i

Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name

DN : CN = Weabmaster’s name

O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka

OU = Innovation Centre

Odimba Rita

Faculty of Education

Department of Science Education

EFFECT OF STUDENTS IMPROVISED INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

ON SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ACHIEVEMENT IN

BIOLOGY

MBEREKPE AUGUSTINE, CHUKWUNYEREMUNWA

REG NO: PG/M.ED/09/50813

ii

TITLE PAGE

EFFECT OF STUDENTS IMPROVISED INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

ON SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ACHIEVEMENT IN

BIOLOGY

By

MBEREKPE AUGUSTINE, CHUKWUNYEREMUNWA

REG NO: PG/M.ED/09/50813

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

JULY, 2013

iii

Certification

Mberekpe Augustine, Chukwunyeremunwa, a postgraduate student of the Department of Science

Education with Registration Number PG/M.ED/09/50813 has satisfactorily completed the

requirements for the degree of Masters in Science Educational. The work embodied in this project is

original and has not been submitted in part or full for any other Degree of this or any other

university.

Mberekpe, Augustine. C Prof. U. M. Nzewi

PG/M.Ed./ 09/40813 Supervisor

iv

Approval Page

This project has been approved for the Department of Science Education, University

of Nigeria.

By

Prof. U. M. Nzewi External Examiner

Supervisor

Internal Examiner Prof. D. N. Ezeh

Head of Department

Prof. I. Ifeloni

Dean of Faculty

v

Dedication

Dedication

This work is dedicated to my beloved wife and children

vi

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the Lord, God Almighty, who by His infinite grace and mercy has

kept me alive and enabled me to complete this study. My gratitude goes to my

supervisor, Prof. U. M. Nzewi for her wonderful guidance, careful and thorough

supervision of this work.

Immeasurable thanks must go to Prof. B. G. Nworgu, Prof. D. N. Ezeh, Dr. L.

N. Nworgu, Dr. Anyaegbunnam and other academic and non academic staffs of the

department of science education for their contributions to the completion of this work.

I remain eternally grateful to my wife Mberekpe Priscilla Baikwe and children

for their moral support.

Finally, I thank my friend Miss, Okoyefi, Queendaline for her supports. My

gratitude also goes to Mrs. Tongha. J. and to all the members of JOBI Mberekpe’s

family and to my in-laws.

Mberekpe Augustine, C

Reg No: Pg/M.Ed/09/50813

July, 2013

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE i

CERTIFICATION ii

APPROVAL PAGE iii

DEDICATION iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v

TABLE OF CONTENTS vi

LIST OF TABLES vii

ABSTRACT x

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study……………………………………………………………… 1

Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………………13

Purpose of the Study…………………………………………………………………...14

Significance of the Study………………………………………………………………14

Scope of the Study……………………………………………………………………..16

Research Questions…………………………………………………………………….16

Hypotheses……………………………………………………………………………..17

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

Conceptual Framework…………………………………………………………… ....18

Importance of Science (Biology) Teaching in School ………………………………....18

Academic Achievements in Biology and its Impediments.......................................…...19

Factors Influencing Students’ Achievement...…............................................................ 21

Resources in the Teaching/Learning Process……….………………………………… 22

Factors that Affects the Use of Instructional Materials…………………………………23

Improvisation …………………………………………………………………………..24

Improvisation in Science, its Concept, Significant and Problem………………..…….. 31

Factors to be Considered in Planning Improvisation…………………………………...37

viii

Preserving Improvised Instructional Materials………………………………………….42

Theoretical Framework………………………………………………………………..43

Brunner’s Theory of Cognitive Development…………………………………….…….43

Piaget’s Cognitive Theory of Learning…………………………………………….……46

Review of Empirical Studies….……………………………………………………….48

Studies on Effects of Improvised Instructional Materials on Students’ Achievement…39

Studies on Effects of Gender and Location on Students’ Achievement…………….…43

Summary of Literature Review……………………………………………………….55

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD

Design of the Study……………………………………………………………………..57

Area of the Study………………………………………………………………………..57

Population………………………………………………………………………………..58

Sample and Sampling Techniques………………………………………………….........58

Instrument for Data Collection……………………………………………………….…58

Validation of the Instrument…………………………………………………………….59

Reliability of the Instrument………………………………………………………….…59

Experimental Procedure…................................................................................................59

Control of Extraneous of Extraneous Variables…………………………………………60

Method of Data Collection……………………………………………………………. 61

Method of Data Analysis……………………………………………………………… 61

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS

Summary of Findings

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS,

IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATION

Discussion

Conclusion

Educational Implications of the Study

ix

Recommendations

Limitations of the Study

Suggestions for Further Study

Summary of the Study

REFERENCES 124

x

LIST OF TABLES

Page

1. Mean (X ) and Standard Deviation (SD) achievement scores of students taught

biology with students’ improvised instructional materials. 63

2. Mean (X ) and Standard Deviation (SD) achievement scores of male and female

students’ taught biology with student’s improvised instructional materials. 64

3. Mean (X ) and Standard Deviation (SD) achievement scores of rural and urban

students’ taught biology with student’s improvised instructional materials. 64

4. Mean (X ) and Standard Deviation (SD) interaction effect of gender and method 65

5. Means (X ) and Standard Deviation (SD) interaction effect of location and method 66

6. Analysis of covariance for students overall achievement scores in biology by method,

gender and location with interaction effect of gender, location and method 67

xi

Abstract

The study investigated the effects of student’s improvised instructional materials on students’

achievement in Biology. This study became necessary because of the unavailability of

instructional materials for teaching biology in the secondary schools. The study employed a

quasi experimental design, specifically the pretest – posttest non equivalent group design.

One hundred and forty SSI students from potiskum Education Zone from 2 schools randomly

drawn from public primary schools in Potiskum education zone of Yobe State formed sample

of the study. Three experts validated the instrument Biology Achievement Test (BAT). Five

research questions were answered and five hypotheses were tested. The data were analyzed

using mean, standard deviation and ANCOVA. The results revealed that students taught

using improvised instructional materials performed better than students taught using

conventional material; male students did not perform better than their female counterparts in

Biology; rural students performed better than urban students in biology; The results do not

suggest ordinal interaction effect between mode of method and gender on students’

achievement in biology. This was because at all the levels of gender, the mean scores were

higher for student’s improvised instructional material; the result suggests ordinal interaction

effects between modes of method and location on students’ achievement in Biology; this was

because at all the levels of location, the mean scores were higher for student’s improvised

instructional material compared to conventional materials with lower mean scores; there was

significant difference in the mean score of students taught using students improvised

instructional material and those taught using conventional instructional materials; there was

no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male and female students in

biology; there was significant difference in the mean achievement scores of urban and rural

students in biology; The interaction effect of method and gender on students mean

achievement scores in Biology was, not statistically significant. The interaction effect of

method and location on students’ mean achievement scores in Biology was, not statistically

significant. Based on the findings and implications, it was recommended that teaching of

Biology in secondary school should be conducted in a manner that students will effectively

understand and learn the concept taught. It was suggested that further research could be

carried out on this topic using true experimental research design.

