fast splitting based tag identification algorithm for anti...

Fast splitting based tag identification algorithm for anticollision in UHF RFID System

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Jian, Su, Sheng, Zhengguo, Xie, Liangbo, Li, Gang and Liu, Alex X (2018) Fast splitting based tag identification algorithm for anti-collision in UHF RFID System. IEEE Transactions on Communications. ISSN 0090-6778

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMMUNICATIONS 1

Fast Splitting Based Tag Identification AlgorithmFor Anti-collision in UHF RFID System

Jian Su, Zhengguo Sheng, Liangbo Xie, and Gang Li

Abstract—Efficient and effective objects identification usingRadio Frequency Identification (RFID) is always a challengein large scale industrial and commercial applications. Amongexisting solutions, the tree based splitting scheme has attractedincreasing attention because of its high extendibility and feasibil-ity. However, conventional tree splitting algorithms can only solvetag collision with counter value equals to zero and usually resultin performance degradation when the number of tags is large.To overcome such drawbacks, we propose a novel tree-basedmethod called Fast Splitting Algorithm based on ConsecutiveSlot Status detection (FSA-CSS), which includes a fast splitting(FS) mechanism and a shrink mechanism. Specifically, the FSmechanism is used to reduce collisions by increasing commandswhen the number of consecutive collision is above a threshold.Whereas the shrink mechanism is used to reduce extra idleslots introduced by FS. Simulation results supplemented byprototyping tests show that the proposed FSA-CSS achieves asystem throughput of 0.41, outperforming the existing UHF RFIDsolutions.

Index Terms—RFID, UHF, anti-collision, FS mechanism, sys-tem throughput, time efficiency.

I. INTRODUCTION

RFID technology has greatly revolutionized tag based appli-cations in retail industry such as warehouse management andinventory control [1-2]. A typical RFID system is composedof a reader and a large number of tags attached to trackedobjects. Each object can be identified based on query responsefrom the attached RFID tag. However, in large scale RFIDapplications, simultaneous query responses from multiple tagscan cause significant tag collisions. Since passive tags areunable to perceive or identify such collisions, the developmentof anti-collision algorithms is of great importance for fast tagidentification especially in high-density ultra high frequency(UHF) RFID environment.

Existing tag anti-collision algorithms can be categorizedinto dynamic framed slotted Aloha (DFSA)[3-5], query tree(QT)[6-8] and binary splitting (BS) based [9-10] algorithms.Among them, QT and BS algorithms are operated by recur-sively dividing responding tags into smaller subsets until eachsubset has at most one tag. The distinction between these twoapproaches is that, in QT solutions, tags are separated by their

J. Su is with Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology,Jiangsu 210044, China (e-mail: [email protected]).

Z. Sheng (corresponding author) is with the Department of Engineer-ing and Design, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9RH, UK (e-mail:[email protected]).

L. Xie is with Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications,Chongqing 400065, China (e-mail: [email protected]).

G. Li is with University of Electronic Science and Technology of China,Chengdu 611731, China (e-mail: [email protected]).

Digital Object Identifier xxxx

IDs. Whereas in BS approaches, tags are divided by binaryrandom numbers generated in the splitting process. Strictlyspeaking, QT methods are derived from the bit trackingtechnology [11] which can detect the position of collided bitby the reader. However, with an increasing number of tags, theefficiency of such methods is deteriorated because of the widedeviation of backscatter link frequency among tags [12-14].

As a contrary, DFSA and BS algorithms are more preferablefor UHF RFID systems. DFSA algorithms usually employa frame structure which contains a certain number of timeintervals (called time slots) per frame, and each tag responsesto the reader by randomly choosing a time slot using itsID. During the identification process, the size of frame isdynamically updated according to the number of unread tags.When the frame size is equal to the backlog (number of unreadtags), the maximum system throughput can be achieved.Recent works in DFSA include improved linearized combi-natorial model (ILCM) [15] based anti-collision algorithm,an efficient anti-collision algorithm with early adjustment offrame length (EAAEA) [16], and access probability adjustmentbased fine-grained Q-algorithm (APAFQ) [17], etc. However,those algorithms have failed to prevent collisions completely,because of the tag starvation problem in which a specifictag may not be identified for a long time [9]. Furthermore,the performance of DFSA algorithms highly depends on theinitial frame size. When the number of tags is much largerthan the size of frame, most of DFSA solutions are unable toadjust frame size properly in order to cope with backlog, thuslead to performance degradation [3, 15]. That is to say, DFSAsolutions are cardinality sensitive and shows inconsistent per-formance with a wide range of backlog. As a contrary, BSalgorithms are insensitive to tag backlog particularly when thenumber of tags is increased, the system throughput is almostconverged to a constant value. Although the BS approach cantackle tag starvation, it has a relatively long identificationlatency due to the splitting process starting from a singleset with all tags. Specially, the system throughput of BSalgorithms is about 0.348 [10] when the number of tags islarger than 100. Most of recent anti-collision algorithms withhigh performance are based on the integration of Aloha andQT (or BS) algorithms [18-19]. These methods usually needto estimate cardinality of tag population. Many efforts havealso been made to improve estimation accuracy [3-4][15][20].However, constant estimation of number of tages with highaccuracy requires high computation overhead and thus leadsto serious challenges in implementation [16].

