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Transition Management Challenges of Dairy Cattle

Michael Overton, DVM, MPVMElanco Knowledge Solutions – Dairy

Athens, GA

Denise Rich – therichartist.com

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Transition Period• Traditionally considered from -21 to 21-DIM

• More apparent that transition actually starts at dry-off:– 90-day period that is critical for success

– Far Dry, Close-up and Fresh Periods

• Period of significant stress on all cows

• Sets the stage for future productivity and repro

performance

90-Day “Transition”Far Dry Period Close-up Dry Period Calving Fresh/ Early Lactation

-60 -21 0 30

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Primary Take Away: Managing Energy Balance & Immune Function Helps

Mitigate Impact of Transition Challenges

• Cows undergo tremendous changes from late gestation to early lactation

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Complex Interrelationships of Transition Cow Diseases

Dotted line denotestentative association

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Transition Management Keys for Improved Health, Production and Reproduction

1. Minimize feed intake depression and negative nutrient balance before calving (metabolic disease)

2. Minimize risk and impact of dystocia

3. Minimize risk and impact of hypocalcemia (milk fever)

4. Minimize risk and impact of infectious disease (mastitis, metritis, etc)

5. Promote rapid return to positive nutrient balance (maximize rise in feed intake after calving)

Dry-off Close-up/ Springer

CalvingFreshFar-Dry

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Transitional Management Key # 1:Minimize Negative Nutrient Balance and Drop in Feed

Intake Before Calving

• The level (and amount of change) of the feed intake before

calving has a huge impact on:– Immune function

– Risk of metabolic disease (ketosis)

– Start-up milk

– Feed intake after calving

• It is common to hear…

“We need to maximize feed intake in close-up cows”! (?)

• However, a more correct approach would be to minimize

the decrease in voluntary feed intake

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What is Happening to Feed Intake?

7

9

11

13

15

17

19

21

23

-21 -18 -15 -12 -9 -6 -3 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21

Day relative to calving

DM

I (k

g/d

)

50

150

250

350

450

550

650

NE

FA

, m

Eq

/L

DMI

NEFA

Overton TR.. 2000. http://vaca.agro.uncor.edu/~pleche/material/Material%20II/A%20archivos%20internet/Alimentacion/transicion.pdf Accessed 1/19/13.

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NEFA’s, Fat and Ketosis…• Triglyceride:

– 3 Non-esterifed fatty acids– Glycerol backbone

• Fat mobilization increases:– Due to increased energy demand (lactation)– As a consequence of increased GH– As a consequence of stress response (epinephrine)– Excessive mobilization can lead to ketosis

• Fat mobilization blocked by “normal” insulin

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What is Ketosis?

• Defined as increased ketone bodies in the blood– Acetoacetate– Beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB)– Acetone

• Excreted in the milk and urine • Characterized by hypoglycemia, ↑ NEFA and ↑

circulating ketone bodies, depressed appetite

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Ruminant Physiology

• Ruminants do not obtain glucose directly from the diet

• Fermented carbohydrates converted to VFA’s by rumen– Acetate – used in fatty acid synthesis

• Source – fiber (hay, silage, some by-products)

– Propionate – major substrate for gluconeogenesis• Source – fermentable carbohydrates such as starch & sugar

– Butyrate – converted to ketones for energy• Source – produced in rumen but also ingestion of preformed

• Constant state of gluconeogenesis (making glucose)

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Fetal Metabolism – Late Pregnancy• Most energy needs of the fetus are supplied by glucose,

lactate, and amino acids from the dam– Glucose uptake – passive

– AA uptake via active placental transport (independent of maternal blood concentration)

– During hypoglycemia, fetus compensates by using more AA for energy

Bell, A. W. 1995. J Animal Sci 73(9):2804-2819.

Uterine Uptake

Nutrient Maternal Supply (g/d) Grams/d % of Maternal Supply

Glucose 1,476 666 46

Amino Acids 998 718 72

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Rapid Acceleration in Nutrient Needs Around Calving

• Within a few days of calving, mammary requirements increase as compared to uterine demands just before calving:– Glucose 2.7 X pregnant uterus

– Amino acids 2.0 X pregnant uterus

– Fatty acids 4.5 X pregnant uterus

– Total “Energy” ~3 X pregnant uterus

• Despite these needs, feed intake is low, resulting in…– Negative energy balance: -10 to -15 Mcal/d (or more)

– Negative protein balance: - 500 to -600 g/d (or more)

Bell, A. W. 1995. J Animal Sci 73(9):2804-2819.

