the fast growing phase (particularly breeds with

lower energy requirements). Therefore FEDIAF

recommends a level of 1.0g/100g DM for early

growth and 0.8g/100g DM for later growth.

a Jenkins KJ, Phillips PH. The Mineral Requirements of the Dog I. Phosphorus Requirement and Availability. J. Nutr. 1960; 70: 235-240. b Jenkins KJ, Phillips PH. The Mineral Requirements of the Dog II. The Relation of Calcium, Phosphorus and Fat Levels to Minimal Calcium and Phosphorus Requirements. J. Nutr. 1960; 70: 241-246. c Goodman SA, Montgomery RD, Fitch RB et al. Serial orthopaedic examinations of growing great Dane puppies fed three diets varying in calcium and phosphorus. In: Recent advances in canine and feline nutrition. Vol 2. Iams Nutrition Sympoqium Proceedings. G. Reinhardt & D. Carye edits. Wimington, Ohio, Orange Frazer Press. 1998; pp. 3-12. d Alexander JE, Moore MP, Wood LLH. Comparative growth studies in Labrador retrievers fed 5 commercial calorie-dense diets. Modern Veterinary practice 1988; 31: 144-148. e Laflamme DP. Effect of breed size on calcium requirements for puppies.


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Supplement to Compendium on Continuing Education for the Practicing Veterinarian 2001; 23 (9A): 66-69. f Lauten SD, Cox NR, Brawner WR, et al. Influence of dietary calcium and phosphorus content in a fixed ration on growth and development of Great Danes. Am J Vet Res. 2002; 63 (7): 1036-1047.

3 Calcium (Maximum for puppies)

High intake of calcium has an adverse effect on

skeletal development in large breed dogs,

particularly during the early growth phase. a,b

Therefore a strict nutritional maximum is

recommended for foods intended for large

breed puppies.

Weber et al. showed that when feeding a

balanced food, a calcium level of 1.6 % DM

from 9 weeks of age does not cause side

effects. c,d

During later growth up to 1.8% DM can be fed

to all breed dogs including giant breeds with the

exception of great Danes. This breed may be

more susceptible and it is preferable to continue

with a food containing a maximum calcium

content of 1.6%. c,d,e

a Hazewinkel HAW. Influences of different calcium intakes on calcium metabolism and skeletal development in young Great Danes. Thesis Utrecht University, 1985. b Schoenmakers I, Hazewinkel HAW, Voorhout G, et al. Effect of diets with different calcium and phosphorus contents on the skeletal development and blood chemistry of growing grate Danes. Vet Rec. 2000; 147: 652-660. c Weber M, Martin L, Dumon H, et al. Growth and skeletal development in two large breeds fed 2 calcium levels. J. Vet Int. Med 2000; 14 (May/June): 388 Abstr. 243. d Weber M, Martin L, Dumon H, et al. Calcium in growing dogs of large breed: a safety range? ESVCN Congress Amsterdam, April 2000, Abstr. e Laflamme DP. Effect of breed size on calcium requirements for puppies. Supplement to Compendium on Continuing Education for the Practicing Veterinarian 2001; 23 (9A): 66-69.

Sodium 1 Sodium

(Adult dogs) Studies in dogs have demonstrated that 45.4

mg / MJ (0.19g / 1000kcal) sodium is adequate

for all life stages. a

a Czarnecki-Maulden et al., (1989) J. A. Vet. Med. Assoc. 195, 583-590].

2 Sodium

(Adult dogs) Studies in dogs have demonstrated that foods

containing 2% of sodium (DM) may result in a

negative potassium balance. a It is reasonable

to set the safe nutritional maximum at 1.8% DM.

b

a Boemke W, Palm U, Kaczmarczyk G, Reinhardt HW Effect of high sodium and high water intake on 24 h-potassium balance in dogs. Z. Versuchstierkd. 1990; 33 (4): 179-185. b Kienzle E. Personal communication.

TRACE ELEMENTS

General 1 General Manufacturers are reminded that the

bioavailability of trace-elements is reduced by a

high content of certain minerals (e.g. calcium),

the level of other trace elements (e.g. high zinc

decreases copper absorption) and sources of

phytic acid (e.g. some soy products).

Copper 1 Copper

(General)

Owing to its low availability copper oxide should

not be considered as a copper source.

a Fascetti AJ, Morris JG, Rogers QR. Dietary copper influences reproductive efficiency of queens. J. Nutr 1998; 128:


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2590S-2592S Iodine

1 Iodine From studies by Castillo et al.a, b a low

nutritional maximum for iodine in dogs

(0.4mg/100gDM) was recommended. However

in these studies puppies were significantly

overfed (approx. 75% above energy

requirement) which resulted in a substantially

increased intake of iodine. Furthermore the food

was deficient in a number of key nutrients, e.g.

Ca, P and K, and therefore inappropriate for

puppies. Consequently, these results are

irrelevant for normal commercial nutritionally

balanced foods, and the existing legal

maximum is safe for all dogs.

a Castillo VA, Pisarev MA, Lalia JC, et al. Commercial diet induced hypothyroidism due to high iodine. A histological and radiological analysis. Veterinary Quarterly 2001; 23 (4): 218-223. b Castillo VA, Lalia JC, Junco M, et al. Changes in thyroid function in puppies fed a high iodine commercial diet. Veterinary Journal 2001; 161 (1): 80-84.

Iron 1 Iron Because of very poor availability, iron from

oxide or carbonate salts that are added to the

diet should not be considered sources

contributing to the minimum nutrient level.

a NRC Absorption and bioavailability of dietary iron in dogs and cats. In: Nutrient Requirements of Dogs and Cats. The National Academic Press, Washington, DC. 2006: pp. 168-169.

Selenium 1 Selenium

(Adult dogs) There are no data available about the exact

requirements for selenium of adult dogs.

However, according to experts the availability of

and requirement for selenium in dogs are

similar to those in the cat. a Therefore, the

recommended allowance for cats is used for

dogs until more information becomes available.

a Wedekind K. Personal communication.

Zinc 1 Zinc

(Growth) A pet food containing 5 mg zinc per 100g DM is

sufficient to meet the requirements for growing

puppies

a Booles D, Burger IH, Whyte AL, et al. Effects of two levels of zinc intake on growth and trace element status in Labrador puppies. J Nutr 1991; 121: S79-S80.

VITAMINS

Vitamin A

1 Vitamin A The FEDIAF maximum is based on the studies

reported by Hathcock et al., Goldy et al. and

Cline et al. in adult dogsa,b,c. The value is 80%

of the dose that Goldy et al. identified “as may

be approaching a level that challenges the

dog's ability to maintain normal vitamin A

homeostasis” and about 45% of the no-

adverse-effect intake established by Cline et al.

over one year (no detrimental effects on bone

health). Furthermore Hathcock et al. reported

a Hathcock JN. D. G. Hattan, M. Y.

Jenkins, et al. Evaluation of vitamin A

toxicity. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1990;52: 183-

202. b Goldy GG, Burr JR, Longardner CN et

al. Effects of measured doses of vitamin

A fed to healthy dogs for 26 weeks.

Veterinary Clinical Nutrition 1996; 3 (2):

42-49 c Cline JL, Czarnecki-Maulden,

Losonsky JM, et al. Effect of increasing


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an intake at least three times the FEDIAF

nutritional maximum as safe in adult dogs fed

for ten months (body growth and

haematological indices unaffected).

In view of these data the FEDIAF maximum is

considered appropriate for all life stages.

dietary vitamin A on bone density in

adult dogs. J. Anim. Sci. 1997; 75:

2980-2985.

2 Vitamin A

(Puppies)

There is no evidence so far that the nutritional

maximum for puppies should be different from

the current nutritional maximum for adults. This

value has been used in this guide for at least 10

years and has never given rise to any problems

in growing dogs. Nevertheless, the industry is

actively investigating whether puppies behave

similarly to adult dogs with regard to vitamin A

metabolism. a-d

a Schweigert FJ, Raila J, Haebel S.

Vitamin A excreted in the urine of

canines is associated with a Tamm-

Horsfall like protein. Vet Res. 2002; 33:

299-311. b Schweigert FJ, Ryder OA, Rambeck

WA, Zucker H. The majority of vitamin A

is transported as retinyl esters in the

blood of most carnivores. Comp.

Biochem. Physiol. A 1990; 95, 573-578. c Schweigert FJ, Thomann E, Zucker H.

Vitamin A in the urine of carnivores. Int.

J. Vitam. Nutr. Res. 1991; 61, 110-113. d Schweigert FJ, Bok V. Vitamin A in

blood plasma and urine of dogs is

affected by the dietary level of vitamin

A. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 2000; 70, 84-91.

Vitamin D 1 Vitamin D Studies in great Dane puppies showed that a

dietary vitamin D level of 435 IU/100g DM can

affect Ca absorption and may stimulate

endochondral ossification disturbances. a, b.

Therefore, 320 IU per 100g DM should be the

nutritional maximum for growing giant breed

dogs. c Based on differences in cholecalciferol

metabolism between giant breed and small

breed puppies b, 425 IU/100g DM can be

considered a safe nutritional maximum for small

breed puppies.

Since there is no information on maximum safe

intakes for adult dogs and breeding bitches.

FEDIAF recommends the same nutritional

maximum for other life stages as those

indicated for puppies.

a Tryfonidou MA, Stevenhagen JJ, van

den Bemd GJCM, et al. Moderate

cholecalciferol supplementation

depresses intestinal calcium absorption

in growing dogs. J. Nutr. 2002; 132:

2644-2650. b Tryfonidou MA, Holl MS, Vastenburg

M, et al. Chapter 7. Moderate vitamin D3

supplementation mildly disturbs the

endochondral ossification in growing

dogs. In: PhD Thesis Utrecht University

19 December 2002: pp. 110-122. c NRC. Vitamin D In: Nutrient

Requirements of Dogs and Cats. The

National Academic Press, Washington,

DC. 2006: pp. 200-205 and tables 15-

10, 15-12 and 15-14 pp. 357-363.

Vitamin E 1 Vitamin E Requirement depends on intake of

polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and other

antioxidants. A fivefold increase may be

required under conditions of high PUFA intake.

Reference? Origin: Guidelines 2005

Vitamin K


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1 Vitamin K Vitamin K does not need to be added unless

diet contains antimicrobial or anti-vitamin

compounds. a,b

a NRC 2006 b Kronfeld DS. Vitamin K. in: Vitamin &

mineral supplementation for dogs & cats

- A monograph on micronutrients

Veterinary Practice Publishing

Company 1989: p. 95.

Riboflavin 1 Riboflavin Based on erythrocyte glutathione reductase

activity coefficient (EGRAC) Cline et al.

determined that the riboflavin requirement for

the adult dog at maintenance is 66.8µg/kg BW

per day, when feeding a semi-purified diet. a

This corresponds with about 0.6 mg/100g DM

for practical pet foods by including a safety

margin of 25%.

a Cline JL, Odle J, Easter RA. The riboflavin requirement of adult dogs at maintenance is greater than previous estimates J Nutr. 1996 Apr; 126 (4):984-988

1 Biotin For healthy dogs biotin does not need to be

added to the food unless the food contains

antimicrobial or anti-vitamin compounds. a, b

a Kronfeld DS, Biotin and Avidin. In vitamin & Mineral Supplementation for dogs and cats – A monograph on micronutrients Veterinary Practice Publishing Company 1989: 71-72. b Kronfeld DS, Biotin. In vitamin & Mineral Supplementation for dogs and cats – A monograph on micronutrients Veterinary Practice Publishing Company 1989: 99.

TABLE B4 – Substantiation of nutrient recommendations for cats

PROTEIN

1 Glutamate

(Kittens)

The level of glutamate should not exceed 6 per

cent dry matter in foods for kittens. a, b

a Deady JE, Anderson B, O’Donnell III

JA, et al. Effects of level of dietary

glutamic acid and thiamine on food

intake, weight gain, plasma amino acids

and thiamin status of growing kittens. J.

Nutr. 1981; 111: 1568-1579. b Deady JE, Rogers QR, Morris JG.

Effect of high dietary glutamic acid on

the excretion of 35S-thiamin in kittens. J.

Nutr. 1981; 111: 1580-1585.

Arginine 1 Arginine

(All life stages)

The arginine requirement increases with

increased protein content owing to its role as

an intermediate in the urea cycle. For every

gram of crude protein above the stated values,

an additional 0.02g of arginine is required a.

a NRC Chapter 15. Nutrient

Requirements and Dietary Nutrient

Concentrations. In: Nutrient



DC. 2006: pp. 357-363 tables 15-10, 15-

12 and 15-14.

2 Arginine

(Kittens)

Taylor (1995) found that 45 g/kg diet (470

kcal/100 g) was associated with a small

a Taylor TP. MS thesis Univ California, Davis, CA USA. 1995


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decrease in growth rate. NRC therefore sets a

prudent maximum of 3.5 g/100 g DM (400

kcal/100 g). a

Lysine 1 Lysine

(Adult cats)

The recommended values are based on a

study by Burger and Smith a showing that adult

cats need 0.16 g lysine per MJ ME to maintain

a positive N-balance. After adding a safety

margin of 20% this corresponds to 0.34% DM

or 0.85g per 1000 kcal ME.

a Burger IH, Smith PH.

Aminosäurenbedarf erwachsener

Katzen. In: Ernährung, Fehlernährung,

und Diätetik bei Hund und Katze –

Proceedings of the International

Symposium Hannover (DE), September

3-4, 1987: pp. 93-97.

Methionine-cystine 1 Methionine-cystine

(Adult cats)

The recommended values are based on a

study by Burger and Smith a showing that adult

cats need 0.16 g methionine (without cystine)

per MJ ME to maintain a positive N-balance.

After adding a safety margin of 20% this

corresponds to 0.34% DM or 0.85g per 1000

kcal ME methionine + cystine.

a Burger IH, Smith PH.

Aminosäurenbedarf erwachsener

Katzen. In: Ernährung, Fehlernährung,

und Diätetik bei Hund und Katze –

Proceedings of the International

Symposium Hannover (DE), September

3-4, 1987: pp. 93-97.