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Science is the bedrock on which modern day technological breakthrough is hinged.

Different authors according to their own understanding have defined Science. Igwe (2003)

defined science as a systematic study of the nature of the behaviour of the material and

physical universe through observation, experimentation, measurement and recording. In

addition, Esu (2004) defined science as a systematic, precise, objective way to study the

natural world. Science is often an exciting and satisfying enterprise that requires creativity,

skill and insight based on this Fape (2007) defined science as rationally structured knowledge

about nature, which embraces systematic methods of positive attitudes for its acquisition,

teaching, learning and application.

The major goal of science education is to develop scientifically literate individuals

that are concerned with high competence for rational thoughts and actions. The objectives of

science education in this country according to Maduekwe (2006) include the need to prepare

students to observe and explore the environment, explain simple natural phenomena, develop

scientific attitudes including curiosity, critical reflection and objectivity, apply the skills and

knowledge gained through science to solve everyday problems in the environment, develop

self-confidence and self-reliance through problem solving activities in science.

In recent times, countries all over the world, especially the developing ones like

Nigeria, are striving hard to develop technologically and scientifically, since the world is

turning Scientific and all proper functioning of lives depend greatly on Science. According to

Ogunleye (2006), Science is a dynamic human activity concerned with understanding the

workings of our world. This understanding helps man to know more about the universe.

Without the application of science, it would have been difficult for man to explore the other

2

planets of the universe. Science comprises the basic disciplines such as Physics, Chemistry,

Mathematics and Biology.

Biology is one of the science subjects that senior secondary school students offer at the

senior levels in the Nigerian secondary schools, (FRN, 2004). Biology is a very important

science subject and a requirement for further learning of a number of science-related

professional courses like medicine, agriculture, pharmacy, etc. In contemporary Nigeria,

greater emphasis is placed on science and technological development. As a result, students

are being encouraged to take up science-related subjects. Today, Biology pervades literally

every field of human endeavour, and plays a fundamental role in educational advancement.

This is seen in all the technological advancement in the world today, which is because of

scientific investigations. However, the issue remains that in most secondary schools in

Nigeria, there is high rate of failure in the subject.

Studies have shown that secondary school students are exhibiting low interest in

Biology (Esiobu, 2005). This low interest of students in biology has been traced to poor

achievement in examinations. In our match towards scientific and technological

advancement, we need nothing short of good achievement in biology at all levels of

schooling. Unfortunately, achievement of students in biology at the end of the secondary

school has not improved in the last decade (Umoinyang, 1999). Folorunso (2004) has linked

poor achievement trend in biology particularly to the lack of instructional resources in

schools due to poor funding of schools. The poor funding of schools has hindered the

principals from providing the teachers with adequate instructional resources.

The National Policy on Education (FME, 2004) emphasizes the need for teaching and

learning of science processes and principles. The policy recommends practical, exploratory

and experimental methods of teaching. In this regards, Okebukola (2004) stated that the basic

tools that science uses in the learning of science processes are the instructional materials.

3

Studies have shown that the use of instructional materials have improved achievement

(George, 2008) and Nwagbo (2006). Instructional materials are wide varieties of equipment

and materials use for teaching and learning by teachers to stimulate self-activity on the part of

the students. The teaching of Biology without instructional materials may certainly result in

poor academic achievement. Poor academic achievement in Biology could also be attributed

to many factors such as, low interest of students in biology, inadequate motivation from

teacher, poor incentives to biology teachers, lack of adequate supply of instructional material,

lack of qualified teachers, and use of teacher centered instructional strategies, inadequate use

of instructional materials and use of abstract standardized materials. Among these factors,

teacher’s use of abstract standardized instructional strategy is considered as an important

factor in this study.

This implies that the mastery of Biology concepts might not be fully achieved

without the use of instructional resources that the students are abreast with. The teaching of

Biology without instructional materials may certainly result in poor academic achievement.

Folorunso (2004) observed that there is lack of adequate and appropriate instructional

resources for effective teaching of Biology in schools. For Ibitoye and Fape (2007), the poor

achievement in biology was traced to poor usage of instructional resources for biology

teaching and learning, poor state of infrastructure facilities, large class size, poor teaching,

use of faulty assessment practice, and inadequacy of quality teachers. According to

Okebukola (2004), the poor state of laboratory facilities and inadequate use of instructional

materials has constituted a cog in the wheel of students’ achievement in Biology in the Senior

School Examination. The verbal exposition does not promote skill acquisition, objectivity,

and critical thinking abilities that will enable the child to function effectively in the society.

This according to the researcher leads to poor achievement of students in the subject.

Okebukola and Jegede (1986) stressed that a professionally qualified Biology teacher no

4

matter how well trained, would be unable to put his ideas into practice if the school setting

lacks the equipment and material resources necessary for him or her to translate his

competence into reality.

The report of West African Examination Council (WAEC) on the Senior Secondary

School Certificate Examination (SSCE) (2011) on student enrolment and performance in

Nigeria by subject, grade, and sex revealed low enrolment of girls for science subjects as well

as low academic achievement in biology and other science subjects and the persistent poor

achievement of students in biology at senior school certificate examination (WAEC; Chief

Examiner’s report 2007-2010), leaves one in doubt about the effectiveness of instructional

materials and teaching methods popularly used by the biology teachers for the teaching and

learning of biology.

On this note, resources are seen as materials, which help in doing something. For

example, flour, sugar, water, and so on serve as resources for the preparation of bread or

cake. In the classroom situation, resources are materials or devices that are used to facilitate

teaching and learning. National Teachers Institute (2010) reported that resources in the

classroom can be classified into two broad categories, those that appeal to the sense of sight

which are classified as visual resources and those which appeal to the sense of hearing,

classified as audio materials. There are also those that combine both features and are

classified as audio-visual (A-V) materials. Isola (2010) referred to instructional resources as

objects or devices, which help the teacher to make a lesson much clearer to the learner.

Instructional materials are also described as concrete or physical objects, which provide

sound, visual, or both to the sense organs during teaching (Agina-obu, 2005).