In this paper, we focus on the UHF RFID anti-collisionalgorithm and propose a fast splitting algorithm based on


consecutive slot status detection (FSA-CSS) to improve theidentification and stability performance of BS algorithm. Theproposed solution is based on the pure BS algorithm whichis rarely investigated given concerns of marginal performanceimprovement by the existing literature. Different to the existingsolutions in which the average performance is only inves-tigated, i.e., incoming and outgoing tags are allowed to beidentified multiple times [21-22], we focus on a practice-drivenand challenging scenario in which a tag can only be identifiedonce and propose to improve individual performance foridentifying a batch of tags. It shows from the results that FSA-CSS can still maintain high performance in large-scale RFIDsystems without estimation of backlog. The contributions ofthis paper can be summarized as follows.

1) We propose an enhanced anti-collision algorithm namelyFSA-CSS for passive UHF RFID systems. In order to ac-celerate the splitting process, the reader allows the tags withcounter value above zero to be split into subsets in advance.Meanwhile, the reader can avoid over-splitting by using theshrink mechanism to reduce the extra idle slots.

2) We provide the theoretical analysis and carry out simula-tions to evaluate the performance of FSA-CSS with a massivenumber of tags. The results have been compared with variouslegacy anti-collision algorithms. The optimal parameters andperformance boundaries have been derived.

3) We implement FSA-CSS in a practical UHF RFIDsystem, which includes a passive RFID reader and 20 tags.The identification time of the proposed FSA-CSS is reduced by32.5% compared to the standard BS used in ISO/IEC 18000-6B.

The rest of this paper is organized as follows. SectionII reviews and analyzes the mainstream tag identificationstrategies for UHF RFID systems. Section III discusses thenovel anti-collision algorithm FSA-CSS and analyzes its per-formance. Section IV illustrates the simulation results. Theexperimental results are presented in Section V. Finally, thepaper is concluded in Section VI.

II. RELATED WORKSA. Binary splitting (BS) algorithm

The principle of BS algorithm is to continuously dividecollided tags into smaller subsets by using random binarynumbers. Each tag has an integer counter Tc which is usedto record its position in the splitting process and a randombinary number generator TR. Different values of Tc lead tagsinto different subsets. Only tags with Tc = 0 respond tothe reader immediately, while tags with Tc>0 should waitin the pipeline. At the initial stage of identification process,all tags in reader’s vicinity should respond simultaneouslyand thus are formed as one set. Depending on receivedresponses, the reader will send a feedback, e.g., ID-idle,ID-collision or ID-success, to all tags for furtheractions. When the feedback is ID-success or ID-idle,all tags act Tc = Tc − 1. The tags already identified by thereader will be silent during the next identification process. Ifthe feedback is ID-collision, the collided tags will bedivided into two subsets. Tags with Tc = 0 add TR to its Tc,while tags with Tc>0 increase its Tc by 1.

The reader also uses a counter Rc to terminate the identi-fication process. Rc denotes the number of unidentified tagsand its initial value is 0. When a collision occurs, the readerperforms Rc = Rc + 1, given the number of identifiabletags is increased. Otherwise, Rc is decreased by 1. WhenRc < 0, the identification process is ceased. Compared toAloha-based algorithms, the BS algorithm is insensitive to tagcardinality particularly when the number of tags is increased.The system throughput is almost converged to a constant value.The work in [10] reveals that the system throughput of BS canbe maintained at 0.348 when the number of tags is above 100.However, the BS algorithm has a relatively long identificationlatency because the splitting process is started from a singleset with all tags. Moreover, it always use tag ID to performcollision arbitration, hence there is significant space to furtherimprove time efficiency.

B. DFSA protocol with backlog estimation

In DFSA protocols, time is divided into a series of discreteintervals called time slots. Several time slots are packagedinto a frame [3][15]. Each tag can randomly select a slot torespond to the reader in each identification round. At the endof each frame, the reader counts the number of idle, success,and collision slots. If collision slots exist, the reader willestimate the number of unidentified tags and adjust the framelength accordingly. The identification process continues untilno collision occurs during a frame, i.e., all tags are successfullyidentified.