Tryptophan 1 Tryptophan

(kittens)

Taylor et al. (1998) fed 15 g/kg in a diet

containing 450 kcal/100 g with no ill effects. a

Herwill (1994) fed levels up to 60 g/kg in a diet

containing 470 kcal/100 g. Twenty was

satisfactory but food intake decreased at 40

g/kg; much more severe effects were observed

at 60 g/kg. Therefore the maximum can be set

at 2 g per 470 kcal or 1.7g per 100g DM (400

kcal/100g). b

a Taylor TP, et al. Amino Acids 1998; 15, 221-234. b Herwill A. MS thesis Univ California, Davis, CA USA. 1994

Phenylalanine-tyrosine 1 Phenylalanine-

tyrosine

(All life stages)

Diets with a moderate level of phenylalanine +

tyrosine but higher than the minimum

requirement for growth may cause discolouring

of black hair in kittens. a,b This is corrected by

feeding a food containing ≥1.8% DM of

phenylalanine or a combination of tyrosine and

phenylalanine b. To maximise black hair

colour, the tyrosine level should be equal or

higher than that of phenylalanine. c

a Yu S, Rogers QR, Morris JG. Effect of

low levels of dietary tyrosine on the hair

colour of cats. Journal of small Animal

Practice 2001; 42: 176-180. b Anderson PJB, Rogers QR, Morris JG.

Cats require more dietary phenylalanine

or tyrosine for melanin deposition in hair

than for maximal growth. J. Nutr. 2002;

132: 2037-2042. c NRC Chapter 15. Nutrient

Requirements and Dietary Nutrient

Concentrations. In: Nutrient



DC. 2006: pp. 357-363 tables 15-10, 15-

12 and 15-14.

Taurine


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1 Taurine Studies have shown that the bioavailability is

lower when cats are fed a heated-processed

canned food. a, b To maintain adequate taurine

status, a heat-processed wet cat food needs to

contain approximately 2 to 2.5 times more

taurine than a dry extruded food; the latter

should contain 0.1% DM taurine. c, d

a Hickman MA, Rogers QR, Morris JG.

Effect of processing on fate of dietary

[14C]taurine in cats. J. Nutr. 1990; 120:

995-1000. b Hickman MA, Rogers QR, Morris J.G.

Taurine Balance is Different in Cats Fed

Purified and Commercial Diets. J. Nutr.

1992; 122: 553-559. c Earle KE, Smith PM. The effect of

taurine content on the plasma taurine

concentration of the cat Brit. J. Nutr.

1991; 66: 227-235. d Douglass GM, Fern EB, Brown RC.

Feline plasma and whole blood taurine

levels as influenced by commercial dry

and canned diets. J. Nutr. 1991; 121:

179S-180S.

FAT

Omega 3 and 6 fatty acids 1 Omega 3 fatty

acids (Growth & Reproduction)

The study by Pawlosky et al. suggests that

juvenile felines it is important that the status of

DHA in the nervous system is maintained for

optimal retinal function. However, young felines

have a low synthetic capacity to produce DHA. a

Therefore it is recommended to have a small

amounts of DHA and/or EPA in foods for growth

and reproduction.

a Pawlosky RJ, Denkins Y, Ward G, et al. Retinal and brain accretion of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in developing felines: the effects of corn oil-based maternal diets. Am. J. Clin Nutr 1997; 65 (2): 465-472.

1 Omega 3 fatty

acids

(Adult cats)

Although there is increasing evidence of

beneficial effects of omega-3 fatty acids, the

current information is insufficient to

recommend a specific level of omega-3 fatty

acids for adult cats.

-

MINERALS

Calcium 1 Calcium The FEDIAF value is higher than NRC 2006

including a safety margin to take into account

the bioavailability of raw materials used.

-

2 Calcium-to-

phosphorus ratio

(Growth)

A calcium-to-phosphorus ratio of ≥ 0.65 is

appropriate for growing kittens, provided that

the calcium and phosphorus levels in the food

are at least 0.5% and 0.63% respectively. a,b

a Morris JG, Earl KE. Vitamin D and calcium requirements of kittens. Vet. Clin. Nutr. 1996; 3 (3): 93-96. b Morris JG, Earl KE. Growing kittens require less dietary calcium than current allowances. J Nutr. 1999; 129: 1698-1704.

Sodium


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1 Sodium

(Adult cats)

Based on plasma aldosterone concentration,

Yu and Morris concluded that the minimum

requirement of sodium for maintenance of

adult cats is 0.08 % DM at 5.258 kcal ME/g

(22kJ). a This corresponds with 0.076% at 4

kcal ME/g after adding a safety margin of

about 25%.

a Yu S, Morris JG. Sodium requirement of adult cats for maintenance based on plasma aldosterone concentration. J. Nutr. 1999; 129: 419-423.

2 Sodium (Adult cats)

In one study with healthy adult cats, no adverse

effects were seen when feeding a food with 1.5

% of sodium (DM). a The nutritional maximum

should be set at 1.8% DM. b

a Burger I. Water balance in the dog and the cat. Pedigree Digest 1979; 6: 10-11. b Kienzle Personal communication

1 Sodium

(Growth)

Based on plasma aldosterone concentration

Yu and Morris recommended that a food for

kittens should contain a minimum of 0.16% DM

of sodium at 5.258 kcal ME/g (22kJ). a This

corresponds with 0.16% at 4 kcal ME/g after

adding a safety margin of about 30%.

a Yu S, Morris JG. The minimum sodium requirement of growing kittens defined on the basis of plasma aldosterone concentration. J. Nutr. 1997; 127: 494-501.

Magnesium 1 Magnesium Studies have demonstrated that 10mg/MJ will

maintain adult cats. This value has been

doubled to accommodate interactions with

other dietary factors. a

a Pastoor et al. Doctoral Thesis, University of Utrecht 1993

TRACE ELEMENTS

General 1 General Manufacturers are reminded that the

bioavailability of trace-elements is reduced by

a high content of certain minerals (e.g.

calcium), the level of other trace elements (e.g.

high zinc decreases copper absorption) and

sources of phytic acid (e.g. some soy

products).

Copper 1 Copper

(General)

Owing to its low availability copper oxide

should not be considered as a copper source.

a Fascetti AJ, Morris JG, Rogers QR. Dietary copper influences reproductive efficiency of queens. J. Nutr 1998; 128: 2590S-2592S

Iodine 1 Iodine Based on the Tc99m thyroid to salivary ratio,

Wedekind et al. (2005) have shown that the

minimum requirement of iodine for the cat is

0.51 mg/kg DM. a

The recommended allowance, therefore, can

be set at 0.61 mg/kg DM taking into account a

safety margin of about 20%.

a Wedekind KJ, Evans-Blumer MS, Spate V, Morris JS. Feline iodine requirement is much lower than the new NRC recommendation. The FASEB Journal 2005; 19 (5): A1705, Abstract 972.8

Iron


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1 Iron Because of very poor availability, iron from

oxide or carbonate salts that are added to the

diet should not be considered sources

contributing to the minimum nutrient level.

a NRC Absorption and bioavailability of dietary iron in dogs and cats. In: Nutrient Requirements of Dogs and Cats. The National Academic Press, Washington, DC. 2006: pp. 168-169.

VITAMINS

Vitamin A 1 Vitamin A

(Adult cats)

The FEDIAF maximum is based on the study

reported by Seawright et al. in kittens a.

The FEDIAF maximum of 40,000 IU/100g DM

is about 50% of the maximum NOAEL reported

by Sea Seawright et al. a in kittens from 6 to 8

weeks of age fed for 41 weeks. Since kittens

are at least equally vulnerable as adults to

hypervitaminosis A, this level should also be

safe for adult cats.

a Seawright AA, English PB, Gartner RJW. Hypervitaminosis A and deforming cervical spondylosis of the cat. J. Comp. Path.1967; 77: 29-39.

2 Vitamin A

(Growth and

reproduction)

Seawright et al. a reported no adverse effects

in kittens from 6 to 8 weeks of age fed for 41

weeks on a vitamin A intake of 50,000 IU/kg

BW corresponding to about 90,000 IU per

100g DM. Therefore, FEDIAF’s maximum of

40,000 IU/100g DM can be considered safe for

growing kittens.

Freytag et al. b reported that feeding a food

with 100,000 IU/100g DM to pregnant queens

caused fatal malformations in kittens. The next

lowest value of 2000 IU/100g DM caused no

adverse effects. From these data NRC 2006

recommended not to exceed 33,330 IU/100g

DM in feeding stuffs intended for reproduction.c

In view of these data, FEDIAF recommends a

maximum vitamin A level of 33,330 IU/100g

DM for products designed for reproducing

queens.

a. Seawright AA, English PB, Gartner RJW. Hypervitaminosis A and deforming cervical spondylosis of the cat. J. Comp. Path.1967; 77: 29-39. b Freytag TL, Liu SM, Rogers AR, Morris JG. Teratogenic effects of chronic ingestion of high levels of vitamin A in cats. J. Anim Phys and Anim Nutr. 2003; 87: 42-51. c NRC Chapter 8. Vitamins - Hypervitaminosis A. In: Nutrient Requirements of Dogs and Cats. The National Academic Press, Washington, DC. 2006: p. 200.

Vitamin D 1 Vitamin D Based on the study of Sih et al. (2001) a

nutritional maximum of 3000 IU/100 DM (7500

IU/1000 kcal) can be considered safe for cats

of all life stages. a

a Sih TR, Morris JG, Hickman MA. Chronic ingestion of high concentrations of cholecalciferol in cats. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2001; 62 (9): 1500-1506.

Vitamin E 1 Vitamin E 10 IU of Vitamin E should be added above the

level recommended in the table per gram of

fish oil per kilogram of diet.

Reference? Origin: Guidelines 2005

Vitamin K


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1 Vitamin K Vitamin K does not need to be added unless

the diet contains antimicrobial or anti-vitamin

compounds, or contains more than 25% fish on

a DM basis. a

a Strieker MJ, Morris JG, Feldman BF,

Rogers QR. Vitamin K deficiency in cats

fed commercial fish-based diets. J Small

Anim Pract. 1996; 37 (7): 322-326.

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) 1 Vitamin B6

(All life stages) Requirements of vitamin B6 increase with

increasing protein content of the food. a, b

a Bai SC, Sampson DA, Morris JG, Rogers QR. Vitamin B-6 requirement of growing kittens J. Nutr. 1989; 119: 1020–1027 b Bai SC, Sampson DA, Morris JG, Rogers QR. The level of dietary protein affects vitamin B-6 requirement of cats. J. Nutr. 1991; 121: 1054-1061.

1 Biotin For healthy cats biotin does not need to be

added to the food unless the food contains

antimicrobial or anti-vitamin compounds. a, b

a Kronfeld DS, Biotin and Avidin. In vitamin & Mineral Supplementation for dogs and cats – A monograph on micronutrients Veterinary Practice Publishing Company 1989: 71-72. b Kronfeld DS, Biotin. In vitamin & Mineral Supplementation for dogs and cats – A monograph on micronutrients Veterinary Practice Publishing Company 1989: 99.


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IV. COMPLEMENTARY PET FOOD

Complementary pet food is legally defined as pet food which has a high content of certain

substances but which, by reason of its composition, is sufficient for a daily ration only if used

in combination with other pet foods (Directive 79/373/EC).

Complementary pet food covers a wide range of products including:

A. Products, such as a meat and biscuit combination, where each component contributes

significantly to the energy content of the mixture.

B. Products, which contain certain nutrients but are not designed to contribute significantly

to the energy content of the mixture.

• Treats and snacks are normally given to strengthen the human animal bond and as

rewards during training.

• Tablets and conditioners often used to balance the diet when home made foods are

given.

• Products, such as dog chews, that are not intended to contribute to the nutritional

content of the daily ration, but are given to occupy the animal and can be eaten.

1. Recommended allowances

In view of the many different types of complementary pet foods, manufacturers are advised

to base their feeding instructions on the intended role of the product in the total ration. The

total ration should match the recommended allowances and nutritional and legal maximum

values listed in the tables for complete pet food.

2 Validation procedure

FEDIAF recommends that for the purpose of nutrition validation, complementary pet food

should be divided into three parts:

For products belonging to category A, the validation procedure should comply with that laid

down for complete pet food in order to assess the nutritional adequacy of the total daily

ration.

For products belonging to category B, the validation procedure should cover those nutrients

that are relevant for the intended use of the product.


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For occupational products belonging to category B, no specific validation procedure for

nutritional adequacy is needed.

3. Repeat analysis

When a validation procedure is recommended (see 2) the same rules should apply for

complementary and complete pet food (page 9)


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V. ANALYTICAL METHODS In order to obtain representative results, samples have to be collected and treated according to the

general principles laid down in Commission Directive 76/371/EEC of 1 March 1976 establishing

Community methods of sampling for the official control of feeding stuffs, as amended, and in

Commission Directive 71/250/EEC, establishing Community methods of analysis for the official control

of feeding stuffs, as amended.

The analysis of only one sample may not reflect the level declared in the average analysis of the

product. To obtain a representative analysis, multiple samples coming from different batches have to

be analysed. A composite sample made from multiple samples is also valid. To evaluate the results

of a single-sample analysis, minimum tolerances for deviation from the declared values, as foreseen in

ANNEX PART A. 6 of Council Directive 79/373/EEC on the circulation of compound feeding stuffs

should be permitted as well as tolerances for analytical latitudes.