The teaching of Biology cannot be done effectively without interaction between the

teacher, students and the environmental resources. The Biology curriculum is planned to

enable the teacher use activity oriented, child-centred approach (guided inquiry) to teach

5

(Nzewi & Nwosu, 2010). However, evidence from research has shown that instructional

materials, resources and equipments for science, especially biology are either in short supply

or are completely lacking in schools to the extent that most teachers end up with verbal

exposition of scientific principles, facts and concepts. Studies have also revealed that the

achievement of Nigerian students in Ordinary Level Biology was generally and consistently

poor over the years (Nwagbo, 2010). This has been a major source of concern to the school

administrators, parents and the government at large.

Bassey (2002) opined that Biology is resource intensive, and in an era of poor funding

or scarcity of resources, it may be very difficult to find some of the original materials and

equipment for the teaching of Biology in schools adequately. A situation that is further

compounded by the galloping inflation in the country and many at times, some of the

imported sophisticated materials and equipment are found to be expensive and irrelevant

;hence the need to produce materials locally. Researchers such as Ogunleye (2002) and

Obioha (2006) reported that there were inadequate resources for teaching biology in

secondary schools in Nigeria. The authors further stated that the available ones are not

usually in good conditions in most cases. According to Abolade (2004), some of the factory

produced/imported instructional materials have also been discovered to be based on foreign

ideas and culture. It is against this background that the need to fashion out ways by which

local resources can be used for developing instructional materials becomes necessary. There

is the need therefore, for improvisation.

National policy on Education (2004) further stated that the provision and use of

available instructional materials for teaching will lay a sound bases for scientific and

reflective thinking among students. The real materials that are the conventional instructional

materials are imported or factory made laboratory equipments for science teaching. Examples

6

of conventional instructional materials are: microscope, herbarium, laboratory reagents,

laboratory glassware, Bunsen burner, tripod stand.

However, if these conventional Instructional Materials are not available or inadequate,

they can be locally made by using resources in the environment as alternative. These will

include used electrical bulb for round bottom flask; beverage tins for convex and concave

mirror; juices of unripe orange as acid, solution of ash from wood as base, candle or stove as

burner, teaspoon for spatula (Okebukola, 2006). Improvised instructional materials may not

be identical with the conventional one; therefore teachers should be skilful in their handling

and using them (Igwe, 2003). Improvisation requires a considerable development through

imaginative planning and good knowledge.

According to Ajayi (2004), improvisation is the provision of alternatives to real

things. Improvisation is the making of substitutes when the real equipment or material is not

adequate or available (Okebukola, 2002). It is the art of providing and using alternative

materials or resources in the absence of the real or factory made one. Oyediran (2010) also

defines improvisation as the art of using materials or equipment obtained from local

environment or produced by the teacher, and with the assistance of the local personnel to

enhance instruction. In other to teach by inquiry method or use activity based instructions,

improvisation is required since instructional materials seem not to be adequate (Okebukola,

2002). Bassey (2002) defined improvisation as the process of making equipment and

materials by the students or by engaging the services of others in the absence of real or

manufactured ones. Generally, improvisation of instructional materials is an attempt to adapt

and make use of local resources in the teaching/learning process when the ready- made

materials are not available or are in shortfall or not within the reach of users. The teacher and

the students could produce the improvised instructional materials. According to Okebukola

(2002), improvisation in the context of biology can be seen as the process of using alternative

7

resources for enhancing biology teaching in the absence of the real ones. The teacher initiates

the production of the alternative resources, which is constructed by either the teacher or the

local artisans e.g. carpenters blacksmiths etc. The teacher may use the students for

improvising some of the needed materials or equipments.

Improvisation is a technique of originating a very new tool, instrument, materials,

device or modifying existing ones for serving a particular purpose. Improvisation of

instructional materials in secondary schools for teaching/learning purposes cannot be over-

emphasized. To be able to promote quality instruction in our school system, there is the need

to pay attention to improvisation of instructional materials in the teaching/learning process.

Esu (2004) however noted that improvisation demands adventure, creativity, curiosity and

perseverance on the part of the teacher, such skills are only realizable through well-planned

training programme on improvisation. Fajola (2008) sees improvisation from the creativity

involved. These creativity are substitution and construction. Substitution in improvisation

simply implies the techniques whereby an already local material is used in place of a piece of

equipment that is not available whereas construction involves making of a new instrument to

serve in place of the unavailable original one, where substitution is not possible. Esu (2004),

however asserted that improvisation provides connectivity between students abstract and real

experience of teaching and learning.

Improvisation is a teacher-oriented activity used to effectively carry out the

teaching/learning process successfully. Bassey (2002) identified two main constraints

militating against the successful improvisation of Science equipments. These are the technical

and the human factors respectively. The technical factors relate to the question of degree of

accuracy and precision that is possible with the improvised equipment, the human factor

relates to the teachers’ skill in developing the resources while providing the appropriate

learning experience to the learners. In addition, Mbajiorgu (2003) reported lack of adequate

8

professional training as a major problem militating against the effective use of local resources

for Science teaching. (Isola, 2010) then stressed the need for a definite well planned training

programme of improvisation for teachers. Isola (2010) suggested regular meaningful

workshop on improvisation technique for Science teachers to improve and update their

competence. The use of teacher produced improvised instructional materials and exposure of

students to resources available in their immediate environment for instruction at this level

brings students to real world of activities and may help students gain scientific skills. The

environment of the school as well as the homes of teachers provide rich sources of materials

and a resourceful teacher can on his/her own or with the help of the students and other

members of the society, improvise these materials for teaching/learning purpose. The use of

improvised instructional materials for Biology teaching has been long advocated (Olumorin,

2004). For Olumorin (2004), the production of instructional materials had undergone several

reviews and processes by experts from various fields.

Improvisation serves the following purposes in the education system: It reduces the

money spent on the purchase of equipment in educational institutions; ensures the realization

of lesson objectives; helps in solving the problem of lack of equipment in educational

institutions; gives room for a teacher to demonstrate his creative skills and gives room for the

use of cheap local materials as alternatives to the expensive foreign ones (Olumorin, 2004).

The researcher stated that improvisation encourages students towards the development of

creative abilities; strengthen enquiry, discovery and investigative method in sciences; it

provides a frame of reference on which students can key their attention during classroom

activities; enables teacher to think of cheaper, better and faster methods of making teaching

learning process easier for students; affords students the opportunity of becoming familiar

with resources in their environment.