It is noted that the reader needs to accurately estimate thebacklog to achieve the best performance. To improve estima-tion accuracy, most previous methods [3-5] are implementedwith high complexity. However, typical RFID readers arecomputation constrained due to the limited processing powerprovided by single-chip microprocessor. As a result, estimationmethods with high computation overhead are characterized asenergy inefficient. Recently, many state-of-the-art algorithms[15-16] have been proposed to achieve energy efficiency.However, the system throughput of these solutions is stillbelow 0.36. In addition, it is worth mentioning that most ofexisting DFSA studies are simulation based [3-5][15-17], thusthe practical performance cannot be verified.

C. Hybrid protocol combining DFSA with BS

So far it has been shown that the BS performs better whenthe number of tags is relatively small [10]. This result hasinspired further studies to design hybrid anti-collision algo-rithms combining DFSA and BS. The authors in [23] proposean adaptive binary tree slotted Aloha (ABTSA) algorithm. InABTSA, tags are randomly assigned to slots in a frame. Ifmultiple tags are collided in a slot, collision will be solvedby the BS algorithm while other tags in the following slotswill be in waiting state. The benefit of using ABTSA isthat the adjustment of frame size is simplified because thereader has the knowledge of the status in every slot andthus can obtain an appropriate frame size accordingly. Sincethe ABTSA combines both DFSA and BS algorithms, it canachieve an average system throughput of 0.40, which is higher


than that of DFSA or BS algorithm alone. However, it iswith a complex structure, hence much more difficult to beimplemented.

In summary, aforementioned anti-collision algorithms doprovide solutions to solve the tag collision problem, how-ever, with sacrifices in identification efficiency, complexityand stability, etc. The characteristics of existing anti-collisionalgorithms are summarized in Tab. I. In the following, we willintroduce the proposed solution based on the BS algorithmto improve the identification efficiency of RFID system andreduce the implementation cost.

(a,b,c,d)

(a,c) (b,d)

(0) (1)

c a

(0) (1) (2) (3)

(a,b,c,d)

(a,c) (b,d)

c a d b

a d b

(a,d)

(0) (1)

(0) (1) (2) (2) (3)

(2)

(0) (1) (2) (3) (4)

(a,b,c,d)

(a,c) (b,d)

(0) (1)

(a,c) d b

c a d b

(0) (3) (4)

(0) (1) (2) (8) (9)

… …

(10) (12) (13)

(a) FS with M=2, N=2 (M=N)

(b) FS with M=2, N=3 (MN)

Collided Successful Idle

Solved by the commands from the peer node(It will not occupy a dedicated time slot during identification)

(*) Tc

d b

Depth 0

Depth 1

Depth 2

Depth 0

Depth 1

Depth 2

Depth 3

Depth 0

Depth 1

Depth 2

Depth 3

Depth is defined as the number of braches from that node to the root (top) node

Fig. 1. The FS mechanism with different M and N

III. THE PROPOSED FSA-CSS ALGORITHM

A. Fast splitting mechanism

In the fast splitting (FS) mechanism, the counter value Tcof all tags are initialized to zero. When a collision occurs, thecollided tags (i.e., tags with Tc = 0) perform Tc = Tc + TR,while the tags with Tc>0 perform Tc =M ·Tc+TR. That is,

Tc =

{Tc + TR, if Tc = 0M · Tc + TR, if Tc > 0 .

(1)

where TR ∈ {0, 1, · · ·, N − 1} denotes a random binarynumber generator at an arbitrary time, N determines themaximum subsets needed. That is to say, the collided tags canbe potentially allocated into N subsets. Tc denotes the valueof counter at an arbitrary time. An integer M>0 is a splittingcoefficient, which denotes the splitting level of collided tags.The larger the M , the more available subset slots can beprovided during a single splitting process.

In order to illustrate the FS mechanism, we describe asimple case with five tags using M = N = 2. Assume thetags a, b, c, d, e collide in the slot 0, given Tc = 0 is for alltags, the reader will randomly divide them into two subsets,e.g., S1 = {a, d, e} with random number 0 and S2 = {b, c}with random number 1. The FS mechanism will trigger thereader to split S2 into {b} and {c} in slot 1. According to (1),no collision will happen between b and c. Meanwhile, tags a,d, and e will collide again in slot 1 and the FS will continueto assist the splitting until all collisions are solved. It is notedthat we consider the case where a tag can be identified onlyonce, whereas tags are identified repeatedly can be referred to[9][20-21].

By generalizing cases with N>2, we can derive the follow-ing result for the splitting coefficient M .