Non-exhaustive list of analytical methods

NUTRIENT METHOD REFERENCE(S)

Sampling EU method O.J. 1981 L 246 p.32

ISO/DIS 6491 Moisture EU method O.J. 1971 L 279 p.7

ISO /DIS 6496 Protein (crude) EU method O.J. 1993 L 179 p.8 Arginine EU method O.J. 1998 L 257 p.14 Histidine EU method O.J. 1998 L 257 p.14 Isoleucine EU method O.J. 1998 L 257 p.14 Lysine EU method O.J. 1998 L 257 p.14 Methionine EU method O.J. 1998 L 257 p.14 Cyst(e)in EU method O.J. 1998 L 257 p.14 Phenylanaline EU method O.J. 1998 L 257 p.14 Tyrosine EU method O.J. 1998 L 257 p.14 Threnonine EU method O.J. 1998 L 257 p.14 Valine EU method O.J. 1998 L 257 p.14 Tryptophane EU method O.J. 2000 L 174 p.32

2nd ISO/CD 13904 Fat (crude) EU method O.J. 1998 L 257 p.14 Linoleic Acid VDLUFA method 5.6.2

B.S.I method BS684: section 2.34 : ISO 5509-1997 AOAC 15th ed. (1990) 969.33 & 963.22

Arachidonic Acid VDLUFA method 5.6.2 B.S.I method BS684: section 2.34 : ISO 5509-1997 AOAC 15th ed. (1990) 969.33 & 963.22

Fiber (crude) EU method O.J. 1993 L 344 p.35 Ash (crude) EU method O.J. 1971 L 155 p.13 Calcium EU method O.J. 1971 L 155 p.13

ISO/DIS 6869 Phosphorus EU method O.J. 1971 L 279 p.7


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ISO/DIS 6491 Potassium EU method O.J. 1971 L 155 p.13

ISO/DIS 6869 Sodium EU method O.J. 1971 L 155 p.13

ISO/DIS 6869 Chloride EU method O.J. 1971 L 155 p.7

§35 LMBG L06.00-5 AOAC 14th ed. (1984) 3.069-3.070 AOAC 15th ed. (1990) 920.155 & 928.04 AOAC 16th ed. (1998) potentiometric method 50.1.10

Magnesium EU method O.J. 1973 L 83 p.21 ISO /DIS 6869

Iron EU method O.J. 1978 L 206 p.43 ISO/DIS 6869

Copper EU method O.J. 1978 L 206 p.43 ISO/DIS 6869

Manganese EU method O.J. 1978 L 206 p.43 ISO/DIS 6869

Zinc EU method O.J. 1998 L 257 p.13 ISO/DIS 6869

Iodine Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (1997). Dietary intake of iodine and fatty acids. Food Surveillance Information Sheet, 127. MAFF

Selenium The Analyst 1979, 104, 784 VDLUFA, BD III method 11.6 (1993) AOAC 16th ed. (1998) 9.1.01

Vitamin A EU method O.J. 2000 L 174 p.32 VDLUFA method 13.1.2 2nd ISO/CD 14565

Vitamin D * VDLUFA method 13.8.1 D3 AOAC 15th ed. (1990) 982.29 BS EN 12821 : 2000

Vitamin E EU method O.J. 2000 L 174 p.32 2nd ISO/CD 6867 VDLUFA method 13.5.4

Vitamin K Analytical Proceedings, June 1993, Vol. 30, 266-267 (Vit. K3) J. of Chrom. 472 (1989) 371-379 (Vit. K1) BS EN 14148: 2003 (Vit. K1)

Thiamine AOAC Int. 76, (1993) 1156-1160 and 1276-1280 AOAC Int. 77 (1994) 681-686 The Analyst, 2000, No. 125, pp 353-360 EN 14122 (2003)

Riboflavin AOAC Int. 76 (1993) 1156-1160 and 1276-1280 AOAC Int. 77 (1994) 681-686 AOAC 16th ed. (1998) M 940.33 The Analyst, 2000, No. 125, pp 353-360 EN 14152 (2003)

Pantothenic Acid AOAC 945.74 /42.2.05 (1990) USP XXIII, 1995, M 91

Niacin AOAC 944.13 /45.2.04 (1990) USP XXIII, 1995, M 441

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) AOAC 16th ed. (1998) M 985.32 EN 14663: 2005

Folic Acid AOAC 16th ed. (1998) M 944.12


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Biacore AB: Folic Acid Handbook; BR 1005-19

Biotin USP XXI, 1986, M 88 Biacore AB: Biotin Kit Handbook; BR 1005-18

Vitamine B12 USP XXIII, 1995, M171 AOAC 952.20 Biacore AB: Vitamin B12 Handbook; BR 1004-15

Choline AOAC Int. Vol 82, No. 5 1999 pp 1156-1162 EG-Draft 15.706/1/VI/68-D/bn

Taurine AOAC Int. Vol. 82 No. 4, 2000 pp 784-788 Total dietary fibre (TDF) AOAC Official Method 985.29 or 45.4.07 for

Total Dietary Fibre in Food and Food Products

Insoluble fibre (IF) AOAC Method 991.42 or 32.1.16 for the Insoluble Dietary Fibre in Food and Food Products

Soluble fibre (SF) AOAC Official Method 993.19 or 45.4.08 for Soluble Dietary Fibre in Food and Food Products

Vitamin D analysis of pet foods containing levels which are approaching the minimum recommendation, say between 500 and

1000 IU/kg DM is difficult and unreliable. The detection limit for HPLC methods is approximately 3000 to 5000 IU/kg. Analysis

is not required if supplementation is practised and it is unlikely that un-supplemented products with adequate levels of vitamins

A and E will be deficient in vitamin D.


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VI – FEEDING TEST PROTOCOLS

Recommended feeding trial protocol for the determination of metabolizable energy of cat and dog food

GE Gross energy CP Crude protein DE Digestible energy DP Digestible protein ME Metabolizable energy BW Body weight kJ kilojoule Cr2O3 Chromic oxide

1 Indicator method

1 Introduction This feeding protocol has been designed in order to determine ME of cat & dog foods in a

way not harmful for cats and dogs and is adapted from the "AAFCO dog and cat food

metabolizable energy protocols - Indicator Method” (AAFCO 2007).

2 Protocol

2.1 Animals A minimum of six fully grown animals at least one year of age shall complete the test. The

animals shall be in good health and of known weight, sex and breed. Animals shall be

individually housed during the trial (collection period).

2.2 Feeding Procedures Feeding procedures shall be standardized. The feeding shall consist of two phases.

The first phase shall be the pre-collection period of at least three days for dogs and five days

for cats (Nott et al. 1994) with the objective of acclimatising the test animals to the diet and

adjusting food intake, as necessary, to maintain body weight.

The second phase shall be the total collection period; faeces and possibly urine will be

collected during at least four days (96 hours) for dogs and five days (120 hours) for cats.

2.3 Food Food type, flavour, and production codes representing the composite feed shall be recorded.


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The food source shall remain constant throughout the test period.

The indicator shall be uniformly mixed in a quantity of food sufficient to feed all animals for

the duration of the pre-collection and collection periods. If chromic oxide is used,

approximately 0.25% of a high quality chromic oxide (Cr203) free of soluble chromium shall

be mixed with the food.

2.4 Food Allowances The amount of food presented to each animal may be based upon existing data on the

quantity of food required to maintain body weight, or the estimated daily maintenance energy

requirements (110-115 kcal ME per kg BW0.75 for dogs or 60-70 kcal ME per kg BW for cats)

(See ANNEX I on energy p. 42).

2.5 Times of Feeding Animals shall be fed at least once daily and at the same time each day. Water shall be

available at all times. Food shall be fed as is, or per normal feeding instructions for the

product. The excess food shall be weighed back after feeding.

2.6 Pre-trial Termination If, during the pre-collection phase, the food is continually rejected or results in minimal

consumption by a majority of the animals, the trial shall not proceed into the collection phase.

2.7 Collection

2.7.1 Faeces Collection It is imperative that all collection containers be clearly marked using double labels or any

alternative adequate coding. The labels shall include the animal number, diet number, and

dates of collection.

Aliquots of faeces from five separate days shall be collected. Every effort should be made to

avoid collecting contaminants such as hair. The aliquots shall be dried and pooled per

individual animal.

2.7.2 Urine collection During the collection period, all daily urine shall be collected for each animal and weighed,

unless a correction factor is used to estimate metabolizable energy. Every effort should be

made to avoid collecting contaminants such as hair.


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2.8 Sample Preparation

2.8.1 Food The food shall be blended to ensure a uniform consistency and an adequate quantity used

for appropriate assays. Ample quantities of the remaining sample should be frozen and

retained until assay results have been reviewed and found acceptable.

2.8.2 Faeces Faeces shall be analyzed using composite samples. The samples shall be blended to ensure

a uniform consistency and an adequate quantity used for appropriate assays. Ample

quantities of the remaining sample should be frozen and retained until assay results have

been reviewed and found acceptable.

2.8.3 Urine Urine shall be collected in sulphuric acid containing receptacles to stabilize the urine and

prevent loss of nitrogen. Aliquots of urine from the collection period shall be freeze dried and

pooled per animal in sufficient amount for GE assay.

2.9 Analytical Determination Prepared samples shall be used for analysis. AOAC approved analytical methodology shall

be used when available or one of the recommended analytical methods listed on p. 31. Food

and faeces shall be assayed for gross energy (bomb calorimetry), crude protein, and the

indicator. If urine is collected, gross energy and crude protein in the urine should also be

determined.

If digestibility values of dry matter, fat or other nutrients are wanted, food and faeces should

also be assayed for those substances.

Food and faeces are analysed for the indicator by the same method (Atomic absorption

spectrophotometry is the preferred method if chromic oxide is used as the indicator (Arthur

1970). Since controlled sample digestion and oxidation of the chromic oxide to chromates is

critical for reproducible results, colorimetric analysis of chromium is less reproducible than

atomic absorption spectrophotometry.

Food, faeces and urine (if collected) are stored in the freezer in case of need for further

analysis


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2.10 Calculation of Digestible and Metabolizable Energy and Digestible Nutrients

1. Digestible energy & protein

The determination is based on assays of the gross energy or crude protein consumed minus

the energy or crude protein in the faeces.

DE (kcal/g) = {1 - (GE of faeces x % Cr2O3 in food) } x GE of food (GE of food x % Cr2O3 in faeces)

DP (% food) = {1 - (% CP in faeces x % Cr2O3 in food) } x CP in food (% CP in food x % Cr2O3 in faeces)

Digestible fat, ash and dry matter can be calculated in the same way as digestible protein.

2. Metabolizable energy

The determination is based on assays of the gross energy consumed minus the energy lost

in faeces and in the urine.

If urine is collected

ME (kcal/g) = DE - GE of urine ()

If urine is not collected

ME (kcal/g) = DE - (DP x correction factor for energy lost in urine)

Correction factor for energy lost in urine (Kienzle et al. 1998):

1.25 kcal or 5.23 kJ/g for dogs

0.86 kcal or 3.60 kJ/g for cats

2 Quantitative collection method

1 Introduction

This feeding protocol has been designed in order to determine ME of cat & dog foods in a

way not harmful for cats and dogs and is adapted from the "AAFCO dog and cat food

metabolizable energy protocols – Quantitative Collection Method” (AAFCO 2007).

2 Protocol

2.1 Animals A minimum of six fully grown animals at least one year of age shall complete the test. The

animals shall be in good health and of known weight, sex and breed. Animals shall be

individually housed during the trial (collection period).


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2.2 Feeding Procedures

Feeding procedures shall be standardized. The feeding shall consist of two phases.

The first phase shall be the pre-collection period of at least three days for dogs and five days

for cats (Nott et al. 1994) with the objective of acclimatising the test animals to the diet and

adjusting food intake, as necessary, to maintain body weight.

The second phase shall be the total collection period of at least four days (96 hours) for dogs

and five days (120 hours) for cats.

The amount of food offered during the second phase shall remain constant. Food intake shall

be recorded throughout both phases.

2.3 Food

Food type, flavour, and production codes representing the composite feed shall be recorded.

The food source shall remain constant throughout the test period.

2.4 Food Allowances

The amount of food presented to each animal may be based upon existing data on the

quantity of food required to maintain body weight or the estimated daily maintenance energy

requirements (110-115 kcal ME per kg BW0.75 for dogs or 60-70 kcal ME per kg BW for cats)

(See ANNEX I on energy p. 42).

2.5 Times of Feeding

Animals shall be fed at least once daily and at the same time each day. Water shall be

available at all times. Food shall be fed as is, or per normal feeding instructions for the

product. The excess food shall be weighed back after feeding.

2.6 Pre-trial Termination

If, during the pre-collection phase, the food is continually rejected or results in minimal

consumption by a majority of the animals, the trial shall not proceed into the collection phase.

2.7 Faeces Collection

It is imperative that all collection containers be clearly marked using double labels or any

alternative adequate coding. The labels shall include the animal number, diet number, and

dates of collection. Faeces shall be collected daily for a minimum of four days for dogs and

five days for cats. Every effort should be made to collect all of the faeces and avoid collecting

contaminants such as hair. The methodology is as follows:


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i) Weigh collection container and record weight.

ii) Place faeces in the respective animal's container for that day of collection. Collect

faeces as quantitatively as possible.

iii) Place collections in freezer for storage.

iv) Faeces may be dried each day.

a. Weigh and record the weight of the faeces and container each day, and

determine net weight of faeces. If the volume of faeces is large, an aliquot

may be retained for drying.

b. Dry daily faeces collection (or aliquot). Faeces should be thin enough to dry

quickly. Otherwise, nitrogen and carbon losses may occur due to fermentation

products.

c. Pool the entire collection or proportional aliquots.

2.8 Sample Preparation

2.8.1 Food The food shall be blended to ensure a uniform consistency and an adequate quantity used

for appropriate assays. Ample quantities of the remaining sample should be frozen and

retained until assay results have been reviewed and found acceptable.

2.8.2 Faeces Faeces shall be analyzed using composite samples. The samples shall be blended to ensure

a uniform consistency and an adequate quantity used for appropriate assays. Ample

quantities of the remaining sample should be frozen and retained until assay results have

been reviewed and found acceptable.

2.8.3 Urine If urine collections are made, they shall be for the same period as the faeces collections.

Urine shall be collected with a minimum of contamination, in a urine receptacle containing

sulphuric acid to stabilize the urine and prevent nitrogen loss. After the total urine volume is

determined, aliquot samples shall be freeze-dried in an appropriate container.

2.9 Analytical Determination

Prepared samples shall be used for analysis. AOAC approved analytical methodology shall

be used when available or one of the methods p.

Food, faeces and urine (if collected) shall be assayed for gross energy (bomb calorimetry). If

urine is not collected, food and faeces also shall be assayed for crude protein.


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If digestibility values of dry matter, fat or other nutrients are wanted, food and faeces should

also be assayed for those substances.