9

Owolabi (2003) suggested that students should be given opportunity to discover and

invent things; hence the teachers should allow the students to acquire skills that will make

them learn on their own. It must be noted that learners achieved more when they are allowed

to manipulate apparatus rather than mere listeners. In a case, for instance where there is

inadequate or total absence of a standard or universally accepted materials or equipment for

teaching the students with the assistance of the teacher will have to produce locally, a

substitute of the standard material. This will help in teaching and learning of science. This

process helps to develop creativity and the spirit of resourcefulness among the teacher and the

students. Most importantly, the teacher should make sure that these materials produced or

substituted will be able to serve the same purpose as the conventional equipment which this

research is all about. In this study, locally sourced instructional materials/aids that could be

improvised are charts, posters, evaporating dish (from tin lids), round bottomed flask (from

used electric bulbs), filter funnel (from wide mouthed glass containers), chromosome DNA

(Deoxyribonucleic acid) model (from maize glued with plasticizer), rain-gauge (from a

plastic funnel on top of a gas jar or tin corked) and a host of others.

In another development, Okpala (1992) observed that the use of instructional

materials in teaching and learning process has not received the desired attention in Nigerian

schools and colleges, yet teachers seem to have continued to pay deaf ears to the stress on the

importance of instructional materials in teaching biology. Biology teachers and students

therefore should have a solid understanding of the basic concepts and processes of science in

order to construct meaningful Biology activities that address all students’ diverse experience

and learning styles, so for science learning to be efficient, it must be present as a human

enterprise and a continuing process for extending understanding instead of the ultimate,

unalterable truth. Instruction should minimize rote learning and focus on in-depth

understanding of the major concept and topics. Activities or processes that facilitate this

10

construction of knowledge during improvisation are categorized thus: Use of knowledge in

describing, explaining, predicting, designing and analyzing; construction of new knowledge

through asking questions, solving problems, interpreting result and constructing knowledge;

reflection of knowledge by justifying, criticizing, describing limits, making connections,

taking perspectives and describing interactions. These activities will offer student the

opportunity to dispel misconceptions as they are constructing new scientific knowledge

during improvisation. These practices or experiences could provide high cognitive

achievement in learners. Also, there is need to find out the influences of gender and location

on students achievement in biology.

Gender has been defined as a cultural difference between women and men based on

the biological division between male and female” (Bland, 2003: 9). According to Okeke

(2001) gender refers to the social or cultural construct, characteristics, behaviours and role

which society ascribes to males and females. Gender is a social or cultural determinant that

varies from place to place or culture to culture. It is not universal, unlike sex which is

biologically determined and universal too. In recent times gender related issues in science

education has continued to receive serious attention judging by the quanta of studies done to

that effect. For example Babajide (2010) opined that science subjects are given masculine

outlook by educational practitioners. In addition to this, the studies by Ogunleye (2002)

show that science achievement depends on gender. But, Nwosu (2001) found that students’

acquisition of science process skills are not gender specific. Also, the studies by Ogunleye &

Babajide (2011); Agommuoh & Nzewi, (2003) lend credence to non-significant gender effect

in science achievement. Also, influence of gender on students’ conceptual change has been

equally investigated. Baser (2006) shows that fostering conceptual change does not depend

on gender. However, Madu (2004), and Agomuoh (2010) found that gender influences

students’ conceptual shift in favour of the male.

11

According to Sadker & Zittleman (2005) females flourish when speech and memory

cues are incorporated into learning experiences. Given that females have more advanced

verbal abilities, speeches or presentations and share times. Females have an innate

preference for language and can use more words per minute, have greater writing capabilities,

and can memorize words with great proficiency. Also, Bland (2003) found that females’

students are statically learning inclined. But males get up and move around and avoid

learning that is experienced as static. Learning for boys should emphasize movement and

outdoor activities, which draw on male qualities instead of ignoring them (Okeke, 2001).

Concrete and visual teaching aids are enjoyed by and effective with boys; such as movable

clocks, protractors, thermometer that ensure some hands-on activity (Connell, 2003). The

introduction of humour into explanations and routine aspects of learning has been noticed to

engage male students more effectively (West, 2001). These research findings revealed that

male style of experiencing the world around us differ with that of the females. Males prefer

outdoor activities while the females like indoor activities. These different learning styles

between male and female may account to the variations in their conceptual world. Hence

these may be the sources of misconceptions or naive conceptions in learning biology. So in

effect, any teaching strategy that will repair students’ naive conception must take into

consideration these sources of learning differences. Therefore, one sees that the issue of

gender in science achievement of students has not yet been resolved particularly in relation to

Biology; hence, the need for further study of the influence of gender on student's achievement

in biology when exposed to students’ improvised instructional material. Equally worthy of

mention is school location as it affects student’s achievement in science subjects.

School location means urban and rural schools. Urban schools are those schools

located at satellite towns. They are schools situated at the major cities of a particular country.

While rural schools are, schools located at the villages or semi-villages. Studies indicate that

12

students in urban school perform better in science than their counterpart in the rural schools

(Onah, 2011; and Owoeye, 2002). However, some researchers as Bosede (2010) and Ezeudu

(2003) show that location have no effect on students’ academic achievement. Findings on the

influence of school location on students’ achievement appear inconsistent. In the USA, rural

education is associated with disadvantage in the public discourse. While research on this

matter has not yielded consistent results (Fan & Chen, 1999), it is reasonable to hypothesize

that, if rural disadvantage does exist, it is likely to be found in significant learning gaps in

biology. Rural schools are disproportionately likely to have an inadequate pool of teachers

qualified in these subjects and insufficient funds to maintain up-to-date computers,

instructional software, and laboratory facilities. However, students in the urban schools may

appear likely in a separate conceptual location with their counterpart in the rural schools. This

is partly because they enjoy township amenities unlike their counterpart in the rural schools.

These days, students in the urban schools have access to internet through their phones and

computers, access to online news and information, well qualified teachers that are practically

oriented and well equipped laboratory. Nevertheless, given the nature of Biology, however,

students in the rural schools may likely not to be enjoying all these, but they are closer to

nature than their counterpart in the urban. In the villages, trees, forest lives, and aquatic lives

are common site when compare to cities. So this rare opportunity may place them in another

conceptual location when compare to their counterpart in the cities. Hence, the above views

form the bases for this research- influence of school location on the students’ achievement in

biology when taught with students’ improvised instructional materials.

The interaction effect between gender and treatment has received research attention in

recent times in science education. For example, Baser (2006) found that gender significantly

interacts with the instructional treatment. The interaction could come from the gender

difference in the group who utilized the students’ improvised instructional material.

13

However, Miriogu (2012), Madu (2004), and Agomuoh (2010) found no interaction effect of

gender and instructional treatment. In view of these research inconsistencies, further studies

on interaction effect of gender and instruction method becomes imperative.