Result 1. The performance of FS mechanism depends on thechoice of M and leads to the following result. M > N, yield extra idle slotsM = N, no extra idle and collision slots

M < N, yield extra collision slots(2)

Proof: See the Appendix A.According to the Result 1, M = N is the best choice for FS

mechanism. Examples of four tags using FS mechanism withdifferent M and N are illustrated in Fig. 1. The depth of anode is defined as the path length (number of solid branches)from that node to the root (top) node. As can be seen in Fig.1 (a), all tags collided in slot 0 are further divided into twosubsets, e.g., S1 = {a, c}, S2 = {b, d}. Since tags in S1 arecontinually collided in slot 1, they act Tc = Tc + TR, whilethe tags in S2 act Tc = 2 · Tc + TR. After reading in slot1, all tags are divided into four subsets. Each subset containsonly one tag. In total, the FSA-CCS consumes six slots toidentify four tags by using FS mechanism with M = N = 2.Fig. 1 (b) shows the example of MN . It thus indicates that


TABLE ITHE CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT ANTI-COLLISION ALGORITHMS

Method Category implementation tagstarvationcardinalitysensitive

systemthroughput

identificationlantency complexityDFSA BS Hybrid

MAP [3]√

medium√ √

medium medium highMFML-DFSA [4]

√medium

√ √medium medium high

FuzzyQ [5]√

medium√ √

low medium mediumILCM [15]

√easy

√ √low low low

ds-DFSA [13]√

difficult√ √

high low lowBS [10]

√easy × × medium high low

ABS [9]√

easy × × medium high lowABTSA [23]

√difficult

√ √high high high

a large M may cause too many idle slots. In our proposedalgorithm, we define such a result with a large number of idleslots as over-splitting.

B. The proposed FSA-CSS algorithm

According to the analysis above, the FS mechanism canaccelerate the splitting speed and reduce collision during theidentification process. However, the question is how to applythe FS mechanism and avoid over-splitting, given the numberof tags is unknown at the beginning? To tackle the over-splitting problem, we propose the fast splitting algorithmwith consecutive slot status detection (FSA-CSS). The mainidea is that the reader implements the FS mechanism onlywhen it detects a consecutive collision. The consecutive col-lision indicates a large number of tags coexist in the sameidentification process. In contrast, when the reader detects aconsecutive idle, it performs the shrink mechanism by sendinga Decrease command to decrease counter value of tags. Theshrink mechanism is defined as follows.

Tc = trunk (Tc/2) . (3)

where trunk() is a truncation function. The flowchart of theproposed FSA-CSS algorithm is illustrated in Fig. 2. Twothresholds µ and σ are denoted as the upper tolerance limitof the number of consecutive collision slots and idle slots,respectively, and two counters TCCN and TCIN are used atthe reader to count the number of consecutive collision slotsand idle slots. If TCCN ≥ µ, the reader should perform theFS mechanism. If TCIN ≥ σ, the reader should perform theshrink mechanism due to the occurrence of over-splitting.

As can be observed in Fig. 2, the reader sends the cor-responding feedback commands according to the slot type.Similar to BS, the reader also has a counter Rc to terminatethe identification process when Rc < 0. By receiving feedbackcommands from the reader, each tag acts as follows.• Splitting 0 command: Tags with Tc = 0 act Tc = TR,

while tags with Tc>0 act Tc = Tc+1. It is similar to theID-collision feedback of the BS algorithm. Aftersending this command, the reader acts Rc=Rc+1.

• Splitting 1 command: Tags with Tc = 1 act Tc = TR.Tags with Tc>0 will be split into two groups. Thepotential advantage is to reduce the collisions.

• Increase command: All tags act Tc = 2·Tc+TR. Besidethe current collided tags, tags with Tc>0 will be dividedafter receiving this command. This is essentially different

to the BS algorithm. After sending this command, thereader acts Rc=2· Rc+1.

• Decrease command: All tags act Tc = trunk(Tc/2).This command is allowed to alleviate the over-splitting.After sending this command, the reader acts Rc =round(Rc/2).

• QueryRep command: All tags act Tc = Tc − 1. This issimilar to the ID-idle and ID-success of the BSalgorithm. After sending this command, the reader actsRc=Rc-1.

It is worth noting that the optimal M cannot be directly de-rived by the algorithm. In this paper, we choose an appropriatevalue M by using experimental method. Intuitively, a larger Mcan provide more splitting subsets and hence reduce collisions.However, it also introduces idle slots. In our proposed solution,we choose M = N = 2 to best achieve the simplicity andbalance between the performance and complexity of usingrandom number generator by each tag. Additional analysisand discussion can be found from Section IV and Fig. 3which compares the number of slots consumed by FSA-CSSby adopting different M .

Fig. 4 illustrates an example of seven tags by implementingthe proposed FSA-CSS algorithm. Assume µ = 3 and σ = 3,the reader performs the FS mechanism in the slot 3 due toTCCN = 3. Then the reader performs the BS in each tagsubset. After the tag c is identified, three consecutive idleslots occur, the reader performs the shrink mechanism in slot11 to decrease the counter value of unidentified tags in orderto alleviate over-splitting. Thereafter, the tags g, e and f areidentified in slot 13, slot 15 and slot 16, respectively. Thedetailed communication procedure is also illustrated in Tab.II. In essence, compared to the conventional BS algorithm,the proposed FSA-CSS algorithm can reduce collisions butintroduce extra idle slots. However, the FSA-CSS can use theIncrease command to alleviate the negative impact from theidle slots.