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How Does the Modern Dairy Cow Do It?

• Two major ways:– Alters glucose metabolism

• Glucose sparing• Increased gluconeogenesis from amino acids

– Mobilizes body tissues (fat and protein)• Leads to increased NEFA’s

• Liver is crucial in these adaptations

Day relative to calving

-21 11 22

Liver weight (lbs) ~ 19 ~ 19 ~ 21

Oxygen uptake (moles/d)

35 76 80

Mediated in part by

somatotropin (growth

hormone)

Adapted from: Reynolds et al, 2003. J Dairy Sci 86(4):1201-1217.

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Adaptations at Parturition and Onset of Lactation1,2

Liver size rate of gluconeogenesis­ protein synthesis ketogenesis

Adipose Tissue lipolysis

de novo fat synthesis uptake of preformed fatty acids re-esterification of fatty acids

Muscle glucose utilization protein synthesis

protein degradation

1Bauman, D. E. and W. B. Currie. 1980. J Dairy Sci 63(9):1514-1529.2Ingvartsen, K. L. and J. B. Andersen. 2000. J Dairy Sci 83(7):1573-1597.

Rumen size

absorptive capacity rate of nutrient absorption

Mammary gland

# secretory cells

nutrient use

­ supply of blood

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What Can We Do in the Far Dry Group to Better Manage Feed Intake and Improve

Postpartum Performance?

• Control the energy intake in far dry cows• Manage environment to minimize stress

and weight loss during dry period• Provide adequate and comfortable

resting access• Beware long days dry

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Close-Up Cows: a Critical Group to Manage Properly

• Can have large drops in feed intake• More sensitive to stressors• Must deal with decline in immune function• Must deal with calcium challenges• Typically, this is when negative energy

balance starts– Making colostrum and supporting the fetus

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Close-Up Cows (and Fresh Cows) are Particularly Sensitive to Stress

• Stress issues:– Overcrowding– Pen changes– Mixing heifers and cows– Poor housing

• Inability to rest• Mud• Heat

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Effect of Prepartum Stocking Density on Production

• 2001 field trial to evaluate dry cow feed additive

– 1st calf heifers grouped with older cows (pre- and post-

fresh)

• Two-row pens with lockups, pre and post-fresh

• Pre-fresh stall stocking density ranged from 62 to

138% of stalls

• No stall overstocking in post-fresh pens

G.R. Oetzel, unpublished work, 2003

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30

40

50

60

70

80

90

3 13 23 33 43 53 63 73 83

Days in Milk

Milk

, lb

s/d

ay

80% presd 100% presd 120% presd

P<.01 for effect of presd on milk yield

1.6 lb/d lost for each 10% increase in pre-fresh stocking density

Pre-fresh Stocking Density and Post-fresh Milk Yield

132 1st lactation cows modeled

G.R. Oetzel, unpublished work, 2003

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Prepartum Stocking Density (freestalls)

1st Test Milk (Lact 2+)

70

75

80

85

90

95

100

70%

80%

90%

100%

110%

120%

130%

140%

150%

160%

170%

180%

190%

200%

Stocking Density (at Calving)

1st

Tes

t (L

bs

Mil

k)

Overton and Sischo, unpublished results, 2004

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Typical Ration Guidelines1

Far Dry High Forage Close-Up

Crude Protein 12.5-13% 14 – 15.5%

NEL 0.58-0.62 Mcal/lb 0.62-0.65 Mcal/lb

MCal 14-15 MCal NEL 15-17 MCal NEL

Metabolizable Protein 900 – 1000 g 1100 - 1200 g

NFC 24 - 28% 28 - 32%

Starch 12 - 16% 16 - 19%

NDF 50% 42 - 45%

Vit A 80,000 IU 100,000 IU

Vit E 1000 – 1200 IU 2000-3000 IU

DMI ~ 30 lbs 24 – 28 lbs

1Nutrition recommendations adapted in part from Tom Overton, presentation at 2012 U. Minn. NCE-DVM, St. Peter, Minn)

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Transitional Management Key # 2:Reduce Risk and Impact of Dystocia

• Negative effects on:– Calves

• More likely to die at birth• More likely to get sick before weaning• Higher death rate prior to weaning

– Cow performance• Greater risk of premature culling, especially in first lactation• Reduced milk production• Greater risk of metritis• Reduced reproductive performance

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Reducing the Effects of Dystocia

• Feed and manage heifers to calve at 22-24 months with adequate frame size but not fat– Need to measure heights AND weights periodically to check program– Breed based on frame size, not age