2.10 Calculation of Digestible Energy and digestible nutrients

The determination is based on assays of the gross energy consumed minus the energy in

the faeces.

DE (per g food) = (GE of food consumed - GE of faeces collected) / amount of food

consumed.

DP (% of food) = (CP of food consumed - CP of faeces collected) x100/ amount of

food consumed.

Digestible fat, ash and dry matter can be calculated in the same way as digestible protein.

2.11 Calculation of Metabolizable Energy

The determination is based on assays of the gross energy consumed minus the energy in

the faeces and correction for energy lost in the urine (or energy lost in urine as determined

by calorimetry).

2.11.1 Without urine collection ME = [(GE of food consumed - GE of faeces collected) – (grams protein consumed -

grams protein in faeces) x correction factor for energy loss in urine] / amount of

food consumed.

Correction factor for energy lost in urine (Kienzle et al. 1998):

1.25 kcal or 5.23 kJ/g for dogs

0.86 kcal or 3.60 kJ/g for cats

Example: a) gross energy of food 4.35 kcal/g or 18.19 kJ/g

b) amount of food consumed 1250g

c) gross energy of faeces 1.65 kcal/g or 6.90 kJ/g

d) amount of faeces collected 600g

e) protein in food 24%

f) protein in faeces 9%

g) correction factor (dog) 1.25 kcal/g or 5.23 kJ/g

ME (kcal/kg) = (axb) - (cxd) - {(bxe / 100) - (dxf / 100)}x g x 1000 b


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ME (kcal/kg) = (a x b) - (c x d) – [(b x e) - (d x f)]/100x g x 1000 b

ME (kcal/kg) = [(4.35 x 1250) - (1.65 x 600)] – [(1250 x 24) - (600 x 9)]/100x 1.25 x 1000 1,250

ME (kcal/kg) = 3,312 kcal (x 4.184 = 13,857.4 kJ)

2.11.2 With urine collection ME = [(GE of food consumed - GE of faeces collected) - GE of urine collected] /

amount of food consumed.

Example

a) gross energy of food = 4.35 kcal/g

b) amount of food consumed = 1250 g

c) gross energy of faeces = 1.65 kcal/g

d) amount of faeces collected = 600 g

e) gross energy of urine = 0.25 kcal/ml

f) volume of urine = 1230 ml

ME (kcal/kg) = [(a x b – c x d) – e x f] x 1000 b

ME (kcal/kg) = [(4.35 x 1,250 - 1.65 x 600) – (0.25 x 1,230)] x 1000 1,250

ME (kcal/kg) = 3,312 kcal (x 4.184 = 13,857.4 kJ)

References 1. AAFCO. AAFCO dog and cat food metabolizable energy protocols. In: Official Publication -

Association of American Feed Control Officials Inc. 2007:160-165.

2. Arthur D. The determination of chromium in animal feed and excreta by atomic absorption

spectrophotometry. Can. Spect. 1970; 15: 134.

3. Kienzle E, Opitz B, Earl KE, et al. The development of an improved method of predicting the

energy content in prepared dog and cat food. J. Anim? Physiol. A. Anim. Nutr. 1998; 79: 69-79.

4. Nott HMR, Rigby SI, Johnson JV, et al. Design of digestibility trials for dogs and cats. J. Nutr.

1994; 124 (12S): 2582S-2583S.


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ANNEX I – Energy 1 Introduction

The feeding guide, more than anything else on a pet food label, draws the attention of the

consumer, to who the amount to feed is certainly key.

Energy requirements vary considerably between individual dogs and cats, even between

animals kept under the same conditions. This wide variation between individual animals can

be the consequence of differences in age, breed, body size, body condition, insulation

characteristics of skin and hair coat, temperament, health status or activity. It can also be

caused by environmental factors such as ambient temperature and housing conditions

(Meyer & Zentek 2005, NRC 2006).

No single formula will allow to calculate the energy requirements for all dogs or cats

(Heusner 1991), and every equation only predicts a theoretical average for a specific group

of animals.

Providing satisfactory feeding recommendations remains thus an ongoing challenge for pet

food companies. The next section provides general recommendations for household dogs

and cats and should be considered a starting point. The following discussion is intended to

clarify some of the substantial differences seen between individual dogs or cats.

2 Abbreviations

BCS Body condition score (lean,

ideal, overweight, obese)

BMR Basal metabolic rate

BW Body weight

DE Digestible energy

DER Daily energy requirements

DM Dry matter

ECF Extra cellular fluid

GE Gross energy

ME Metabolizable energy

MJ Megajoule

MER Maintenance energy

requirements

NFE Nitrogen free extract

REE Resting energy expenditure

RER Resting energy requirements

TNZ Thermo-neutral zone

UCT Upper critical temperature


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3 Energy density of the food

Energy is expressed either in kilocalories (kcal) or in kilojoules (kJ)

Conversions

1 kcal = 1000 cal = 4.184 kJ

1 MJ = 1000 kJ = 239 kcal

Gross energy

The gross energy (GE) of a food is defined as the total chemical combustible energy arising

from complete combustion of a food in a bomb calorimeter (NRC 2006a). The predicted GE

values of protein, fat and carbohydrate are listed in table 1.

Table 1. Predicted gross energy values of protein, fat and carbohydrate

Nutrient Gross Energy

Crude protein 5.7 kcal/g 23.8 kJ/g

Fat 9.4 kcal/g 39.3 kJ/g

NFE + Crude fibre 4.1 kcal/g 17.1 kJ/g

(Kienzle et al. 2002; NRC 2006a) NFE = nitrogen free extract

kcal GE/100g = 5.7 x % crude protein + 9.4 x % crude fat + 4.1 x (% NFE + % crude fibre)

kJ GE/100g = 23.8 x % crude protein + 39.3 x % crude fat + 17.1 x (% NFE + % crude fibre)

Metabolizable energy

Digestible energy and metabolizable energy are a more accurate way of expressing the

energy density of a food. Metabolizable energy reflects better the energy that is utilised by

the animal, but is more difficult to determine. The metabolizable energy (ME) of a pet food is

measured most accurately by performing digestibility trials using one of the two methods

described in Section VI p. 35. The metabolizable energy can also be predicted by

calculation from the average analysis using one of the equations hereafter. However, since

the digestibility can differ between pet foods, a single equation can not be supposed to

predict the ME of all pet food products.

a) Atwater factors

For processed pet foods modified Atwater factors can be used; they are based on an

average digestibility of 90% for fat, 85% for carbohydrate (NFE) and 80% for protein

(NRC 1985b).

Kcal ME /100g = % crude protein x 3.5 + % crude fat x 8.5 + % NFE x 3.5 (AAFCO

2008)


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KJ ME /100g = % crude protein x 14.65 + % crude fat x 35.56 + % NFE x 14.65

The factors developed by Atwater in 1902 work well for human food ingredients such as

meat, fish and purified starch products) and can also be used for processed pet foods

with a very high digestibility, milk substitutes and liquids for enteral nutrition (NRC 2006a).

Kcal ME /100g = % crude protein x 4.0 + % crude fat x 9.0 + % NFE x 4.0

KJ ME /100g = % crude protein x 16.74 + % crude fat x 37.66 + % NFE x 16.74

For canned cat food NRC 1986 had proposed the following more accurate equation:

Kcal ME /100g = % crude protein x 3.9 + % crude fat x 7.7 + % NFE x 3.0 – 0.05

KJ ME /100g = % crude protein x 16.32 + % crude fat x 32.22 + % NFE x 12.55 – 0.21

More accurate predictive equations for modern pet foods for healthy animals are

discussed below:

b) Predictive Equations for ME in foods for dogs and cats

For calculation of ME in prepared pet foods for cats and dogs (dry and wet) the

following 4-step-calculation can be used (NRC 2006a):

1. Calculate GE

GE (kcal) = (5.7 x g protein) + (9.4 x g fat) + [4.1 x (g NFE + g crude fibre)]

GE (kJ) = (16.74 x g protein) + (37.66 x g fat) + [16.74 x (g NFE + g crude fibre)]

2. Calculate energy digestibility (%):

Dogs: % energy digestibility = 91.2 – (1.43 x % crude fibre in DM)

Cats: % energy digestibility = 87.9 – (0.88 x % crude fibre in DM)

3. Calculate digestible energy:

kcal DE = (kcal GE x energy digestibilty) / 100

kJ DE = (kJ GE x energy digestibilty) / 100

4. Convert into metabolizable energy:

Dogs: kcal ME = kcal DE – (1.04 x g protein)

kJ ME = kJ DE – (1.04 x g protein)

Cats: kcal ME = kcal DE – (0.77 x g protein)

kJ ME = kJ DE – (0.77 x g protein)

This calculation is not suitable for milk substitutes and liquid preparations for enteral

nutrition and may be inaccurate for foods with a crude fibre content of more than eight

per cent.

c) Equation for particular nutritional purposes (obesity, convalescence)

The calculated energy density has to be declared on the pack of pet foods intended


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for the following particular nutritional purposes “nutritional restoration, convalescence”

and “reduction of excessive body weight”. To calculate the metabolizable energy

density (MJ/kg) of those pet foods the following equations should be used:

All dog and cat foods except cat foods with moisture content exceeding 14 %:

MJ/kg of ME = 0.1464 x % CP + 0.3556 x % CF + 0.1464 x % NFE

Cat foods with a moisture content exceeding 14 %:

MJ/kg of ME = (0.1632 x % CP + 0.3222 x % CF + 0.1255 x % NFE) - 0.2092

CP = Crude protein; CF = Crude oils and fats; NFE = Nitrogen free extract

d) Determination of ME content of foods by feeding trials

Manufacturers should be aware that feeding trials are regarded as the gold standard for

determination of the energy content of any pet food. In those trials described on pp. XXY

the digestible energy (DE) can be measured accurately. An approximate factor to convert

digestible into metabolizable energy is 0.9. Alternatively, NRC 2006 recommends

subtracting 1.25 kcal g-1 digestible crude protein for dogs and 0.9 kcal g-1 for cats (NRC

2006a). FEDIAF recommends that members who wish to use feeding trials should

employ the quantitative collection protocol published on pages 37-41.

4 Literature review on energy requirements of dogs

While the formulae give average metabolizable energy needs, actual needs of cats and dogs

may vary greatly depending on various factors (Meyer & Zentek 2005, NRC 1985 & 2006).

Energy allowances, recommended for maintenance of adult dogs, differ widely, with figures

ranging from less than 90 kcal ME/kg0.75 (377 kJ) to approximately 200 kcal ME/kg0.75 (810

kJ). This diversity is not surprising when we consider the variation in adult size between the

different breeds, which, with mature body weights ranging from one kg (Chihuahua) to 90 kg

or more (St. Bernard), is the greatest diversity across mammalian species (Lauten 2006).

The amount of energy a particular dog will finally need is significantly influenced by factors

such as age, breed, size, activity, environment, temperament, insulation characteristics of

skin and hair coat, body condition or disease.

4.1 Maintenance Energy Requirements (MER) of adult dogs

Energy requirements of animals with widely differing body weights are not correlated with kg

body weight (BW) in a linear way (Meyer & Heckötter 1986, NRC 1985). Energy

requirements are more closely related to BW raised to some power: The daily energy

requirements of dogs most often are calculated in function of a metabolic weight, which


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equals kg0.75. Its accuracy for dogs has been questioned, and a valid alternative (kg0.67) is

more related to body surface, and may thus better reflect heat production (Finke 1994,

Kienzle & Rainbird 1991, Männer 1991). What such an equation tells you is the expected

mean value for a “typical dog of the given size”. We will continue to use the kg0.75, which is

also recommended by NRC 2006. It is widely accepted and easy to calculate by cubing BW

and then taking its square root twice (Lewis et al. 1987a). MER is the amount of energy expended by a moderately active adult animal. It consists of

the basal metabolic rate (BMR) plus the energy cost for obtaining, digesting and absorbing

food in amounts that are necessary to maintain BW. It includes calories for spontaneous

(inevitable) activity, and, in case of passing the critical temperature, energy needed to

maintain normal body temperature (Meyer & Zentek 2005, Rainbird & Kienzle 1989).

Independent from BW, MER is influenced by differences in age, type and breed, activity,

temperament, environmental temperature, insulation characteristics of skin (i.e. hair length

and subcutaneous fat), and social environment, among which “age and activity“ appeared

to be the most important contributors to individual energy needs (Burger 1994, Finke 1994,

Kienzle & Rainbird 1991, Meyer & Heckötter 1986, NRC 1985).

Recommendations for MER may overestimate energy needs by 10 to 60 % (Männer 1991,

NRC 2006a). They often include a reasonable amount for activity, whereas approximately

19 per cent of the owners never play with their dogs, and 22 per cent let their dogs out for

exercise for less than three hours a week (Slater et al. 1995).

4.2 Activity

It is clear that spontaneous activity significantly influences MER; for example, standing up

requires 40 per cent more energy than lying down (Meyer and Zentek 2005). However,

recommendations for MER do not always mention the degree of activity included, whilst it is

important that activity is taken into account when calculating the energy needs of an

individual animal. Indeed, average recommendations could be too high for about one out of

four dogs, since almost a quarter of the owners exercise their dogs less than three hours a

week (Slater et al. 1995). To avoid overfeeding and the risk of obesity, it may be better to

start from a lower calculated MER and add as needed to maintain optimal body weight.

4.3 Age

Apart from lactation and imposed activity during work or sport, age may be the single most-

important factor influencing MER of most household dogs (Finke 1994). Three groups of

adult dogs can be distinguished: dogs of one to two years old, the average adult dog (three

to seven years old) and dogs of more than seven years of age (Finke 1994 & 1991, Kienzle

& Rainbird 1991). Young adult dogs, under two years of age, require more energy because


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they are more active and despite a body weight similar to that of older individuals of the

same breed, may still be growing developing (Meyer & Zentek 2005, Rainbird & Kienzle

1989). Older animals need fewer calories because of decreased activity (Finke 1991, Meyer

& Zentek 2005). In some dogs, however, calorie needs may further decreased as a

consequence of an increase in subcutaneous fat and a decrease in body temperature (Meyer

& Zentek 2005). Dogs over seven years of age may need 10 - 15 per cent less energy than

at three to seven years (Finke 1994, Kienzle & Rainbird 1991). Therefore, practical

recommendations should always be related to age (Finke 1994, Gesellschaft für

Ernährungsphysiologie 1989a). The age at which a dog can be considered older and their

activity decreases can differ according to breed and between individuals. Most of the

assessed scientific work uses the age of seven years as a cut-off point, but this should not be

regarded as a general rule.