C. Upper bound performance of FSA-CSS

In this section, we analyze the system throughput of FSA-CSS. The system throughput Tsys is defined as follows

Tsys =m

Nm. (4)

where m is the number of tags waiting to be identified in thereader vicinity, Nm is the required total slots to identify them tags. The system throughput is actually equivalent to the


Initialize identification process

Tags with Tc=0 respond to the reader

Response status TCCN


100 250 400 550 700 850 10000

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500(a) Comparison of total slots

Number of Tags

Num

ber o

f tot

al sl

ots

M=2M=4M=6M=8M=10

100 250 400 550 700 850 10000

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000(b) Comparison of idle slots

Number of Tags

Num

ber o

f idl

e sl

ots

M=2M=4M=6M=8M=10

100 250 400 550 700 850 10000

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900(c) Comparison of collision slots

Number of Tags

Num

ber o

f col

lisio

n slo

ts

M=2M=4M=6M=8M=10

Fig. 3. Comparison of the number of slots under different M

assume that the reader does not perform the FS after the L-thdepth, which is a reasonable assumption since the tags willbe divided into 2L subsets at L-th depth of the tree and eachsubset only contains a few tags, which reduces the chances ofconsecutive collisions. Thus, the total slots to identify m tagsexpended by FSA-CSS can be expressed as

NFSA−CSSm = L+ 2L · [P (0|m, L) + P (1|m, L)]

+∑

r>1 2L · P (r|m, L) ·NBSr .

(9)

where NBSr denotes the number of slots used for BS toidentify r tags. L represents the number of collided slotsand involves L − µ times FS operations. When the FS isfinished, the collided tags can be divided into 2L groups.2L · P (0|m, L) and 2L · P (1|m, L) represent the numberof idle nodes and success nodes, respectively.

Result 2. The upper bound system throughput of FSA-CSScan be approximated as following when the number of tags mtends to infinity

limm→∞

TFSA−CSSsys ≈ 0.4521 . (10)

Proof: See the Appendix B.

D. Discussion of µ and σ

It is noted that Result 2 reveals the upper performanceof FSA-CSS. However, the priori knowledge of number oftags is usually unknown to the reader and the frame sizeis typically not equal to the number of tags. In such cases,the FS and shrink mechanisms are necessary for the FSA-CSS to reduce collisions and avoid over-splitting during theentire identification process. Specifically, µ is the critical valueto enable the FS mechanism, σ is the key value to performthe shrink mechanism. The system throughput depends on thesetting of these two parameters.

We use the numerical method to search the optimal com-bination of µ and σ. Experiments are performed under thefollowing cases: the number of tags are set as 200, 400, 600,and 800, respectively. µ and σ vary from 1 to 10 in stepsof 1. As can be observed from Fig. 5, the optimal systemthroughput relies on the combination of µ and σ. In Fig. 5(a), the maximum system throughput of FSA-CSS is 0.4049which can be obtained when µ = 4 and σ = 9. Similarly inFig. 5 (b), the system throughput of FSA-CSS peaks at 0.4128when µ = 4 and σ = 9. Fig. 5 (c) shows that the pair of µ = 4and σ = 7 can achieve the maximum system throughput of0.4178. In Fig. 5(d), µ = 4 and σ = 7 can also achieve thebest performance at 0.4188 when n = 800. In general, noconstant parameter setting of µ and σ can maintain the bestperformance as the number of tags varies in a large scale. Theoptimal values of µ and σ rely on exhaustive search usingcomputer simulations.

The system throughput of FSA-CSS under specific pairs ofµ and σ when the number of tags varies from 100 to 1000 areillustrated in Fig. 6. The average throughput of six curves fromhighest to lowest are 0.4128, 0.4123, 0.4122, 0.4102, 0.4086,and 0.4083, respectively. The corresponding pairs of µ and σare (4, 7), (4, 8), (4, 6), (4, 9), (3, 4), and (3, 5), respectively.We can found that no constant parameter setting can alwaysmaintain the best performance. When the number of tagsvaries in a large-scale, the expectation of system throughputof FSA-CSS is maximum at (µ = 4, σ = 7). In practicalimplementation of fast RFID systems, it might be too costlyto search the optimal combination of these two parameters andkeep real-time updating by introducing extra overhead strategy.Therefore, a default parameter setting is preferable during thewhole identification process with recommendation of (µ = 4,σ = 7).