On the interaction effect of location and instructional treatment, Odo (1999) found an

interaction effect between location and instructional treatment. However, Momoh (2001) and

Miriogu (2012) have contrary reports on interaction effect of school location and instructional

treatment. Interestingly in all these studies, none investigated the interaction effect of

location, and instructional treatment on students’ academic achievement. Based on these

controversies, this study therefore seeks to find out the effect location on students’ academic

achievement when taught biology using students improvised instructional materials in senior

secondary schools in Potiskum Educational Zone.

Statement of the Problem

Evidence from the studies reviewed shows that failure rate in biology at senior certificate

examinations is high. This could be attributed to a number of factors; one of such factors is

lack or total absence of instructional materials. In teaching and learning, instructional

materials play a key role towards concretizing learning. Instructional materials make learning

meaningful and help to improve students’ academic achievement. However these advantages

of instructional materials have not reflected in the education system because of the dearth of

these instructional materials in our schools. Hence, the need for alternative instructional

materials called improvisation.

Biology is resource intensive, and in an era of poor funding or scarcity of resources, it

may be very difficult to find some of the original materials and equipment for the teaching of

Biology in schools adequately, improvisation becomes the next option. Studies have shown

the importance of improvisation in teaching of Biology. All these studies used conventional

instructional materials, but there have not been studies specifically on the effect of students’

14

improvised instructional materials on students’ achievement in Biology. This study therefore,

is geared towards finding out if the use of students’ improvised instructional materials could

bring a solution to the problem of poor achievement of students in biology. Hence, the

problem of this study is therefore posed as a question; what is the effect of students

improvised instructional materials on students’ achievement in Biology?

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of students' improvised

instructional materials on students’ achievement in biology.

This study specifically will determine:

1. effect of students improvised instructional materials and conventional materials on

students’ mean achievement scores in Biology

2. influence of gender on students’ mean achievement scores in biology when taught using

students improvised instructional materials

3. influence of school location on students’ mean achievement scores in biology when

taught using students improvised instructional materials

4. interaction effects of material and gender on students’ mean achievement scores in

biology

5. interaction effect of material and location on students’ mean achievement scores in

biology

Significance of the Study

The theoretical significance of this study is anchored on the cognitive development

theory of Jean Piaget. According to Piaget, children develop knowledge by inventing or

constructing reality out of experience and thus mix their observation with their ideas about

15

how the world works. Piaget’s theory of intellectual development holds that cognitive

development takes place from active interaction of the child with his environment. This

means that the basis of learning is the child’s own ability as he interacts with his physical and

social environment. Piaget is of the opinion that a child must act on the objects in his

environment for him to learn. This means that he should be actively involved not be passive.

The active involvement of the child may be in form of direct manipulation, visual observation

or through mental or internal transportation or change. Therefore, this study will help to

validate Piaget’s theory of cognitive development or question the theory.

This study will be useful to classroom teachers, curriculum planners, students,

researchers and parents. For teachers they will be better informed on how to help and guide

their students on better way of producing improvised materials with local resources where

standardised materials are unavailable or inadequate. The teachers can also engage students

to do some of the illustrations during biology instructions.

This study will help to develop problem solving skill in students and will also help

student to be more resourceful during lessons. The study could be beneficial to curriculum

planners who would design functional curriculum by taking into considerations students-

teachers improvised instructional materials.

The findings of this study, if discussed in workshops and seminars will guide the

choice of improvised instructional materials used in the teaching/learning process in biology

and other subject areas. The findings of this study will equally help to alleviate the problem

of the scarcity of instructional materials for biology teaching/learning.

The results of the study could provide information to researchers interested in

working on student-teachers generated improvised materials in other subject areas. This may

help them to get more information on the efficacy of improvisation, especially researchers in

16

the area of science and technology. Parents will be better informed on how to encourage and

help their wards to produce improvised materials. This may be in form of sourcing local

materials and providing fund for those that cannot be found in their environment.

Scope of the Study

The study is on the effect of students improvised materials on students’ achievement

in biology. This study will be conducted with SS I Biology students in secondary schools in

Potiskum LGA of Yobe state, Nigeria. The contents are:

1. Ecological concepts

2. Ecological factors; type

3. Soil; types and its effects on the vegetation

4. Functioning Ecosystem, food chain, food web and trophic level

Gender and location are the other moderating variables of the study.

Research Questions

The following research questions will guide this study:

1. What is the mean achievement scores of students taught biology using students

improvised instructional materials and those taught using conventional instructional

materials?

2. What is the influence of gender on students’ mean achievement scores in biology when

taught using students improvised instructional materials?

3. What is the influence of school location on students’ mean achievement scores in biology

when taught using student’s improvised instructional materials?

4. What is the interaction effect of material and genders on students’ mean achievement

scores in biology?

17

5. What is the interaction effect of material and locations on students mean achievement

scores in biology when taught using students improvised instructional materials?

Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were formulated to guide this study and will be tested

at 0.05 alpha level of significance.

Ho1: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students taught

biology using students improvised instructional materials and those taught using

conventional instructional materials.

Ho2: There is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of the female

and male students taught biology using students improvised instructional materials

Ho3: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of urban and rural

students taught Biology with students improvised instructional material.

Ho4: there is no significant interaction effect of material and gender on students’ mean

achievement scores in Biology.

Ho5: there is no significant interaction effect of material and locations on students’ mean

achievement scores in Biology.

18

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

The review of related literature is presented under the following sub-headings:

Conceptual Framework

Importance of science/biology teaching in schools

Academic achievement in biology and its impediments

Resources in teaching/learning process

Factors Influencing Student Achievement

Factors that affect the use of instructional resources

Improvisation and skills for improvisation

Factors to be considered in planning improvisation materials

Theoretical Framework

Bruner’s Theory of Cognitive development

Piaget’s Cognitive Theory

Review of Related Empirical Studies

Summary of Literature Review

Conceptual Framework

Importance of Science (Biology) Teaching in Schools

It is a well-known issue today that science influences man in all aspects of life

including feeding, clothing, shelter, health care, communication, transportation, space

19

exploration, as well as leisure. Ayodele,(2000) and Elechi, (2010) inferred that the most

obvious effect of science has been its medical and technological applications, with the

accompanying effects on health care, lifestyles, and social structures. Science also

influences culture in many modern societies by playing a major role in shaping cultural

world views, concepts, and thinking patterns (Abimbola, 1998). It is important to note that

science is useful in the world today. Almost all aspects of man’s life are influenced by

science either directly or indirectly (Eze, 2003). Man needs to be scientifically literate to

exist comfortably in his environment. This informs the need for inclusion of scientific

literacy in the goals of education in Nigeria (FME, 2008). The relevance of science in

development of the nation cannot be over emphasized. Scholars (Ajayi, 2008), agreed that

the growth of any nation to the standard of the 21st century technology should be anchored

on the scientific based knowledge of her subjects. The growth of any nation is a measure of

its advancement in science. Science is a major subject taught in schools all over Nigeria,

and any nation that hopes to develop must not neglect the teaching of science in its schools

(Fakorede, 1999). One of such science subjects is Biology.