4.4 Breed & Type

It has been shown that some breeds such as Newfoundland dogs and huskies have

relatively lower energy requirements, while Great Danes have a MER above the average

(Kienzle & Rainbird 1991, Rainbird & Kienzle 1989, Zentek & Meyer 1992). Breed-specific

needs probably reflect differences in temperament, resulting in higher or lower activity, as

well as variation in stature or insulation capacity of skin and hair coat, which influences the

degree of heat loss. However, when data are corrected for age, inter-breed differences

become less important (Finke 1994). Yet NRC 2006 reports Newfoundland dogs, Great

Danes and terriers as breeds with energy requirements outlying the predictive range (NRC

2006a).

4.5 Thermoregulation and Housing

Cool environment increases animals’ energy expenditure (Blaza 1982, Finke 1991, Meyer &

Zentek 2005, NRC 1985, Walters et al.1993). When kept outside in winter, dogs may need

10 to 90 per cent more calories than during summer.

Energy needed for maintaining body temperature is minimal at a temperature called the

thermo-neutral zone (TNZ). The TNZ is species and breed specific and is lower when the

thermal insulation is better. The TNZ has been estimated to be 15-20°C for long-haired dog

breeds and 20-25°C for short haired dog breeds; it may be as low as 10-15°C for Alaskan

Huskies (Kleiber 1961b, Männer 1991, Meyer & Zentek 2005, Zentek & Meyer 1992).

Besides insulation capacity, the energy expenditure also depends on differences in stature,

behaviour and activity during cold weather, and degree of acclimatisation (Finke 1991, Meyer

& Zentek 2005, NRC 1985, Zentek & Meyer 1992), as well as on air movement and air


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humidity (McNamara 1989, Meyer & Zentek 2005). Animals kept together may decrease the

rate of heat loss by huddling together; this phenomenon is very important for neonates

(Kleiber 1961b).

During exposure to heat, the basal metabolic rate cannot be lowered (Ruckebusch et al.

1984). If the environmental temperature increases above the upper critical temperature

(UCT), the animal has to get rid of the heat by either increasing blood flow to the surface

(vasodilatation) or enhanced evaporation of water (panting), which also costs energy (Kleiber

1961b). Vasodilatation becomes ineffective when the environmental is equal to the rectal

temperature (Kleiber 1961b). The UCT for adult dogs seems to be 30 to 35 °C (NRC 2006b).

Individually housed dogs, with little opportunity to move, may have daily energy requirements

(DER) as low as 70 kcal ME/kg0.75. When housed in kennels together with other dogs and a

lot of mutual interaction, which stimulates activity, DER may rise to over 144 kcal ME/kg0.75

(NRC 2006a).

Diet-induced thermogenesis plays a small role; it represents about 10 per cent of the daily

energy expenditure in dogs. It increases with diets rich in protein and is greater in dogs fed

four meals per day than in dogs fed once daily (NRC 2006a).

5. Practical recommendations for daily energy intake by dogs and cats in different physiological states

As mentioned before, it is impossible to have one equation which expresses the energy

requirements for every individual animal. Since the energy requirement of an individual

animal may differ from the average shown in the tables, these recommendations should only

be used as starting points, and the owner has to adapt the amount when the animal tend to

lose or gain weight.

5.1. Dogs

Tables 2-4 provide practical recommendations for maintenance energy requirements (MER)

of adult dogs at different ages (TABLE 2), energy needed in relation to activity (TABLE 3) or

for growth and reproduction (TABLE 4).

5.1.1. Maintenance energy requirements

Table 2. Practical recommendations for MER in dogs at different ages

Age Average Range

Years kcal ME/kg0.75 kcal ME/kg0.75

1 – 2 132 125-140

3 – 7 115 100-130

> 7 (senior dogs) 100 80-120


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Obese prone adults ≤ 90

Breed specific differences:

Great Danes 200 200-250

Newfoundlands 105 80-132

Männer K 1990 & 1991; Finke MD 1994 & 1991; Walters LM et al. 1993; NRC 2006a.

The values shown in Table 2 are only starting points, the amount of energy a particular dog will finally need is significantly influenced by other factors such as activity, environment, breed, temperament, insulation characteristics of skin and hair coat, body condition or disease.

Table 2 provides MER at different ages without taking into account the degree of activity.

However, some young adult dogs may have a sedentary lifestyle and need fewer calories

than the average shown in table 2, whereas older dogs (> 7 years of age) which are still

playing and running will need more energy than indicated. Table 3 provides an example of

the daily requirements of dogs at different levels of activity. Although mainly based on data

from one breed (border collies), table 3 is a good alternative to table 2 to estimate the energy

requirements of adult dogs in relation to their level of activity.

Table 3. Recommendations for DER in relation to activity

Activity level kcal ME/kg0.75 kJ ME/kg0.75

Low activity (< 1 h/day) (e.g. walking on the lead) 100 418

Moderate activity (1 - 3 h/day) (e.g. playing, off the lead) 125 523

High activity (3 - 6 h/day) (working dogs, e.g. sheep dogs) 150 -175 628 – 732

High activity under extreme conditions (racing sled dogs

168 km/d in extreme cold) 860-1240 3600-5190

Burger 1994 and NRC 2006b.

In addition, when dogs are housed at an ambient temperature, which is below or over their

specific thermo-neutral zone, MER increases by 2-5 kcal (8-21 kJ) per kg0.75 for every degree

centigrade (NRC 2006b).

5.1.2. Growth and reproduction Energy requirements for lactation depend on the litter size. Except for bitches with only one

or two puppies, lactating bitches should be fed ad libitum. Table 4 provides equations to

calculate the average energy needs of lactating bitches at different stages of lactation.

Table 4. Average energy requirements during growth and reproduction in dogs


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Puppies Age Energy requirement

Newborn puppies 25 kcal/100 g BW

Up to 50 % of adult weight 210 kcal/kg0,75

50 to 80 % of adult weight 175 kcal/kg0,75

80 to 100 % of adult weight 140 kcal/kg0,75

Bitches Reproduction phase Energy requirement

Gestation* first 4weeks of gestation 130 kcal/kg BW0,75

last 5 weeks of gestation 130 kcal/kg BW0,75 + 26 /kg BW

Lactation **

1 to 4 puppies 132/kg BW0,75+ 24n x kg BW x L

Lactating bitch, 5 to 8 puppies 132/kg BW0,75+ (96 + 12m) x kg BW x L

* Gesellschaft für Ernährungsphysiologie 1989a; ** NRC 2006a & 2006c, n = number of puppies; m = number of puppies between 5 and 8; L = 0.75 in week 1 of lactation; 0.95 in week 2; 1.1 in week 3 and 1.2 in week 4

Overfeeding puppies can result in skeletal deformities especially in large and giant breeds

(Dämmrich 1991, Kealy et al. 1992; Meyer & Zentek 1992; Richardson & Toll 1993).

Therefore, puppies should never be fed ad libitum and weight gain closely monitored.

5.2. Cats Owing to the small variation in adult body weights, the energy needs of cats can be

expressed per kg BW instead of per kg metabolic weight. In addition, if metabolic weight is

used to calculate MER with the intra-specific allometric coefficient of 0.67 proposed by

Heusner in 1991 should be used (NRC 2006a), which has recently been confirmed to be a

more accurate than the 0.75 (Nguyen et al. 2001; Edtstadtler-Pietsch 2003).

The equation of 100 kcal (418 kJ) ME per kg0.67 proposed by NRC 2006 corresponds with a

daily energy intake of about 60-70 kcal (250-293 kJ) ME per kg body weight. Although NRC

specifies that this equation is only valid for cats with a lean body condition, many lean cats

may need less energy (Riond et al. 2003, Wichert et al. 2007). Particularly for neutered cats

and cats living indoors energy requirements may be substantially lower. Therefore it is

justified to recommend a range that starts at 80 kcal (335 kJ) ME per kg0.67 [about 50-60 kcal

(209-250 kJ) ME per kg body weight].


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Table 5. Average daily energy requirements of adult cats*

Gender / Age Kcal ME / kg0.67 kcal ME / kg BW

Intact male & female 80-100 50–70

Neutered male & female 35-55

* NRC 2006 a & c, Riond et al. 2003, Wichert et al. 2007

Table 6: Average energy requirements during growth and reproduction in cats

Kittens Age Times MER

Up to 4 months 2.0-2.5

4 to 9 months 1.75-2.0

9 to 12 months 1.5

Queens Reproduction phase

Gestation 140 kcal/kg0.67 BW

Lactation < 3 kittens MER + 18 x kg BW x L

3-4 kittens MER + 60 x kg BW x L

> 4 kittens MER + 70 x kg BW x L

L = 0.9 in weeks 1-2 of lactation; 1.2 in weeks 3-4; 1.1 in week 5; 1 in week 6; and 0.8 in week 7 (Loveridge 1986 and 1987, Rainbird 1988, Kienzle 1998, Dobenecker et al. 1998, Debraekeleer 2000;

Nguyen et al. 2001, NRC 2006a & c)

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2000; 22 (9a): 96.

47. NRC. Chapter 3: Energy. In: Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats. National Academies Press,

Washington, DC, USA, 2006a: 28-48.

48. NRC. Chapter 11: Physical Activity and Environment. Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats.

National Academies Press, Washington, DC, USA, 2006b: 258-312.

49. NRC. Chapter 15: Nutrient requirements and dietary nutrient concentrations. In: Nutrient

requirements of dogs and cats. National Academies Press, Washington, DC, USA, 2006c: 354-

370.

50. NRC. Nutrient Requirements and signs of deficiency. In: Nutrient Requirements of Dogs. National

Academy Press, Washington, DC 1985a 2-5

51. NRC. Composition of ingredients of dog foods. In: Nutrient Requirements of Dogs. National

Academy Press, Washington, DC 1985b 40-41.

52. NRC. Table 3. In: Nutrient Requirements of Cats. National Academy Press, Washington, DC

1986: 43.

53. Pellet PL. Food energy requirements in humans Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1990; 51: 711-722.

54. Radicke B. Effect of nutrient composition of complete diets on maintenance energy requirements,

energy accretion and energy utilization for accretion and crude protein requirements of adult cats.

Doctoral thesis, Freie Universität Berlin, 1995.

55. Rainbird AL, Kienzle E. Untersuchungen zum Energiebedarf des Hundes in Abhängigkeit von

Rassezugehörigkeit und Alter. Kleintierpraxis, 1989; 35: 149-158.

56. Rainbird AL. Feeding throughout life. In: Dog & Cat Nutrition 2nd edition Edney ATB, Oxford, UK:

Pergamon Press 1988; 75-96.

57. Richardson DC, Toll PW. Relationship of Nutrition to Developmental Skeletal Disease in Young

Dogs. Veterinary Clinical Nutrition of Companion Animals, Adelaide, Australia 1993: 33.

58. Riond JL, Stiefel M, Wenk C, Wanner M. Nutrition studies on protein and energy in domestic cats.

J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 2003; 87: 221-228.

59. Ruckebusch Y, Phaneuf L-Ph, Dunlop R. Body temperature and energy exchange. In: Physiology

of small and large animals. Philadelphia, PA: B.C. Decker, 1991: 387-398.

60. Slater M R, Robinson L E, Zoran D L et al. Diet and exercise patterns in pet dogs. JAVMA 1995;

207 (2): 186-190.

61. Stiefel M. Effect of three different diets on energy and protein metabolism of adult cats with special

consideration of physical activity. Doctoral thesis, University of Zürich, 1999.

62. Toll PW, Richardson DC, Jewell DE, Berryhill SA. The Effect of Feeding Method on Growth and

Body Composition in Young Puppies. In: Abstract book of Waltham Symposium on the Nutrition of

Companion Animals, Adelaide, Australia 1993: 33.

63. Walters LM, Ogilvie GK, Salman MD, et al. Repeatability of energy expenditure measurements in

clinically normal dogs by use of indirect calorimetry. Am. J. Vet. Res. 1993; 54 (11): 1881-1885.

64. Wichert B, Müller L, Gebert S, et al. Additional data on energy requirements of young adult cats

measured by indirect calorimetry. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 2007; 91: 278-281.


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65. Zentek J, Meyer H. Energieaufnahme adulter Deutscher Doggen. Berl. Münch. Tierärztl. Wsch

1992, 105, 325-327.

66. Zentek J. et al. Über den Einfluss einer unterschiedlichen Energieversorgung wachsender Doggen

auf Köpermasse und Skelettentwicklung 3. Mitteilung: Klinisches Bild und chemische

Skelettuntersuchungen. Zbl Vet. Med. A 1995; 42 (1): 69-80.


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ANNEX II – TAURINE

Introduction

Taurine (2-Aminoethanesulfonic acid = NH2CH2-CH2-SO3H) is a β-aminosulfonic acid rather

than an α-carboxylic amino acid (Huxtable ‘92). It was first isolated from the bile of the ox

“Bos Taurus” and was named after it (Huxtable ‘92).

Dogs and cats exclusively use taurine to conjugate bile acids. In dogs the rate of taurine

synthesis appears to be adequate to meet the needs, if their food contains adequate

amounts of sulphur-containing amino acids. In cats, the ability to synthesize taurine is limited

and insufficient to compensate for the natural losses via the conjugated bile acid (taurocholic

acid) in the gastrointestinal tract. Hence taurine is an essential nutrient for the cat.

1 Cat Taurine deficiency can lead to feline central retinal degeneration, dilated cardiomyopathy and

reproductive failure. Taurine intake is considered to be adequate when plasma levels are

greater than 50-60 µmol/L (Pion et al. ‘87, Douglas et al. ’91, ) or the whole blood

concentration 200 µmol/L or higher (Fox ‘00).