(a,b,c,d,e,f,g)

(a,b,c,d)

(e,f,g)

(a,b,c,d)

(e,f,g)

(a,b) (c,d) g (e,f)

b a d g fc

(0) (1)

(0) (2)

(0) (1) (4) (5)

(0) (1) (2) (9) (11)(3)

(0)

g (e,f)

(10)

(2)

e

f

(4)~(6)

Shrink mechanism (Tc=trunk(Tc/2))

FS mechanism (Tc=2·Tc+TR)

(1)

Collision Success Idle

Solved by the commands from the peer node(It will not occupy a dedicated time slot during identification)

(*) Tc

e

(0) (1)

(Start from slot3 to slot4)

…

(Start from slot11 to slot 12)

The probe order (slot index) is from top to bottom, if a left node is visited, the FSA-CSS moves horizontally right

Fig. 4. An identification example by using FSA-CSS algorithm

IV. SIMULATION RESULTS

In this section, we compare FSA-CSS with the existingstate-of-the-art including ABS [9], APAFQ [17], ds-DFSA[13], EAAEA [16], ILCM [15], and ABTSA [23] in termsof system throughput and time efficiency. Simulations witha reader and a various number of tags have been evaluatedusing MATLAB, where the tags are uniformly distributed inthe reader vicinity in order to receive reader command directly.The evaluations are mainly focused on the MAC layer, whereasphysical layer effects such as radio propagation effects arenot considered in the proposed model. The similar assumptionhas been widely applied in the literatures [4, 10, 13-16]. Thesimulation results are average over 1000 iterations.

Fig. 7 illustrates the simulation results of system throughputunder different initial frame size. Since ABS and FSA-CSSare not Aloha-based algorithms, their performances are notaffected by varying initial frame size. The FSA-CSS onlyshows minor improvement when the number of tags is below200. The reason is that the frequent use of FS mechanismintroduces too many idle slots when the size of tag is small,and hence decreases the system throughput. As the numberof tags is increased, the FSA-CSS shows its advantage overother algorithms. From Fig. 7, the FSA-CSS outperforms allother algorithms and achieves an average system throughputof 0.4128, where the average throughput of ABS, APAFQ,ABTSA, ds-DFSA, EAAEA, and ILCM are 0.3448, 0.3573,0.4083, 0.4079, 0.3361, and 0.3252, respectively. It is noted

that although ABTSA adopts a complex hybrid structure toenhance its performance, our proposed FSA-CSS still outper-forms ABTSA by 1.10%. Similarly, the FSA-CSS is superiorto the ds-DFSA and APAFQ with lower implementation cost.

In Fig. 8, we compare FSA-CSS (µ = 4, σ = 7) withABS in terms of total number of slots, collision slots and idleslots. The number of unread tags is progressively increasedfrom 100 to 1000. Compared to ABS, FSA-CSS has fewercollision slots but more idle slots. The simulation resultsindicate that significant collision slots are reduced by the FSmechanism, and hence the total slots consumed by the FSA-CSS. Although the shrink mechanism is expected to overcomethe over-splitting, the extra idle slots are unavoidable by theFS mechanism. As a result, the practical performance of FSA-CSS is slightly lower than its theoretical results.

Consider the disparity between slot durations such as theduration of non-idle slot is always longer than that of idle slot[22], the system throughput metric is ineffective to evaluatethe performance of identification in terms of identificationtime. Therefore, we use time efficiency in the simulations.Assume the time durations of success, collision and idle slotsare denoted as Ts, Tc and Te, the time efficiency is defined as[16]

Teffi =S · Ts

S · Ts + E · Te + C · Tc. (11)

where E, S, and C are the statistics of success, idle andcollision during the identification process measured by the


0 24 6

8 10

0246

810

0.250.3

0.350.4

0.45

(a) n=200

Syste

m th

roug

hput

0 24 6

8 10

0246

810

0.250.3

0.350.4

0.45

(b) n=400

Syste

m th

roug

hput

0 24 6

8 10

0246

810

0.250.3

0.350.4

0.45

(c) n=600

Syste

m th

roug

hput

0 24 6

8 10

0246

810

0.250.3

0.350.4

0.45

(d) n=800

Syste

m th

roug

hput

0.26

0.28

0.3

0.32

0.34

0.36

0.38

0.4

(μ=4, σ=9) (μ=4, σ=8)

(μ=4, σ=7) (μ=4, σ=7)