Biology can be defined as the science of life (Ogunleye, 2002). It is a science subject

offered in all the senior secondary schools in Nigeria, which is compulsory for both

the science, and Arts oriented students. Odogwu (1998) pointed out that, the teaching of

biology is important because, it equips the students to comprehend the world around them

and equips them with necessary skills to build a progressive society. Similarly, Odogwu

(1998) observed that, biology provides a platform for teaching students the ability to apply

learning of science concepts and principles in solving everyday’s problems.

Biology remains one of the basic sciences whose teaching and learning is universally

known to be efficient and successful, if only undertaken simultaneously with the help of

adequate instructional resources and facilities. Biology plays a vital role in the field of

20

biochemistry, medicine, physiology, ecology, genetics, and molecular biology and as such,

biology has been made a central focus in most human activities including being a solution to

the problem of food scarcity, health, hygiene, family life, poverty eradication, management

and conservation of natural resources, biotechnology, ethics, various social vices and as well

lack of appropriate infrastructural materials.

Biology is one of the science subjects that senior secondary students offer in senior

secondary certificate examinations in Nigeria (FRN, 2004). Interestingly, it is a popular

subject among students and its popular nature among other science subjects has made it

distinct choice for all students (Lawal, 2011). Biology is a very important science subject

and a requirement for further studies of other science related professional courses such as

medicine, agriculture, pharmacy, biotechnology, genetic engineering, etc. Biology is the key

to economic, intellectual, sociological, human resource development and well being of any

society. It is of importance in many ways for both individual and societal development as

seen in biotechnology and genetic engineering (Chukwuneke, 2005). Based on these

assertions on the importance of biology, there is need for it to be properly taught in the

secondary schools to improve students’ achievement in the subject.

Academic Achievement in Biology and its Impediments

Academic achievement refers to a successful accomplishment or Performance in

particular subject area. It is indicated by grades, marks and scores of descriptive

commentaries. Academic performance also refers to how Students deal with their studies and

how they cope with or accomplish different tasks given to them by their teachers in a fixed

time or academic year. Fajola (2008), used the notion of academic self-concept in referring to

Individuals' knowledge and perceptions about themselves in academic achievements, and

convictions that they can successfully perform a given academic tasks at designated levels.

21

Fajola (2008) further stated that academic self-concept represents a more past-oriented,

aggregated and relatively stable judgment about one's self-perceived ability in a particular

academic domain while academic self-efficacy represents a context specific and relatively

future oriented judgment about one's confidence for successfully performing an upcoming

subject-specific academic task. Rothstein (2000) argues that; learning is not only a product of

formal schooling but also of communities, families and peers. Socio-economic and socio-

cultural forces can affect learning and thus school achievement. A great deal of research on

the determinants of school achievement has centered on the relative effects of home-related

and school-related factors. Others argued that in various studies they indicated both home and

school environments have a strong influence on performance of students. Musek (2001:89)

stated that: …there are two broad groups of definitions of academic achievement. The first

one could be considered more objective, because it refers to numerical scores of a pupil’s

knowledge, which measure the degree of a pupil’s adaptation to schoolwork and to the

educational system. The second group is a more subjective one, as its determination of

academic success in reliant upon the student’s attitudes towards his academic achievement

and himself, as well as by the attitudes of significant others towards his/her success and

him/herself. This study focuses on the effect of students’ produced improvised instructional

materials on the academic achievement of students.

Factors Influencing Student Achievement

In contemporary Nigeria, great emphasis is being placed on science and technological

development and also on achievement in examination in the sciences. As a result students are

being encouraged to take up science related subjects. One subject that is paramount is

biology. Today Biology as a subject, pervades literally every field of human endeavour in

relation to medicine, pharmacy, agriculture, etc., and places a fundamental role in educational

advancement. Unfortunately achievement of students in biology at the end of secondary

22

school has not improved in the past decade (Umoingang, 1999). However, the interest of

students in Biology have been related to the volume of work completed, students’ task

orientation and skill acquisition, students personality and self-concept, feeling of inadequacy,

motivation, self-confidence, anxiety, shortage of qualified teachers (Aiken, 2006), poor

facilities, equipment and instructional materials for effective teaching (Odogwu, 2004), use of

traditional chalkboard and talk methods (Edwards & Knight, 2004), large students to teacher

ratio (Williams, 2004), over loaded curriculum (Okebukola, 2002), poor delivery of content,

etc. Research results (Ajagu, 2006) have shown that biology teachers continue to teach using

the lecture method despite the recommended guided discovery/ inquiry methods. The

inability of biology teachers to apply guided inquiry/ discovery approach and other modern

methods of science teaching , might be hinged on some problems which include, lack of

laboratories, equipped with facilities in schools, large class size, lack of qualified teachers,

and incompetency arising from the training of science teachers.

In an effort to improve students’ cognition and affective outcomes in biology and /or

school achievement, educational psychologists and science educators have continued to

search for variables (personal and environmental) that could be manipulated in favor of

academic gains. Of all the personal variables that have attracted researchers in this area of

educational achievement, motivation to improvise instructional materials by students seems

to be gaining more popularity and leading other variables (Tella, 2003). This study therefore,

will help to know if students’ improvised instructional material will improve on students’

achievement in biology.

Resources in Teaching/learning Process

It is a truism that learning is essentially a social process and teaching is only an

instrument of learning. It therefore becomes necessary that a teacher should use all types of

23

machinery in guiding students’ learning and these machineries that can be used in guiding

learning are called instructional or teaching materials/aids NERDC (2009). Teaching/

instructional materials/ aids come under resources for teaching and learning. Teaching/

learning resources are many and varied covering a range of objects, facilities, processes,

locations, and human, from which teachers/ learners can obtain information to meet their

teaching/ learning needs.

For a biology teacher, these resources are indispensible tools in his/her hands for the

achievement of the objectives of teaching. For Nzewi and Nwosu (2009), resources in

teaching process include anything or anybody to which or whom a teacher or a learner can

turn for information or help. Thus, you have teaching and learning resources .e.g. teachers,

doctors, nurses, material resources .e.g. chalkboard/whiteboard, textbooks, magazines, books

.e.g. reference materials, textbooks, magazines, non- printed materials .e.g. Pictures,

drawings, community resources .e.g. farms, hospitals. These resources are indispensible to

good science (Biology), teaching and learning (NERDC, 2009).