In the late 1980s, the feeding of commercial cat foods containing levels of taurine that were

considered to be adequate [based on studies with purified diets (Burger et al. ’82, NRC ’86)]

resulted in low plasma taurine levels in cats, and were associated with retinal degeneration

and dilated cardiomyopathy (Pion et al.1987).

Taurine is not degraded by mammalian enzymes, but is excreted as such in the urine or in

the form of taurocholate or related bile acids via the gastrointestinal tract (Huxtable ’92, Odle

et al. ’93). However, balance studies have indicated that taurine is can be degraded by the

intestinal microflora (Morris et al. ’94). The composition of the cat food, as well as the type of

production process influence this intestinal degradation (Morris et al. ’94). Hickman et al.

showed that heat-processed cat foods resulted in lower taurine plasma levels and greater

losses compared to the same food but frozen-preserved (Hickman et al. ’90 & ’92). This was

the consequence of increased sensitivity of taurine to intestinal bacterial degradation owing

to the heat processing (Morris et al. ’94). For this reason the recommendation for taurine in

canned cat food is higher than that for dry food or purified diets.

2 Dog Healthy dogs synthesize sufficient taurine from dietary sulphur-containing amino acids such

as methionine and cysteine. Nevertheless, low plasma or low whole-blood taurine levels may

be seen in dogs fed non-supplemented very-low protein diets, or foods that are low in


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sulphur-containing amino acids or with poor availability of the sulphur-containing amino acids

(Sanderson et al. ’01, Backus et al. ‘03). Feeding certain lamb and rice foods may increase

the risk of a low-taurine status, because of lower bioavailability of sulphur-containing amino

acids and increased faecal losses of taurine possibly caused by rice bran (Backus et al. ’03,

Delaney et al. ’03, Fascetti et al. ’03, Torres et al. ’03).

In dogs, low plasma levels of taurine (<40µmol/L) may also predispose to dilated

cardiomyopathy (Pion et al. ‘98). However, some breeds seem to be more sensitive to

develop such side effects (Pion et al. ‘98), particularly Newfoundland dogs, in which the rate

of taurine synthesis is decreased (Backus et al. ’06). The addition of taurine to such foods or

increasing the intake of the precursors of taurine (methionine and cysteine) can prevent such

a decrease (Backus et al. ’03, Torres et al. ’03). In dogs, adequate levels of taurine are

values greater than 40µmol/L in plasma and greater than 200µmol/L in whole blood (Elliott et

al. 2000).

3 Conclusion The taurine values for cats, stated in the tables on pages 13, 14 and 15, are starting points.

Individual companies can have different levels of taurine in their products as long as they

ensure that the products maintain adequate blood value in the cat's body (plasma levels

should be greater than 50/60 µmol/l, > 200 µmol/L in whole blood). For dogs dietary taurine

is not essential, since dogs can synthesize taurine from sulphur amino acids, therefore dog

foods should formulated to maintain adequate body reserves of taurine (> 40µmol/L in

plasma and >200µmol/L in whole blood).

Analytical methods for taurine are given on page 28 (to be checked in the end).

References

1. Burger, I.H. and Barnett, K. C. The taurine requirement of the adult cat J. Small. Anim. Pract.

1982; 23: 533-537

2. Pion, Kittleson & Rogers Myocardial failure in cats associated with low plasma taurine: a

reversible cardiomyopathy Science 1987; 237: 764-768

3. Douglass, G.M., Fern E. B., Brown R. C. Feline plasma and whole blood taurine levels as

influenced by commercial dry and canned diets J. Nutr. 1991; 121: S179-S180.

4. Hickman M.A., Rogers Q.R., Morris J.G. Effect of Processing on Fate of Dietary [14C] Taurine in

Cats. J. Nutrition 1990; 120: 995-1000.

5. Hickman M.A., Rogers Q.R., Morris J.G. Taurine Balance is Different in Cats Fed Purified and

Commercial Diets. J. Nutr. 1992; 122: 553-559.

6. Huxtable RJ. Physiological actions of taurine. Physiological reviews; 1992: 72 (1): 101-163.


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7. Fox PR. Taurine deficiency dilated cardiomyopathy and idiopathic myocardial failure. In: Textbook

of Veterinary Internal Medicine. SJ Ettinger, EC Feldman Edits. 5th edition, WB Saunders

Company Philadelphia, PA. 2000: pp. 908-912.

8. Pion PD, Sanderson SL, and Kittleson MD. The effectiveness of taurine and levocarnitine in dogs

with heart disease. Vet Clin of North Am Small Anim Pract 1998; 1495-1514.

9. Morris JG, Rogers QR, Kim SW, Backus RC. Dietary taurine requirement of cats is determined by

microbial degradation of taurine in the gut. Vet. Clin. Nutr. 1994; 1 (3): 118-127.

10. Earle, K.E. and Smith, P.M. The effect of taurine content on the plasma taurine concentration of

the cat Br. J. Nutr. 1991; 66: 227-235.

11. Elliott DA, Marks SL, Cowgill L, et al. Am. J. 2000; 61: 869-.

12. Sanderson SL, Gross KL, Ogburn PN, et al. Effects of dietary fat and L-carnitine on plasma and

whole-blood taurine concentrations and cardiac function in healthy dogs fed protein-restricted

diets. Am J Vet Res. 2001; 62: 1616-1623.

13. Backus RC, Cohen G, Pion PD, et al. Taurine deficiency in Newfoundlands fed commercially

balanced diets. Journal of the American Medical Association 2003; 223 (8): 1130-1136.

14. Oddle J, Roach M, Baker DH. Taurine utilization by cats. J. Nutr. 1993; 123: 1932-1933.

15. Fascetti AJ, Reed JR, Rogers QR, and Backus RC, Taurine deficiency in dogs with dilated

cardiomyopathy: 12 cases (1997-2001). JAVMA 2003; 223 (8): 1137-1141.

16. Stratton-Phelps M, Backus RC, Rogers QR, and Fascetti AJ. Dietary rice bran decreases plasma

and whole-blood taurine in cats. J. Nutr. 2002; 132: 1745S-1747S.

17. Tôrres CL, Backus RC, Fascetti AJ, Rogers QR. Taurine status in normal dogs fed a commercial

diet associated with taurine deficiency and dilated cardiomyopathy. Journal of Animal Physiology

and Animal Nutrition 2003; 87: 359-372.

18. Delaney, S.J., Kass, P.H., Rogers, Q.R. and A.J. Fascetti. (2003) Plasma and whole blood taurine

in normal dogs of varying size fed commercially prepared food. Journal of Animal Physiology and

Animal Nutrition 87: 236-344.

19. Spitze A.R, Wong D.L, Rogers Q.R, Fascetti A.J. (2003) Taurine concentrations in animal feed

ingredients; cooking influences taurine content. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition

87: 251-262.

20. Backus RC. Low plasma taurine concentration in Newfound land dogs is associated with plasma

methionine and cyst(e)ine concentrations and low taurine synthesis. J. Nutr. 2006; 136: 2525-

2533.


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ANNEX III – ARGININE

The arginine requirement increases with increased protein content owing to its role as an

intermediate in the urea cycle. The NRC 2006 advises an extra 0.01 g arginine for every 1%

increase in protein (% DM) above the recommended allowance for all life stages in dogs, and

an extra 0.02 g arginine (dogs) for every 1% increase in protein for cats.

The following tables outline the arginine recommendations for various protein contents. All

values are stated as g/100 g DM.

DOGS

Protein content

Arginine level

adult Growth Early growth Reproductiong/100g DM g/100g DM g/100g DM g/100g DM g/100g DM

18 0.52 20 0.54 0.69 22 0.56 0.71

22.5 0.57 0.72 0.79 0.79 25 0.59 0.74 0.82 0.82 30 0.64 0.79 0.87 0.87 35 0.69 0.84 0.92 0.92 40 0.74 0.89 0.97 0.97 45 0.79 0.94 1.02 1.02 50 0.84 0.99 1.07 1.07 55 0.89 1.04 1.12 1.12

CATS

Protein content

Arginine level

All life stages g/100g DM g/100g DM

25 1.00 28 1.06 30 1.10 35 1.20 40 1.30 45 1.40 50 1.50 55 1.60 60 1.70


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ANNEX IV – VITAMINS

Conversion factors - Vitamin source to activity Vitamin Unit

declared

Vitamin source used Vitamin activity

Vitamin A IU Retinol activity

vitamin A alcohol (retinol) 2, 3 0.3 µg = 1 IU

1.0 mg = 3,333 IU

vitamin A acetate 0.344 µg = 1 IU

vitamin A propionate 0.359 µg = 1 IU

vitamin A palmitate 0.55 µg = 1 IU

vitamin A alcohol (retinol) 1.0 µg = 1 RE

RE = Retinol Equivalent

Provitamin A (β-carotene) (dogs) 4 1.0 mg = 833 IU

Vitamin D Cholecalciferol

IU Vitamin D activity

vitamins D3 & D2 1, 3 0.025 µg = 1 IU

1 µg = 40 IU

Vitamin E - Tocopherol

IU Vitamin E activity

dl-α-tocopheryl acetate

(all-rac-α-tocopheryl acetate)

1 mg = 1 IU

Bio-equivalence of various

tocopherols:

d-α-tocopherol 1 mg = 1.49 IU

d-α-tocopherol acetate 1 1 mg = 1.36 IU

dl-α-tocopherol 1 mg = 1.10 IU

dl-α-tocopheryl acetate 1 mg = 1.00 IU

dl-β-tocopherol 1 mg = 0.33 IU

dl-δ-tocopherol 1 mg = 0.25 IU

dl-γ-tocopherol 1 mg = 0.01 IU

Vitamin B1 - Thiamine

mg Thiamine

thiamine mononitrate 1 mg = 0.92 mg

thiamine hydrochloride 1 mg = 0.89 mg

D-Pantothenic acid

IU Pantothenic acid


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calcium D-pantothenate 1 mg = 0.92 mg

calcium DL-pantothenate 1 mg = 0.41 -

0.52mg

Vitamin B6 - Pyridoxine

mg Pyridoxine

pyridoxine hydrochloride 1 mg = 0.89 mg

Niacin mg Niamin

nicotinic acid 1 mg = 1 mg

nicotinamide 1 mg = 1 mg

Choline mg Choline

choline chloride (basis choline ion) 1 mg = 0.75 mg

choline chloride

(basis choline hydroxyl-analogue)

1 mg = 0.87 mg

Vitamin K3 - Menadione

mg Menadione

menadione sodium bisulphite

(MSB)

1 mg = 0.51 mg

menadione pyrimidinol bisulphite

(MPB)

1 mg = 0.45 mg

menadione nicotinamid bisulphite

(MNB)

1 mg = 0.46 mg

REFERENCES 1. McDowell Vitamins in animal and human nutrition. 2nd edition Iowa State University Press 2000

2. Vitamins in animal nutrition, Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Wirkstoffe in der Tierernährung e. V. (AWT),

2002.

3. NRC. Table 2. In: Nutrient Requirements of Cats. National Academy Press, Washington, DC

1986: 42.

4. NRC. Composition of ingredients of dog foods. In: Nutrient Requirements of Dogs. National

Academy Press, Washington, DC 1985: 40-41.


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ANNEX V – ALLERGENS IN PET FOOD

I. Introduction Adverse food reactions in cats and dogs are mainly expressed by pruritus and gastrointestinal signs. Acute anaphylactic reactions such as those seen in a minority of people who are allergic to nuts and some other foods have not been reported in relation to pet food. II. Definitions

1. Adverse reactions to food

An adverse reaction to a food is an abnormal or exaggerated clinical response to the ingestion of a food or food additive. It may be immune mediated (called food allergy or hypersensitivity) or not immune mediated (called food intolerance) (Reedy et al. 1997).

A classification of adverse reactions to food

Source: ILSI Monograph Food Allergy 2003

Toxic Pharmacological

Occurs only insome susceptible

individuals

Non Ig Emediated

food allergy

May occur in allindividuals whoeat a sufficient

quantity of the food

Microbiological

psychological

Ig Emediated

food allergy

hypersensitivity

Adverse reactionto food

intolerance

Unknownmechanism

Metabolic abnormality

Aversion,avoidance and

Foodhypersensitivity

Non-allergicfood Food allergy

2. Food allergy

Allergy immune-mediated reaction resulting in one or more of the clinical signs described under “IV. Adverse reactions to food in dogs and cats“


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Anaphylaxis Anaphylaxis is an acute life-threatening multi-system allergic reaction resulting from exposure to an offending agent. In people, foods, insect stings, and medication are the most common causes (Tang 2003, Oswalt et al. 2007, Wang et al. 2007). The term has been variably employed to denote a defined IgE-mediated antigen-induced reaction or as a descriptive term delineating a severe, abrupt, untoward event of un-stated immunologic significance (Wasserman 1983).

3. Non-allergic food hypersensitivity

Food idiosyncrasy: a non-immune mediated reaction to a food component that causes clinical signs resembling an immune-mediated reaction to food (food allergy)

Metabolic reaction: Food intolerance. An adverse reaction caused by a metabolic defect (e.g. lactose intolerance).

5. All individuals susceptible if sufficient quantity eaten

Toxic reaction: Reaction to a toxic food component (e.g. onions)

Microbiological reaction: Reaction to a toxin released by contaminating organisms (e.g. mycotoxins)

Pharmacologic reaction: adverse reaction to a food as result of a naturally derived or added chemical producing a drug-like or pharmacological effect in the host such as methylxanthines in chocolate or pseudo-allergic reactions caused by high histamine levels in not well-preserved scromboid fish (tuna or salmon).

Dietary indiscretion: Adverse reaction resulting from such behaviour as gluttony, pica or ingestion of various indigestible materials or garbage.

III. Food allergy in man Food allergies are the single most common cause of generalised anaphylaxis seen in

hospital emergency departments, accounting for about one third of cases seen (twice the

number of cases seen for bee stings) (Sampson ‘99). It is estimated that about 100 fatal

cases of food-induced anaphylaxis occur in the US each year (Sampson ‘99). The most

common allergens causing anaphylaxis in people are nuts, shellfish, milk, egg white,

legumes, certain fruits, grains, chocolate, and fish (Wasserman ’83).