Fig. 5. Comparison of system throughput under different number of tags

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 10000.39

0.395

0.4

0.405

0.41

0.415

0.42

0.425

0.43

Number of tags

Syst

em th

roug

hput

CCN=4,CIN=6CCN=4,CIN=7CCN=4,CIN=8CCN=4,CIN=9CCN=3,CIN=4CCN=3,CIN=5

Fig. 6. The system throughput of FSA-CSS under specific pairs of µ and σ

reader.Fig. 9 shows the time efficiency of various methods under

different ratios between the duration of success, collision andidle slots. As can be seen, all algorithms present fluctuatingperformances under different Ts : Tc : Te ratios. When Tc =Te in Fig. 9 (a) and (b), all the algorithms present a similarbehavior, and the performance ranking from high to low isFSA-CSS, ds-DFSA, ABTSA, APAFQ, ABS, EAAEA, andILCM. Fig. 9 (c) and (d) show differently with the ranking ofABS dropping down to the last one and the ranking of APAFQmoving up to the third when Ts : Tc : Te = 3 : 3 : 1. As theratio between Tc and Te is increased, ABS shows a significantperformance degradation due to the large number of collisionslots. Compared to the reference methods, the proposed FSA-

CSS can always achieve the best time efficiency under variousratios by reducing collision and idle slots.

V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS WITH A PRACTICAL RFIDTESTBED

TABLE IIILINK PARAMETERS USED FOR RF COMMUNICATIONS

Parameter ValueFrequency 922.875 MHz

Backscatter link frequency 64 KHzModulation DSB-ASKDeviation 20 HHz

Channel width 250 KHzRead-tag data coding TPP

Tag-reader data coding Miller-8Reader-tag preamble 137.5 µsTag-reader preamble 2000 µs

T1 154 µsT2 130 µsT3 436 µs

To further evaluate the performance of FSA-CSS algorithmin a practical UHF RFID system, we conduct experimentsusing a testbed in an indoor environment. Experiments includean active RFID reader and 20 passive tags. The reader isequipped with ARM Cortex A9 processor, which is a 32-bit reduced instruction set (RISC) processor with a maximumoperating frequency of 1 GHz and an off-chip memory 512Mto ensure high speed and stable operation of programs. Theexternal interface of the reader includes UART, JTAG, ETHand USB, which greatly facilitates the software and hardwaredebugging. The UART interface is used for communicationbetween the host computer and the reader. The JTAG interfacefacilitates the developer to debug the reader hardware. ETH


100 250 400 550 700 850 10000.3

0.32

0.34

0.36

0.38

0.4

0.42

0.44

Number of Tags(a) Q=4

Syste

m T

hrou

ghpu

t

100 250 400 550 700 850 10000.3

0.32

0.34

0.36

0.38

0.4

0.42

0.44

Number of Tags(b) Q=5

Syste

m T

hrou

ghpu

t

100 250 400 550 700 850 10000.3

0.32

0.34

0.36

0.38

0.4

0.42

0.44

Number of Tags(c) Q=6

Syste

m T

hrou

ghpu

t

100 250 400 550 700 850 10000.3

0.32

0.34

0.36

0.38

0.4

0.42

0.44

Number of Tags(d) Q=7

Syste

m T

hrou

ghpu

t

ABS APAFQ ABTSA ds-DFSA EAAEA ILCM FSA-CSS

Fig. 7. System throughput comparisons of various algorithms under different initial frame size

100 250 400 550 700 850 10000

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

Number of Tags

Num

ber o

f slo

ts

total slots (ABS)idle slots (ABS)collision slots (ABS)total slots (FSA-CCS)idle slots (FSA-CCS)collision slots (FSA-CCS)

Fig. 8. Simulation results of the number of total slots, collision slots and idleslots between FSA-CSS and ABS

and USB provide various ways to upload tag data by thereader. Compared to the BS commercial tag, the custom taghas added some control logic codes in its state machine, whichis used to support the reader commands of FSA-CSS.

Tab. III lists the link parameters configured for radio fre-quency communication between the reader and tags. In orderto comply with ISO/IEC 18000-6B, the carrier frequency isset to 922.875MHz and Miller coding is used.

The experiments are carried out by placing 20 tags inthe antenna interrogation zone of RFID reader with a fixedtransmitting power. We evaluate and compare the performanceof standard BS used in ISO/IEC 18000-6B and the proposedFSA-CSS in total identification time (defined as the total time

required to identify all tags) and identification rate (definedas the number of tags can be identified per second). Theexperimental environment is captured in Fig. 10. We vary thenumber of tags from 2 to 20 and repeat the experiment in 50trials to get average performance. In parallel, we also performsimulations using the same parameters.

Fig. 11 compares the experimental results of FSA-CSS withthat of ABS which is used in ISO/IEC 18000-6B. In theexperiments, the proposed FSA-CSS reduces the identificationtime by 32.5% and improves the average identification rate by50% compared with ABS. The simulation results are closedto the experimental results. Both simulation and experimentresults indicate that the proposed FSA-CSS outperforms theABS constantly in the practical RFID system.