Teaching materials or aids are those equipment and materials that a teacher uses to

illustrate, emphasize, and explain a lesson in order to make it clearer to the students. These

materials and equipment include simple familiar objects that can be locally obtained (Nzewi

and Nwosu, 2009). Ahmed (2007) opined that teaching materials are also referred to as

instructional materials or teaching aids. It should be noted that instructional materials or

teaching aids are not and cannot be supplanted for the teaching process itself. However, the

value or importance of teaching materials/ resources cannot be over emphasized. For Nzewi

and Nwosu (2009) the importance of resources for teaching and learning processes is to

provide the teacher with the means of expanding the horizon of experience of students,

thereby seeking to have a counterpart of firsthand experience. Teaching resources help to

provide materials and opportunity for experiment. This ensures students participation in the

24

lesson, which promotes effective learning (Nzewi and Nwosu, 2009). The new science

curriculum used in Nigerian schools is activity- based and emphasizes the acquisition of

productive skills for life- long learning. These require creativity on the part of the teacher in

sourcing for and using appropriate instructional resources for teaching and learning (NPE,

2004). There are factors or challenges militating against the process of sourcing for and using

appropriate instructional resources for teaching and learning (NERDC, 2009).

Factors that affect the use of Instructional Resources

Teachers have been found to have difficulties in selecting and using instructional

materials for teaching. Part of the difficulties has been that teachers tend to teach the way

they were taught in their training (NERCD, 2009). Consequently, teachers use the materials

they were exposed to during their training. This habit is often difficult for teachers to change.

Other reasons advanced for the inability of teachers to use instructional resources effectively

include:

• Inability to identify/ locate resources;

• Inability to develop appropriate materials from local resources;

• Lack of school- based resource Centre; and

• For instructional materials development, selection and utilization and Lack of short

term training to update teachers’ knowledge and skill for instructional materials development,

selection and utilization (NERDC, 2009).

In line with the stated reasons, the biology laboratories are to be equipped

appropriately to make teaching and learning conducive. According to Nwakonobi &

Igboabuchi (2010), biology laboratories are places where different types of experiments and

researches concerning all disciplines of life sciences take place for skills acquisition.

25

However, these skills cannot be acquired in the absence of well-equipped biology

laboratories to enhance effective teaching and learning which is geared towards empowering

the students to become functionally and qualitatively, educated, productive, self-reliant, and

sufficient and create enabling environment. All these are aimed at devising a proper

opportunity to salvage the medium of instruction in the national educational system. It is

against this background that the researcher decided to investigate the effect of students’

produced- improvised instructional materials on the academic achievement of secondary

schools students in biology examination.

Improvisation and Skills for Improvisation

Generally, improvisation of instructional materials in science teaching particularly

biology is an attempt to adapt and make use of local resources in the teaching/ learning

process when the readymade materials are not available or are in short fall or not within the

reach of the users. The improvised instructional materials could be produced by the teacher

and the students. According to Fajola (2008), improvisation in the context of biology can be

defined as a process of using alternative resources for enhancing biology teaching in the

absence or shortage of the real ones. The production of the alternative resources is initiated

by the teacher and done either by him or the local craftsmen (e.g. the Carpenter, blacksmiths,

wielder, etc). The teacher may also use the students for improvising some of the needed

materials or equipments.

Improvisation in the view of Aremu (1998) is a technique of originating a totally new

tool, instrument, materials, device or modifying existing ones for serving a particular

purpose. Ahmed (2010) sees improvisation as the process of making equipment and materials

by the teacher or by engaging the services of others in the absence of the real or

manufactured ones. Wasagu (2000), described improvisation as the act of using alternative

26

materials and resources to facilitate instruction whenever there is a lack of or shortage of

some specific first hand teaching aid. When students are involved in the production of

improvised instructional materials through their creative ability and imagination, it gives new

concept of things outside the range of ordinary experience to the students and makes learning

last longer in their memory. For a student to be able to improvise, he/she must be innovative,

resourceful and creative in both thinking and manipulative skills (Igwe, 2003).

Fajola (2008) looked at improvisation from the level of creativity involved. These

levels involve substitution and construction. Substitution in improvisation simply implies the

techniques whereby a local material is used in place of a piece of equipment that is not

available whereas construction involves making of a new instrument in place of the

unavailable original one where substitution is not possible. It is expected that both

substitution and construction of improvised instructional materials will meet the demand for

the real or original material with as high precision as time, money and other facilities and

factors will permit.

According to Ehikioya (2000), the major reason for improvisation stems from the fact

that educational funding is insufficient and in the recent years seriously dwindling.

Educational authorities find it increasingly difficult to provide the schools with all they need

for teaching and learning. Ahmed (2010), claimed that instructional resources ensure that the

learners see, hear, feel, recognize and appreciate as they learn, utilizing almost all the five

senses at the same time. Olagunjo (2000), however, asserted that improvisation provides a

cognitive ‘bridge’ between students abstract and real experience of teaching and learning.

According to Olagunjo (2008), when a teacher improvises, it enables him to re-think and

research for cheaper, better, and faster methods of making the learning process easy and safe

for both the students and the teachers.

27

Abolade (2004), maintained that improvisation of instructional materials provide

direct experience with reality as well as encourage active participation and acquisition of

skills especially where students are allowed to manipulate the materials. According to

Abolade (2004), the attainment of affective and psychomotor domains is increased by

improvisation. When students are motivated by their teacher to produce or source their own

instructional materials, it greatly arouses the students’ interest to learning and development of

scientific attitude. Improvisation, therefore, enables students to exhibit their latent

potentialities, improve their creativity and as well discover new things.

Etukudo (2000) was of the view that improvisation of instructional materials involves

diversifying and learning experientially which require versatility and flexibility of experience

on the part of the teacher. Etukudo (2000) reported that the use of improvised instructional

materials make the teaching/ learning process a result oriented exercise, and enhances

students’ achievement. Olagungu (2000), however, discovered that the use of improvised

concrete instructional materials for instructional process enhances visual imagery, stimulate

and as well scintillate the learning, thereby creating room for higher concentration and

individualized approach to concept mastery. This could have been responsible for gender

blending in the achievement of the students in Mathematics. Olagungu (2000) deduced that

the use of improvised instructional materials in the teaching/ learning process enhances

higher achievement as well as induces gender parity in mathematics achievement. Similarly,

Mbajiorgu (2003) found that improvised instructional materials bridged the attendant

achievement gap between male and female students in sciences.