As far as we are aware of, cases of allergies in humans related to ingestion or contact with


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pet foods are not reported in the literature.

IV. Adverse reactions to food in cats and dogs The predominant clinical sign in dogs and cats (almost 100% of the cases) is pruritus

(itching) (Rosser ’90, White ’86, White ’89, Scott et al. 2001). The pruritus can be generalised

or localised, sometimes being restricted to recurrent otitis. Other dermatological changes

such seborrhoea, recurrent pyoderma or Malassezia can be seen in allergic dogs (White ’86,

Scott et al. 2001). In allergic cats eosinophilic plaque, miliary dermatitis or alopecia caused

by excessive grooming can the only clinical sign present (White ’86, Scott et al. 2001).

An estimated 10 to 15 % of the cases of food allergy in dogs and cats are believed to result

into gastrointestinal (GI) signs such as: diarrhoea and vomiting (Scott et al. 2001). However,

the GI signs can be very discrete (e.g. more frequent bowel movements (Scott et al. 2001)

and their prevalence may be underestimated (Loeffler ).

In cats and dogs immune mediated reactions are seldom confirmed in practice. Therefore,

the term adverse reactions to food is generally accepted and used for cats and dogs.

In dogs and cats, adverse reactions to food are only diagnosed through the elimination of the

food component (eviction diet) following either dermatological or digestive symptoms (or

both). Ideally this should be confirmed by a challenge (reintroduction of the suspected

component) after clinical signs have disappeared when feeding the eviction diet. (Wills J. ’94,

Helm 2002)

Adverse reactions to food are deemed to account for about 1-5 % of all skin conditions in

dogs and 1-6% of all feline dermatoses (animal presented to veterinary practices) (Reedy et

al. ‘97). Most food ingredients have the potential to induce adverse reactions because they

contain intact proteins.

Now, intact proteins are part of all products made by our industry including all pet foods

(except special diets with hydrolysed proteins as the sole source of protein). All products

containing intact protein can potentially cause allergic/adverse reactions in predisposed

animals (ref 13). There are proteins against which dogs and cats seem to react more often

(Wills ‘94). Milk, beef, eggs, cereals and dairy products are mentioned most often whereas

more controlled studies mentioned wheat, soy, chicken and maize as the most important

allergens. However, it is not always clear whether these data are taken over from human

literature or not. In addition, the data do not always enable to see whether the high incidence

is not simply the consequence of the fact that those proteins have been eaten more

frequently by dogs and cats.

Through veterinarians, special diets made with selected protein sources or hydrolysed


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proteins are available for dogs and cats suffering of adverse reactions to food; the

formulation and the label declarations for those foods are regulated by the specific EU

legislation on dietetic foods for animals.

V. Conclusions • Most protein containing ingredients have the potential to induce allergic reactions if they

are regularly fed to dogs and cats. • Anaphylactic reactions to food as seen in humans are not, as far as we know, reported in

literature relating to cats and dogs. The hallmark of adverse reaction in dogs and cats to food is pruritus.

References 1) Reedy LLM, Miller Jr. WH, Willemse T. Chapter 7. Food Hypersensitivity. In: Allergic Diseases of

Dogs and Cats 2nd edition W B Saunders Company Ltd. London; 1997: 173 – 188.

2) Hall E J. Gastro-intestinal aspects of food allergy: A review. Journal of Small Animal Practice

1994; 35: 145 – 152.

3) Halliwell R E W. Comparative aspects of food intolerance. Veterinary Medicine 1992; 87: 893 –

899.

4) Halliwell R E W. Management of dietary hypersensitivity in the dog. Journal of Small Animal

Practice 1992; 33: 156 – 160.

5) Wasserman S I. Anaphylaxis Chapter 34. In: Allergy Principles and Practice E. Middleton, Jr., CE

Reed, & EF Ellis Edits. The C.V. Mosby Company St. Louis, second edition, 1983: 689 – 699

6) Sampson HA. Food allergy. Part 1: Immunopathogenesis and clinical disorders. The Journal of

Allergy and Clinical Immunology 1999; 103 (5): 717 - 728.

7) Wills J, Harvey R. Diagnosis and management of food allergy and intolerance in dogs and cats

Aust Vet J 1994 Oct; 71(10):322 – 326.

8) Helm RM. Food allergy animal models: an overview. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2002 May; 964:139-50.

9) Rosser EJ. Proceedings of the ACVD 1990.

10) White SD. Food hypersensitivity in 30 dogs J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1986; 188 (7): 695-698.

11) White SD, Sequoia D. Food hypersensitivity in cats: 14 cases (1982-1987). J. Am. Vet. Assoc.

1989; 194 (12): 692 - 695.

12) Hall EJ. Gastro-intestinal aspects of food allergy: A review. Journal of Small Animal Practice

1994; 35: 145 – 152.

13) McDonald JM. Food trial: to do or not to do? TNAVC 1997 Proceedings

14) Scott DW, Miller WH, Griffin CE. Chapter 8. Skin immune system and allergic skin diseases In: Muller & Kirk’s Small Animal Dermatology. 6th edition WB Saunders Company Philadelphia, PA.

2001: pp. 543-666.

15) Tang AW. A practical guide to anaphylaxis. Am Fam Physician 2003; 68 (7): 1325-1332.

16) Oswalt ML, Kemp SF. Anaphylaxis: office management and prevention Immunol Allergy Clin North

Am 2007; 27 (2): 177-191.


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17) Wang J, Sampson HA. Food Anaphylaxis. Clin Exp Allergy. 2007; 37 (5): 651-660.


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ANNEX VI – SPECIFIC FOOD HAZARDS

Annex VI provides some practical information about some common human foods (such as

raisins, grapes, onions, garlic and chocolate) with documented adverse effects when given to

dogs or cats either as a treat or when left over from the table are shared with pets. This

annex lists signs that should alert pet owners and combines information that is not easily

found in one place or has only been available recently. There may be other foods that are

potentially hazardous when fed to dogs or cats, but they are not yet documented.

1. GRAPE AND RAISIN TOXICITY IN DOGS

Background

Since 1989 the Animal Poison Control Centre (APCC) of the American Society for the

Prevention of Cruelty to Animals has recorded cases of poisoning in dogs that had eaten

grapes (Vitis spp) or raisins. From April 2003 to April 2004 the APCC managed 140 cases,

of which 50 dogs developed clinical signs and seven died (ASPCA, 2004). Cases have been

reported in the USA and the UK (Eubig et al. 2005, Penny et al. 2003)

Clinical signs and pathology

Affected dogs typically suffer gastrointestinal upset followed by acute renal failure (ARF).

The initial signs of grape or raisin toxicity are vomiting (100% of reported cases) followed by

lethargy, anorexia, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, ataxia, and weakness (Eubig et al. 2005). In

the majority of dogs, vomiting, anorexia, lethargy and diarrhoea occur within the first 24

hours of exposure, in some cases vomiting starts as early as 5 to 6 hours after ingestion

(Eubig et al. 2005). The vomit and or faeces may contain partially digested grapes or raisins

or swollen raisins. Classic signs of ARF can develop within 24 hours or up to several days

later. These include substantial increases in blood urea and serum creatinine, as well as in

the calcium x phosphorus product, serum phosphorus and later in total calcium level (Eubig

et al. 2005). If the condition progresses, the dog eventually is unable to pass urine. At this

stage the prognosis is generally poor and usually a decision is taken to euthanize the animal.

The most consistent histopathological lesions reported were diffuse renal tubular

degeneration, especially in the proximal tubules (Eubig et al. 2005). Mineralization of necrotic

renal structures has been reported, but also tubular cell regeneration in some cases.

Mineralization and/or congestion of extra-renal tissues and organs have also been observed

(Eubig et al. 2005). It has to be pointed out, however, that many dogs never develop AFR


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after ingestion of raisins or grapes.

Toxic agent

The toxic agent (or agents) has so far defied detection. Analysis for a variety of substances

has proved negative, including mycotoxins, heavy metals, pesticides and vitamin D3 (AFIP

2003, Eubig et al. 2005). It is postulated that the cause may be a nephrotoxin or

anaphylactic shock leading to renal problems (AFIP 2003). Excess sugar intake has also

been suggested, resulting in a disturbance of sugar metabolism, but this seems unlikely as

dogs are not known for susceptibilities to high sugar intake.

The poisoning seems to occur with grapes and raisins of all types: those purchased from a

store or grown at home, grape pressings from wineries and seedless and seeded varieties

(Eubig et al. 2005). Grape extract is not considered a threat; the grape or raisin itself has to

be eaten for poisoning to occur (McKnight, 2005).

The lowest intake that has so far been reported to cause poisoning is around 2.8g of raisins

per kg bodyweight (BW) and 19.6 g of grapes per kg BW; one dog became ill after only

eating 10 to 12 grapes (Eubig et al. 2005). The severity of the illness does not seem to be

dose-related (Eubig et al. 2005). Even a large dog of 40 kg may need to eat only 120 g to be

at risk and as cartons of raisins typically contain 500g this amount could be ingested in one

session. At present it appears that only dogs are affected – the susceptibility of other

species is unknown.

Treatment

Immediate treatment consists of inducing emesis and lavage of the stomach to remove the

poison, followed by decontamination using activated charcoal to inactivate the remaining

poison. Aggressive fluid therapy is essential to increase the chances of survival, and should

be maintained long enough (at least 48 hours). Haemodialysis and diuretics such as

furosemide have been recommended to treat the ARF and oliguria (McKnight, 2005), but do

not seem to increase survival substantially (Eubig et al. 2005).

References

1. AFIP. (2003) Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Department of Veterinary Pathology,

Conference 7, 29 October.

2. ASPCA. (2004) Raisins and grapes can be toxic to dogs. ASPCA Animal Poison Control Centre

Issues Nationwide Update, 6 July.

3. Eubig, P.A., Brady, M.S., Gwaltney-Brant S.M., et al. (2005) Acute renal failure in dogs after the

ingestion of grapes or raisins: A retrospective evaluation of 43 dogs (1992-2002). Journal of

Veterinary Internal Medicine 19, 663-674.

4. McKnight, K. (2005). Grape and raisin toxicity in dogs. Veterinary Technician, February issue,


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135-136.

5. Penny, D., Henderson, S.M., Brown, P.J. (2003) Raisin poisoning in a dog. Veterinary Record 152

(10), 308.

6. Gwaltney-Brant, S.M., Holding, J.K., Donaldson, C.W., et al. (2001) Renal failure associated with

ingestion of grapes or raisins in dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 218

(10), 1555-1556.

2. CHOCOLATE TOXICITY

Background

Cocoa poisoning was highlighted during the Second World War, when pigs, calves, dogs and

horses were poisoned because by-products of cacao beans were used to supplement feeds

as a result of a surplus.

Chocolate is palatable to most dogs, but it is not an innocent snack being relatively toxic. In

dogs signs of toxicity may develop within hours after consumption.

In addition, chocolate cakes and other cocoa containing human foods are best avoided. It is

not surprising that most accidents are reported during holiday periods such as Christmas and

Easter (Campbell 2001). Chocolate treats specially developed for dogs are not toxic as they

are made from ingredients that contain low or no theobromine.

No reports of chocolate poisoning in cats have been published to our knowledge, probably as

a consequence of their different eating habits.

Toxic agent

The principle toxic components of chocolate and cocoa products are the methylxanthine

alkaloids, of which theobromine is the major toxin (Campbell 2001). As long ago as 1917,

cacao bean shell intoxication in horses was attributed to theobromine by French researchers.

Theobromine is particularly toxic to dogs, because its elimination is very slow compared with

the rate in other species such as man (Hooser ’84, Glauberg ’83). The half life of

theobromine in dogs is about 17.5 hours (Farbman 2001, Hooser & Beasley ’86).

Theobromine undergoes enterohepatic recirculation resulting in an accumulative effect

(Campbell 2001, Farbman 2001). As a consequence, repeated intakes of smaller (non-toxic)

quantities may still cause intoxication. The slow elimination of theobromine is also

responsible for decreased survival rate in affected dogs and death may still occur at a stage

when clinical signs are already attenuating (Strachan & Bennett ’94).

Caffeine is another methylxanthine present in cocoa products, and may contribute to the

toxicity. However, the levels of caffeine in cocoa products are much lower than those of

theobromine and the half life is much shorter (4.5 hours) (Farbman 2001, Hooser & Beasley

’86).


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The LD50 of theobromine has been reported to be between 250mg and 500mg per kg body

weight (BW); lethal cases have been seen when dogs ingested amounts of chocolate that

reflect an estimated theobromine intake of 90-115 mg/kg BW (Glauberg ’83, Hooser &

Beasley ’86, Carson TL 2001). The level of theobromine content of chocolate varies, with dark chocolate containing the

highest level (TABLE 1). Unsweetened baking chocolate should definitely be kept out of

reach of dogs, since it contains up to 20 mg of theobromine per gram. Dogs also voluntarily

eat cocoa powder, in which the average theobromine level varies from 10 to 30 mg/g (Sutton

‘81). About four grams of cocoa powder per kg BW may be sufficient to kill a dog (Faliu ’91).

Increasingly cocoa shell mulches are used to prevent weeds and for landscaping in gardens.

They are often attractive to dogs because of the chocolate smell and therefore may be a

potential cause of theobromine poisoning (Hansen et al. 2003).

Table 1. Theobromine content of different types of chocolate and cocoa products (mg/g) (Farbman DB 2001, Gwaltney-Brant S. 2001, Hansen et al. 2003, Shively et al. 1984, Carson 2001)

White chocolate 0.009 - 0.035 Cocoa powder 4.5 – 30

Milk chocolate 1.5 – 2.0 Cocoa beans 10 – 53

Sweet to Semisweet dark chocolate 3.6 – 8.4 Cocoa shell mulches 2 – 30

Bitter chocolate, chocolate liquor, baking

chocolate

12 – 19.6 Coffee beans 0

Clinical signs

In dogs methylxanthines cause stimulation of the central nervous system with tachycardia

(fast heart beating), respiratory stress and hyperactivity (Campbell 2001, Farbman 2001).

