UNIT 1. DESIGN

INTRODUCTION

Previous modules have addressed the importance of visual literacy, theories related to learning and visual literacy, and suggestions for creating effective and efficient instructional visuals.

Module 3 is the first of three principles related to visual design and development for instruction: selection.

Selection refers to the tendency of the mind to pay attention to what is dominant in an image.

Figure-ground distinctions are important in this regard because whatever the mind is attending to is the figure, and whatever the mind is ignoring is the ground.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL

VISUALS

Mayer identified seven characteristics of effective visuals (the “7 C’s”):1.Concentrated2.Concise3.Correspondent4.Concrete5.Coherent6.Comprehensible7.CodableThree of these principles have immediate implications for the principle of selection:

Concentrated – emphasizes key points or concepts in both graphic and textual elements

Concise – visual information is reduced to only that which is essential

Concrete – elements that facilitate the ability of the viewer to visualize

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CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL

VISUALS One strategy to use in responding to the 3 C’s is to

improve the figure-ground. The principle of figure/ground is one of the most basic

laws of perception and one that is used extensively to help us design instructional visuals.

The principle was first introduced by the Danish phenomenologist Edgar Rubin (1886-1951).

In its basic sense, it refers to our ability to separate elements based upon contrast: that is, dark and light, black and white.

In this discussion, we'll expand this definition from one of simple biological perception to one that includes abstract concepts such as subject/background and positive/negative space.

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FIGURE-GROUND

You'll have trouble seeing this albino elk during a recent snow storm...

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FIGURE-GROUND

...but you can see him now, because there is sufficient contrast for your eye to perceive him against the background.

This is a simple use of the principle of figure/ground.

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FIGURE-GROUND

Often our identification of the figure is helped by its position within the image.

Most often, the figure is in the foreground—like this boy fishing.

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FIGURE-GROUND

Sometimes the figure/ground distinction is blurred on purpose.

What do you see in the image on the right?

Faces? Or a chalice? When the figure and ground

are equally balanced, we can be confused by the result.

Basically, we seem to have an innate tendency to perceive one aspect of an event as the figure or foreground and the other as the ground or background.

There is only one image here, and yet, by changing nothing but our attitude, we can see two different things.

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• Notice how the image fluctuates between the two possibilities even though the image on your retina remains constant.

• It is difficult to perceive both meaningful images simultaneously.

FIGURE-GROUND

This ambiguity can become a "figure/ground flip."

Sometimes, we can deliberately create an image in which the most obvious choice for the figure (it's readily recognizable in the foreground) is not really the subject.

In this picture, the subject of the photo is the light and clouds--not the father and child fishing.

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FIGURE-GROUND

Again, “figure-ground is a perception principle that explains how the limited information-processing capacity of the human mind forces people to focus on one stimulus at a time rather than several.” (Lohr, p. 102)

Two forms of attention are evident relative to figure-ground: What the learner is paying attention to, or selecting (the

figure) and What the learner is not paying attention to (the ground)

Thus, what we seek to do in designing instructional visuals is implement figure-ground relationships that improve instruction by simply making the most important elements stand out.

Using the 3 C’s (concentrated, concise, concrete) effectively will help achieve optimal figure-ground relationships.

Eliminating some non-essential elements reduces cognitive load, or the demands placed upon short-term memory.

This makes instruction easier and more efficient. Conserve “data ink” (anything that is not white space) to

enhance figure-ground.MODULE 3. SELECTION PRINCIPLE: FIGURE & GROUND

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THREE TYPES OF FIGURE-GROUND PROBLEMS

1. Competing Figure and Ground When the figure and ground compete with each other,

the viewer is forced to decide which element is the most important.

2. Reversal of Figure and Ground Reversal of figure and ground are confusing and

misleading for the viewer. Unnecessary embellishments “junk up” a visual.3. Figure, Ground, and Optical Illusion The Danish psychologist Edgar Rubin popularized optical

illusions with the famous vase/profile illusion shown earlier.

Such illusions also create confusion and can be misleading for the viewer.

Some notable examples of optical illusions follow.MODULE 3. SELECTION PRINCIPLE: FIGURE & GROUND

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FIGURE, GROUND, AND OPTICAL ILLUSIONS

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MODULE 3. SELECTION PRINCIPLE: FIGURE & GROUND

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OPTICAL ILLUSIONS

FIGURE, GROUND, AND OPTICAL ILLUSIONS

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FIGURE, GROUND, AND OPTICAL ILLUSIONS: THE 1+1=3 PHENOMENON

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I loveParis in

thethe Spring-

time!

Two figures may combine to form a third, often unanticipated and misleading image.

FIGURE, GROUND, AND OPTICAL ILLUSIONS:

THE 1+1=3 PHENOMENON

Poorly designed visuals often create this effect by utilizing too many different, competing signals for the viewer: visual, auditory, motion.

Another common error occurs when the “container” for information becomes the figure rather than the ground.

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FIGURE/GROUND

Yellow text on a white background or

Blue text on a black background, is difficult to read because of the

low level of contrast between figure and ground

Some color combinations, such as blue and red, cause illusions

when positioned together

• When we create visuals that are intended to be read, offering the viewer enough contrast between the background (paper or screen) and the text is important.

• Text presentations ideally offer at least an 80% contrast between figure and ground. (Black text on a white background is ideal.)

• If there is not enough contrast between figure and ground, a viewer will squint to view the text, causing eye fatigue.

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FIGURE-GROUND AND THE NOVELTY EFFECT

Novel images may create confusion and impede understanding.

The viewer utilizes cognitive energies in focusing on irrelevant information.

These cognitive resources might be expended trying to translate what an image, especially a novel image, means.

Collect and use novel images judiciously with a clear understanding of the visual abilities of the learners for whom the image is intended.

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FIGURE/GROUND20

ACTIONS AND TOOLS

The preceding was intended to sensitize you to the challenges presented in creating a good balance between figure and ground.

There are no simple rules or formulas to guide you, other than what we just discussed.

Tools and actions discussed thus far can be of immeasurable value in helping you maximize the instructional potential for your visuals.

Contrast is the primary technique you will apply in this regard. Tools that will help achieve contrast include:

Type – size and density Shape – draw the eye to important elements Color – make elements more noticeable Dimensions – images that are larger or seem to advance

attract attention White space – “There is no sin in white space.”

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GENERATIVE STRATEGIES

Thus far, we have focused on how the teacher/designer develops visuals for instruction.

The focus has been on identifying and utilizing strategies and principles that will improve learner perception and understanding.

As the designer, you are doing some of the work for the learners by organizing the information up front, so to speak.

Thus, they do not have to expend much mental energy in interpretation.

On some occasions, it is desirable to have the learners do the organizing and development.

Thus, it is important to utilize generative strategies that require learners to generate their own meaning by:

Outlining content Creating organizational charts, mental images and analogies Summarizing information in their own words

These approaches will help learners think deeply about the information and, consequently, learn more thoroughly.

The use of generative strategies will require that learners utilize principles of figure-ground (see Figure 5-11, p. 115).

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LESSON FOLLOW-UP

Find a research article that deals with figure-ground theory. As you are searching for this article, keep in mind that the

word "figure-ground" may not help you locate research. Instead, look for articles that emphasize "attention,"

"motivation," "clarity," "information access," "multiple channel processing," "effectiveness of headings," and other terms that deal with the concept of figure-ground.

You can be creative with this search. The idea is to find research that deals with helping people

perceive what is important in an image. Discuss (share) this article with your classmates in the

discussion in WebCt. Include this article in your portfolio.

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