• Provide clean, dry stress-free area for calving• Provide proper calving assistance training to employees• Improve reproductive efficiency in milking cows to reduce # of

fat cows in herd– Long days in milk (poor repro) and low milk increase risk of high BCS

• Use calving ease sires and reduce/avoid use of natural service bulls in heifer pens

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Milk Fever

• Subclinical hypocalcemia affects many cows

• Clinical hypocalcemia normally < 5-6%

• Increased risk for– Older cows (3+ parity)– Jerseys– High producing cows

• Associated with increased risk of– Ketosis, LDA, impaired reproductive performance

Erb, H. N. and Y. T. Grohn. 1988. J Dairy Sci 71(9):2557-2571.

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HYPOCALCEMIA (clinical or subclinical)

¯ Involution

¯ Uterine motility¯ Rumen, digestive tract motility

­ Ketosis

­ DA

­ Body reserve mobilization­ Metritis

¯ EB

¯ MILK YIELD ¯ FERTILITY

­ RP¯ Feed intake

¯ Smooth muscle function

¯ Immune

function

Hypocalcemia, feed intake, and immune function are interrelated – All are critical for early lactation production and health

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Management of Milk Fever(clinical and subclinical hypocalcemia)

Management of Dry Cow Nutrition

• Traditional approach:– Restrict Ca intake prepartum– < 40 g/d– Actually needs to be < 20

g/d• Less than the 30 g/ day that is

needed by the cow

– Results in activation of PTH, osteoclasts and renal tubular absorption

• System is ready for increased demand at calving

• DCAD approach– Balance cations (Na and

K) and anions (Cl and S)– Goal:

• Negative DCAD• Slight metabolic acidosis

– Result: increased tissue responsiveness to PTH

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Transitional Management Key # 4:Minimize Impact of Infectious Disease

• Two key infectious diseases that impact fresh cows:– Mastitis– Metritis

• Means to lower risk of infection:– Good immune function PRE- and POST-Partum– Maintain adequate calcium balance– Minimize impact of environment– Minimize risk/ impact of dystocia– Minimize risk of metabolic diseases

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ImmunitySpecific organs, tissues, cells, and molecules work together to form the immune system and help protect the cow from infectious disease.

To help understand such a complex system, immunologists will commonly group the functions of the immune system into two categories

1. Innate immunity, also known as native immunity

2.Acquired immunity, also known as adaptive immunity

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The Big Picture• The defense against infective microbes works as a series of layers of

increasing levels of protection. When invading microbes overtake the

first layer, the next layer attempts to stop them. This defense is possible

by

– Early reactions of the innate immune system (minutes to hours)

– Later events of the acquired immune system (hours to days)

• Both systems work in a coordinated fashion and overlap to a certain degree

Tizard IR. Veterinary Immunology - An Introduction. 8th ed. St. Louis, MO: Saunders Elsevier; 2009.

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The Innate Immune Response

• The innate immune system represents the first line of active defense against invading pathogens

• The non-specific or innate immune system consists of three major systems1. Physical barriers

2. Inflammatory responses

3. Phagocytic response

Physical Barriers

Inflammatory Response

Phagocytic Response1

1(http://classes.midlandstech.edu/carterp/Courses/bio225/chap16/lecture3.htm , last accessed on 2/7/13)

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Cells of the Innate Immune System

• Monocytes are only found in the blood. When they enter the tissue they are called macrophages. Macrophages aid in phagocytosis of foreign cells

• Monocytes/Macrophages• Neutrophils • Neutrophils (a type of granulocyte) are

the first of the circulating defense cells

to respond and migrate to sites of

infection. Neutrophils bind to and

phagocytose invading microorganisms.

They are considered the key

phagocytic cell of the innate immune

system

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Acquired Immune Response

• The acquired immune system has to recognize and destroy foreign invaders and then retain their memory so that if the animal encounters the same organism again, the immune system will respond more quickly and effectively

• Developing acquired immune response is a complex interaction between the animal and pathogen and will be dependent upon the dose and strength of the pathogen as well as the duration of exposure

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Characteristics of the Acquired Immune System

• Slower response than the innate immune system

• Requires the presence of specific antigens

• Acquires the ability to produce specific antibodies to antigens

• Memory response which is amplified by repeated exposure

• Two major components of the Acquired Immune System1. Humoral immunity (antibodies)

2. Cell mediated immunity

• Acquired immunity is the basis behind all vaccination strategies

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Lymphocytes• The key white blood cell of the acquired immune response is

the lymphocyte

• Lymphocytes are the cells that specifically recognize and respond to foreign antigens