The clinical signs include vomiting, diarrhoea, agitation, muscular tremors and weakness,

cardiac arrhythmias, convulsions, and, in severe cases, renal damage, coma and death

(Glauberg ’83, Decker ’72, Nicholson ’95, Farbman 2001, Hooser & Beasley ‘86). Death may

occur within six to 15 hours after intake of excessive amounts of chocolate or cocoa products

(Glauberg ‘83, Decker ’72, Drolet et al. ‘84).

At necropsy, congestion in liver, kidneys, pancreas and the gastro-intestinal tract are seen,

as well as unclotted haemorrhagic fluid in peritoneal and thoracic cavities (Sutton ’81,

Strachan & Bennett ‘94).

Treatment

No specific antidote is available for theobromine, only symptomatic treatment. In order to

minimise the absorption of theobromine vomiting can be induced immediately after ingestion.

Subsequently lavage can be applied with warm water to keep the chocolate liquid. Repeated


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doses of activated charcoal can then be used to bind the remaining material and prevent

further absorption and increase excretion (Glauberg ’83, Hooser & Beasley ’86, Farbman

2001, Carson 2001).

References

1. Benzel HA (1996) Chocolate poisoning in dogs. Veterinary Technician 135 & 184.

2. Campbell A. (2001) Chocolate intoxication in dogs. UK Vet, 6 (6): 40-42.

3. Carson TL, (2001) Methylxanthines. In: Small Animal Toxicology. Peterson ME, Talcott PA, edits.

WB Saunders Company, Philadelphia, PA. pp. 563-570.

4. Decker RA, Myers GH. (1972) Theobromine Poisoning in a Dog. JAVMA, 161 (2), 198-199.

5. Drolet R, Arendt TD, Stowe CM. (1984) Cacao bean shell poisoning in a dog. JAVMA, 185 (8):

902.

6. Faliu L. (1991) Les intoxications du chien par les plantes et produits d’origine végétale. Pratique

médicale et chirurgicale de l’animal de compagnie, 26 (6), 549-562.

7. Farbman DB. (2001) Death by chocolate? Methylxanthine toxicosis. Veterinary Technician 145-

147.

8. Glauberg A, Blumenthal HP. (1983) Chocolate Poisoning in the Dog. JAAHA, 19 (3/4), 246-248.

9. Gwaltney-Brant S. (2001) Chocolate intoxication. Toxicology Brief - Veterinary Medicine

Publishing Group.

10. Hansen S, Trammel H, Dunayer E, et al. (2003) Cocoa bean mulch as a cause of methylxanthine

toxicosis in dogs. NACCT - Poster.

11. Hooser SB, Beasley VR. (1986) Methylxanthine poisoning (chocolate and caffeine toxicosis). In:

Current Veterinary Therapy IX Small Animal Practice ed. RW Kirk, WB Saunders Company

pp.191-192.

12. Hoskam EG, Haagsma J. (1974) Chocoladevergiftiging bij twee dashonden (Teckels) met

dodelijke afloop. Tijdschrift voor Diergeneeskunde 99 (10), 523- 525.

13. Humphreys DJ, Clarck ML. (1991) In: Canine Medicine and Therapeutics 3rd edit Chandler;

Thompson, Sutton Oxford Blackwell Scientific Publications. pp: 723-738.

14. Nicholson SS. (1995) Toxicology. In: Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine 3rd edit. S.J.

Ettinger, E.C. Feldman, W.B. Saunders Company, pp. 312 – 326.

15. Shively CA, Tarka SM (1984) Methylxanthine composition and consumption patterns of cocoa and

chocolate products. Prog Clin Biol Res. 158: 149-178.

16. Strachan ER, Bennett A. (1994) Theobromine poisoning in dogs Vet Rec. 284 (letter).

17. Sutton RH. (1981) Cocoa poisoning in a dog. Vet. Rec. 109, 563-564.


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3. TOXICITY OF ONIONS AND GARLIC IN CATS & DOGS

Background

It has been known since 1930 that dogs are very sensitive to onions (Allium spp) whether

raw, cooked or dehydrated.

Clinical signs and pathology

Regenerative anaemia with marked Heinz body formation has been reported in cats and

dogs after eating onions or onion containing foods (Harvey et al. ‘85, Kaplan ’95, Robertson

et al. ’98, Spice ’76, Tvedten et al. ’96,). Consumption of a sufficient amount of onions leads

to oxidative injury of the lipid membrane of the erythrocytes and irreversible oxidative

denaturation of haemoglobin. This results in formation of Heinz bodies, eccentrocytes (red

blood cells with haemoglobin clustering at one side of the cell), haemolytic anaemia,

haemoglobinuria, increased serum bilirubin and possibly methaemoglobinaemia (Faliu ’91,

Cope ‘05, Harvey et al. ‘85, Kaplan ’95, Lee et al. ‘00, Robertson et al. ’98, Means ‘02).

Relatively small amounts of fresh onions (5 to 10 g/kg BW) can already be toxic (Faliu ’91,

Cope ‘05). Robertson et al. ’98 showed that effect was dose dependent.

The clinical signs are secondary to the anaemia and include pale mucous membranes,

tachycardia, tachypnoea, lethargy and weakness (Gfeller & Messonier ’98, Cope ‘05).

Vomiting, diarrhoea and abdominal pain may also be present. If only a moderate amount of

onions has been eaten, the Heinz body anaemia resolves spontaneously after discontinuing

the onions (Kaplan ’95, Robertson et al. ‘98). In more severe cases, icterus and renal failure

can be seen as a consequence of the haemolysis and haemoglobinuria respectively, and

possibly death (Ogawa et al. ’86, Cope ‘05).

Although onion ingestion has been reported as being the most common cause of Heinz body

haemolysis in dogs (Weiser ’95), it may be difficult to correlate clinical signs with the onion

ingestion because of the lag of several days before the onset of clinical signs (Weiser ’95,

Cope ‘05).

Although onion poisoning is more common in dogs, cats are more sensitive to onion and

garlic poisoning owing to their specific haemoglobin structure, making them more susceptible

to oxidative stress (Giger ‘00).

Garlic and Chinese chives have also been reported to cause the development of Heinz

bodies, eccentrocytes a, haemolytic anaemia and increases in methaemoglobin levels in dogs

(Lee et al. ‘00, Yamato et al. ‘05). Lee et al. reported toxic effects after administration 1.25 ml

of garlic extract per kg BW (equivalent to 5g/kg BW of whole garlic) for 7 days, this is similar

to the amounts reported in onion poisoning.

The increase in reduced glutathione (G-SH), which has been reported after ingestion of


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onions and garlic, may seem inconsistent with oxidative damage, but the increase can be a

compensatory rebound reaction after an initial decrease in G-SH and other body anti-

oxidants, and an increase in oxidised glutathione (GSSG) within the first few days (Yamoto

’92, Ogawa et al. ‘86).

Dogs with hereditary high erythrocyte concentrations of reduced glutathione and potassium

appear to be more sensitive to onion and garlic poisoning (Yamato et al. ’92).

Wild onions (A. validum & A. Canadense), and wild garlic (A. ursinum) have caused

haemolytic anaemia in horses and ruminants (Lee et al. ‘00) and are potentially toxic for dogs

and cats as well.

Toxic agents

Several organo-sulfoxides have been implicated in toxicity induced by onions and garlic

(TABLE 2). Miyata reported the extraction from onions of an unnamed phenolic compound

causing similar effects on red blood cells “in vitro” (Miyata ’90). Allicin, a compound found in

garlic, is similar to n-propyl disulfide found in onions (Gfeller & Messonier ‘98).

These organosulfur compounds are readily absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract and

metabolised to highly reactive oxidants (Cope ‘05).

Table 2. Compounds isolated from onions and garlic and reported to oxidise canine

erythrocytes. (Chang et al. ‘04, Fenwick ’84, Hu et al. ‘02, Yamato et al. ‘98, Yamato et al. ‘03)

Onions Garlic

n-propyl disulfide sodium 2-propenyl thiosulfate

n-propyl bis-2-propenyl trisulfide

3 different sodium alk(en)yl thiosulfates bis-2-propenyl tetrasulfide

e.g. sodium n-propyl thiosulfate bis-2-propenyl pentasulfide

trans-1-propenyl thiosulfate bis-2-propenyl thiosulfonate

cis-1-propenyl thiosulfate several sulphur containing esters

Treatment

No specific antidote exists, and the treatment is supportive and is intended to reduce the oxidative effects and to prevent renal damage caused by haemoglobinuria. Oxygen therapy, fluid therapy (particularly crystalloids) and blood transfusion have been recommended (Gfeller & Messonier ‘98). Induction of vomiting can be useful within the first hour after ingestion of onions if the patient does not yet show clinical signs (Gfeller & Messonier ‘98). Anti-oxidant vitamins such as vitamins E and C may have subclinical beneficial effects that


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help in milder cases, but a study in cats did not show a significant effect on the formation of Heinz bodies (Hill et al. ‘01). a Eccentrocytes are red blood cells with haemoglobin clustering at one side of the cell, which makes

these cells more susceptible to lysis than normal red blood cells.

References

1. Chang HS, Yamato O, Sakai Y, et al. (2004) Acceleration of superoxide generation in

polymorphonuclear leukocytes and inhibition of platelet aggregation by alk(en)yl thiosulfates

derived from onion and garlic in dogs and humans. Prostaglandins Leukot Essnt Fatty Acids, 70

(1): 77-83.

2. Cope, R.B. (2005) Allium species poisoning in dogs and cats. Toxicology brief Veterinary Medicine

pp. 562-566

3. Faliu L. Les intoxications du chien par les plantes et produits d’origine végétale. Prat Méd Chirurg

Anim Comp, 1991; 26 (6): 549-562.

4. Fenwick GR. (1984) Onion Toxicity. Modern Veterinary Practice 65 (4): 4.

5. Gfeller RW, Messonier SP. (1998) Onion and garlic toxicity. In: Handbook of small animal

toxicology and poisonings. Mosby, Inc. St. Louis, MO, pp. 197-198.

6. Giger U. (2000) Regenerative anemias caused by blood loss or hemolysis. Chapter 177. In:

Textbook of veterinary Internal Medicine. SJ Ettinger & EC Feldman edits. WB Saunders

Company Philadelphia, PA, pp. 1784-1804.

7. Harvey JW, Rackear D. (1985) Experimental Onion-Induced Hemolytic Anemia in Dogs. Vet

Pathol. 22: 387-392.

8. Hill AS, O'Neill S, Rogers QR, Christopher MM. (2001) Antioxidant prevention of Heinz body

formation and oxidative injury in cats. Am J Vet Res. 62 (3): 370-374.

9. Hu Q, Yang Q, Yamato O, et al. (2002): Isolation and identification of organosulfur compounds

oxidizing canine erythrocytes from garlic (Allium sativum). J Agric Food Chem, 50 (5): 1059-1062.

10. Kaplan AJ. (1995) Onion powder in baby food may induce anemia in cats. Journal of the American

Veterinary Medical Association 207 (11): 1405 (letter).

11. Lee K-W, Yamato O, Tajima, et al. (2000) Hematologic changes associated with the appearance

of eccentrocytes after intragastric administration of garlic extract to dogs. Am. J. Vet. Res. 61 (11):

1446-1450.

12. Means C. (2002) Selected herbal hazards. Veterinary Clinics of North America – SAP, 32 (2): 367-

382.

13. Miyata D. (1990) Isolation of a new phenolic compound from the onion (Allium Cepa L. Onion) and

its effect on erythrocytes. Japanese Journal of Veterinary Research, 38: 65.

14. Ogawa E, Shinoki T, Akahori F, Masaoka T. (1986) Effect of Onion Ingestion on Anti-oxidizing

Aspects in Dog Erythrocytes. Japanese Journal of Veterinary Science. 48 (4): 685-691.

15. Roberston JE, Christopher MM, Rogers QR. (1998) Heinz body formation in cats fed baby food

containing onion powder. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 212 (8), 1260-


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1266.

16. Spice RN. (1976) Case Report Hemolytic anemia associated with ingestion of onions in a dog.

Can Vet J. 17 (7): 181-183.

17. Tvedten HW, Holan K. (1984) What is your diagnosis? A 13-year-old Abyssinian-mixed breed cat.

Veterinary Clinical Pathology 25 (4): 148-154.

18. Weiser MG. Erythrocyte responses and disorders. In: Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine,

3rd edit. SJ Ettinger, EC Feldman, WB Saunders Company, 1995; 1864-1891.

19. Yamato O, Hayashi M, Yamasaki M, Maede Y. (1998) Induction of onion-induced haemolytic

anaemia in dogs with sodium n-propylthiosulphate. Vet Rec. 142 (9): 216-219.

20. Yamato O, Maede Y. (1992) Susceptibility to onion-induced hemolysis in dogs with hereditary high

erythrocyte reduced glutathione and potassium concentrations. Am. J. Vet. Res. 53 (1): 134-138.

21. Yamato O, Kasai E, Katsura T, et al. (2005) Heinz body hemolytic anemia with eccentrocytosis

from ingestion of Chinese chive (Allium tuberosum) and garlic (Allium sativum) in a dog. J Am

Anim Hosp Assoc, 41 (1): 68-73.


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ANNEX VII – PRODUCT FAMILIES

1. Product families are considered within a company.

2. Product families are defined by animal species (dogs/cats).

3. All products within a family must be of the same processing type (extruded, baked,

pelleted, canned, fermented, etc.) and within the same moisture content category (dry, semi-

moist and wet).

4. A product family refers to complete or complementary foods.

5. A product family has to refer to a specific life stage, a specific life style or a specific

animal size.

6. The product family members must meet the metabolizable energy (ME) density (as it is

described in the specific chapter of these Guidelines) of the lead product members and be

formulated on an ME basis to :

a. meet the nutrient levels of the lead family product for key nutrients, and

b. not exceed the maximum levels of any nutrient or nutrient ratio established in the

fediaf Nutritional Guideline or by law.

N.B. When analyses are performed, the same analytical methods must be used for all

products belonging to the product family.

fediaf nutritional guidelines - september 2008 · food intolerance / food idiosyncrasy a reaction...

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