VI. CONCLUSIONS

We have proposed a novel design of BS-based anti-collisionalgorithm namely FSA-CSS to improve the low identificationefficiency of traditional BS-based algorithms. Unlike the ex-isting methods, the FSA-CSS allows tags which are in thewaiting state to participate in the splitting process via fastsplitting mechanism, thus the number of collision slots canbe reduced. Meanwhile, the shrink mechanism has been intro-duced to avoid the over-splitting problem. The proposed FSA-CSS has been shown to improve the identification efficiencywithout estimation of number of tags and extra hardware cost.The simulation results have shown that FSA-CSS outperformsABS by 23.3% in system throughput. We have also prototypeda RFID system and evaluated its performance in a real-worldRFID environment. The experimental results have been shownthat the proposed FSA-CSS can reduce the total identificationtime by 32.5% for identifying 20 tags. Both simulations and


100 250 400 550 700 850 10000.64

0.66

0.68

0.7

0.72

0.74

0.76

Number of Tags(a) Ts:Tc:Te=4:1:1

Tim

e ef

fici

ency

100 250 400 550 700 850 10000.56

0.58

0.6

0.62

0.64

0.66

0.68

0.7

Number of Tags(b) Ts:Tc:Te=3:1:1

Tim

e ef

fici

ency

100 250 400 550 700 850 10000.38

0.4

0.42

0.44

0.46

0.48

0.5

0.52

Number of Tags(c) Ts:Tc:Te=3:3:1

Tim

e ef

fici

ency

100 250 400 550 700 850 10000.54

0.56

0.58

0.6

0.62

0.64

0.66

Number of Tags(d) Ts:Tc:Te=4:2:1

Tim

e ef

fici

ency

ABS APAFQ ABTSA ds-DFSA EAAEA ILCM FSA-CSS

Fig. 9. Simulation results of time efficiency for various algorithms under varying Ts : Tc : Te

Power Board Baseband BoardRF Board

Antenna

custom tags (compatible with ISO/IEC 18000-6B and

our proposed solution)

tags

Antenna2 meters

Fig. 10. The hardware setup used in the experiments

experiments have indicated that the proposed FSA-CSS is asuitable candidate for the resource-constrained RFID systems.

APPENDIX APROOF OF RESULT 1

Assuming the i-th and j-th (i


2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 200

200

400

600

800

1000(a) comparison of total identification time

Number of tags

Tota

l ide

ntifi

catio

n tim

e (m

s)

FSA-CSS (simulation)FSA-CSS (experiment)ISO/IEC 18000-6B (simulation)ISO/IEC 18000-6B (experiment)

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 2015

20

25

30

35

40(b) comparison of identification rate

Number of tags

Iden

tific

atio

n ra

te (t

ags/

s)

FSA-CSS (simulation)FSA-CSS (experiment)ISO/IEC 18000-6B (simulation)ISO/IEC 18000-6B (experiment)

Fig. 11. Comparison of the experimental results

Since T (i, k)R , T(j, k)R ∈ {0, 1, · · · , N − 1}, we have

− (N − 1) ≤ T (j, k)R − T(i, k)R ≤ (N − 1) , (17)

Without loss of generality, we assume 0N , according to (20), we have

2 ≤ T (j, k+1)c − T (i, k+1)c ≤ N(j + 1− i)− 1 . (23)

which indicates that the minimum gap between counter valuein adjacent subsets is above 1. That means the extra idle slotis generated when M>N compared to (22). Therefore, theResult 1 can be yielded.

APPENDIX BPROOF OF RESULT 2

As the prior knowledge of number of tags is known to thereader, it is straightforward that the FS should be repeateduntil all tags have been divided into m subsets and each subsetcontains few tags in equal probability. Then the conventionalBS can be adopted to identify these tags in each subsets. Themaximum depth Lmax of the binary tree using FSA-CSS toidentify m tags can be derived as

Lmax = blogm2 c , (24)

where b·c denotes the operation of round down to the nearestinteger. Substituting Eq. (24) into Eq. (9) leads to

NFSA−CSSn = Lmax + 2Lmax · (1− 1

2Lmax)m

+m · (1− 12Lmax

)m−1

+m∑r=2

2Lmax · P (r|m, L) ·NBSr ,(25)

When 2Lmax = m, FSA-CSS algorithm consumes the leastnumber of slots to identify m tags. When 2Lmax = m andm→∞, the Eq. (25) can be further expressed as

NFSA−CSSn∣∣2Lmax=m, m→∞

= Lmax + 2Lmax · (1− 1

2Lmax)m +m · (1− 1

2Lmax)m−1

+m∑r=2

2Lmax ·m!r!(m−r)!

(1

2Lmax

)r · (1− 12Lmax

)m−r ·NBSr≈ Lmax + 2×2

Lmax

e +m∑r=2

2Lmax (e−1)e ·N

BSr

≈ 2.212m.(26)

According to Eqs. (4) and (26), the Result 2 can be yielded.

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