• Lymphocytes circulate between the blood stream and the lymphatic system, unlike other white blood cells that once they enter the tissue they stay there

• There are two major subpopulations of lymphocytes that differ in how they recognize antigens and in their functions– B Lymphocyte– T Lymphocyte

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Periparturient Immune Suppression

• Endocrine changes and physiologic stress of the transition period lead to compromised (i.e. suppressed) immune function.1 While this compromise (i.e. suppression) is multifactorial, it is related to:

– Energy balance

– Ketones and non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA)

– Calcium metabolism

– Glucocorticoids

• Adequate nutrition, a clean environment, and management decisions help manage immune function in the periparturient period.

1. Goff J 2008. Transition Cow Immune Function and Interaction with Metabolic Diseases

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Immune Dysfunction as a Contributing Cause of Retained Placenta

• Theory proposed by Gunnink1-3

– When blood supply to placenta ceases, it becomes a “foreign body”

– Maternal immune system must recognize and attack– Cotyledons from RP cows had less leukocyte

chemoattractant than cotyledons from normal cows– Reduced chemotaxis in neutrophils from RP cows

• Follow-up work by Kimura et al4– Neutrophils from RP cows had lower function pre-calving

1Gunnink JW. Vet Q. Apr 1984;6(2):49-51.; 2 Gunnink JW. Vet Q. Apr 1984;6(2):52-54.; 3Gunnink JW. Vet Q. Apr 1984;6(2):55-57.4Kimura et al, 2002. J Dairy Sci 85:544-550

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Periparturient Energy Metabolism, Immune Function and Disease

Severe or Poor Response toNegative Energy Balance

(i.e., low DMI)

Reduced Function of NeutrophilsAnd/or Lymphocytes

Increased Disease Susceptibility

Mastitis• Incidence• Severity• Duration

Retained Placenta

Uterine Infections• Endometritis• Chronic infections?

Hypocalcemia (clinical or subclinical)

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Transitional Management Key # 5:

Promote Rapid Return to Positive Energy Balance (Maximize Fresh Cow Feed Intake)

• Goal: – Rapid rise in feed intake

• Result:– Less risk of ketosis problems– Higher first test– Higher peak milk– Less weight loss– Reduced time to first ovulation

Reduce stressors holding cows

back!

A. Reduce the impact of fresh cow

disease

– Ketosis, metritis, MF

B. Improve cow comfort

C. Provide consistent high quality

feed

D. Watch stocking density

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Time Management (Cow’s Perspective)

Milking time 2-3 hrs (3)Eating/ Drinking 5-6 hrs (5)Socialization/ walking 2-3 hrs (2)Standing in stalls 1-2 hrs (1)Lying 12-14 hrs (13) 24What about Management???

Fresh Cow MonitoringBreedingTAIetc.

Milking

Eating

Socializing

Standing

Lying

Grant, R. J. 2009. Pages 7-17 in Proc. Western Dairy Management Conference, Reno, NV.

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Time Mis-Management (Cow’s Perspective)

Milking time 2-3 hrs (5)Eating/Drinking 5-6 hrs (4)Socialization/Walking 2-3 hrs (2)Standing in stalls 1-2 hrs (1)Forced lockup < 1 hr (2)Lying 12-14 hrs (10) 24• Consider:

– -2 or -8 lb milk loss– Extra 0.25 to 0.75

BCS loss over 100 days

Milking

Eating

Socializing

Standing

Lying

Grant, R. J. 2009. Pages 7-17 in Proc. Western Dairy Management Conference, Reno, NV.

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Dry Matter Intake is the Driver Behind Early Cyclicity, NOT Milk Production

DMI (lbs) at -7 days

DMI (lbs) early lact

Body wt loss (30 DIM) Milk (lbs/d)

Early Ov 33 45 -90 108

Late Ov 26 40 -150 109

Butler 2006, Penn State Dairy Cattle Nutrition Workshop, 51-60.

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*Five Transition Management Keys*

1. Minimize DMI depression prepartum– Must meet MP and ME needs to the cow, calf and colostrum

– Goal is to minimize risk of metabolic disease

2. Minimize risk and effects of dystocia

3. Minimize risk and effects of hypocalcemia/ hypomagnesemia

4. Minimize the impact of mastitis and metritis– Optimize immunocompetence

5. Promote rapid return to positive energy balance (Maximize rise in feed intake after calving)

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Thanks For Your Attention!

Michael Overton, DVM, MPVM

(706) 248-4664

moverton@elanco.com