In biology teaching and learning, the use of improvisation in teaching is advocated as

a substitute when the standardized materials are not available. This is to promote learning by

doing and skill acquisition for further use and for achievement of self-reliance of students in

certificate examinations. Self-reliance involves optimal utilization of local materials with

28

well coordination of sustainable development (Etuibon & Udofia, 2009). In other to teach by

inquiry method or activity based oriented form of instruction, improvisation is inevitable. The

instructional materials at the secondary school level are not adequate (Okebukola, 2002,

Ikwuanusi, 2007). There is need for improvisation of non-available instructional materials for

students to get first hand information and acquire the scientific skills as the objective

stipulated.

The teaching of biology cannot be effectively done without interaction between the

students and the environmental resources (both materials and equipments). The biology

curriculum is also planned to enable the teacher use activity-oriented, child-centred approach

(guided-inquiry), to teach. However, evidence from research as reported in Bassey (2002)

has shown that materials and equipments for teaching and learning of science, especially

biology are either not enough or are completely lacking in schools to the extent that most

teachers end up with verbal exposition of scientific principles, facts, and concepts. The verbal

exposition does not promote skills acquisition, development, objectivity, and critical thinking

abilities that will enable the child to function effectively in the society. This makes the need

for alternative sources of teaching materials and equipments inevitable.

The environment of the school as well the homes of students provide rich sources of

these materials, and a resourceful teacher can on his own or with the help of the students and

other members of the society, improvise instructional materials for the purpose of teaching

and learning. The use of improvised instructional materials for science teaching has long been

advocated for. This is however, evident in the National Policy on Education (2004). This

policy stresses the need for science equipment development, maintenance, as well as the

resourcefulness of the teachers. Teacher’s resourcefulness and skill for improvisation are

therefore very important and relevant in the recent times for the purposes of enhanced

29

teaching and learning of biology. Through exposure, students gain scientific skills which they

will use in their future life for self-reliance.

A skill, according to Ivowi (2006), is said to be acquired or developed if it can be

demonstrated correctly at least in every two out of three occasions that demands it. Skills are

expertness, practical ability, dexterity, and facility for doing something .Such skills at the

level of secondary school of education include: classifying, cutting, measuring, observing,

recording, painting, testing, assembling, handling, generalizing, drawing, identifying,

selecting, screwing, tightening, manipulating, repairing, predicting, dismantling, among

others. Ivowi (2006) observed that most of the skills are observable behaviors which are

acquired through manipulation of materials and observing the teacher’s demonstrations,

participation in class, and going out to see things for themselves. The National Policy on

Education (2004) also stipulated that teaching should be by practical, exploratory, and

experimental method for students to acquire these skills. These skills will facilitate

improvisation.

The use of improvised instructional materials and exposure of students to resources

available in their immediate environment for instruction at the secondary school level brings

students to real world of activities. Usually the students’ interest is captured and retained.

Through this exposure, students gain scientific skills, which they will use in their future life

for self-reliance. A hard working teacher will be able to not only achieve science skills but

also sensitize and develop it in the students (Nzewi, 2009). According to Chukwuneke

(2005), if any science is to be taught well, it should be done practically so that students can be

able to use certain tools, produce some equipment, make and record accurate observation, as

the case may be. As soon as students are made to acquire the right attitude and skills in

science for self reliance and educational development, then the nation becomes developed. It

is unfortunate however that in most secondary schools, the equipment, facilities and materials

30

needed for meaningful work are either grossly inadequate or in bad state of repair. Teachers

also lack the competence, skills and creativity to organize practical classes in biology. The

issue of teacher participation in the production of improvised instructional materials is

inevitable because the problem of lack of appropriate instructional materials and equipment is

ravaging the teaching and learning process. What the nation requires is the type of education

that can help students discover their talents at a very early age and also encourage them to

develop and use their talent effectively. One way of doing this is by using inquiry-teaching

strategy for teaching biology. Inquiry according to Aiken, (2006) is a process of finding out

and the desire for knowledge and understanding. According to Chukwuneke (2005), it

requires pupils to find out things for themselves. This cannot be done where there is

unavailability of biology equipment. The use of equipment/materials for biology teaching/

learning actually motivates and interests the students in a lesson. It focuses students’ attention

and initiates problem-solving tendency. If equipment/materials for teaching biology are made

available, students will be self – reliant and have a better achievement in school certificate

examination.

For Nigeria to meet up with other developed countries of the world, greater emphasis

should be on the provision of equipments/materials needed for practical work in biology

instruction. Students should actually be given opportunity to discover, invent, and get caught

up in the rapid expansion in science and technology. This can only be achieved by allowing

students to participate in the production of instructional materials/equipments through

improvisation. This is because, biology has made great impact in the development of the

nation’s educational sector and its importance warrants the need to provide biology

equipment and materials in secondary schools through students’ produced improvised

instructional materials/equipments. If biology equipments/materials are adequately provided

in secondary school laboratories, students will be able to apply knowledge, communicate

31

effectively, and be analytical, critical thinkers, inquisitive and imaginative. Students must be

confident, motivated learners, creative and curious. These attributes have many implications

on the teaching/learning process. Once students acquire the right skills and attitude for

improvised instructional materials and equipments, achievement in examination is

guaranteed.

Aremu (1998), explained that, when students express lack of interest in a subject, it

affects the way they react or listen to the teacher. And when many of the pupils believe that

they cannot pass, the teacher is affected. This is because aside of this negative response from

the pupils, he/she as well is already being confronted by many other factors (e.g., low

income, low status in society, large teacher-pupil ratio) and so on. These may cause him/her

to resort to easiest way of disseminating knowledge that is ‘chalk and talk’ without the use of

instructional materials. The teacher may not also bother to vary his/her teaching styles to suit

individuals; therefore the cycle goes on (Aremu, 1998). One unfortunate outcome of this is

that, the negative attitude towards the subject is passed down from one generation of pupils to

another and therefore the cycle keeps enlarging. A lot of new and modified methodologies

have been proposed to improve achievement in Biology. Instructional materials have also

been designed and developed to aid biology teaching and learning (Tella, 2003).

Mbajiorgu (2003) revealed that most science teachers in low achieving secondary

schools admitted that they would not improvise where there are no read-made visual aids.

Teachers especially in low achieving schools lack innovativeness and have conveniently

entrenched a culture of dictating or writing notes on blackboards. Teachers and school

authorities confirm that their morale and teaching methods are influenced by the physical

conditions (aesthetics) on ground and materials available. Being aware that adequate

resources and facilities are critical for a qualified teacher to engage students in effective

learning, the teachers strongly recommended that policies should be put in place, which

32

stipulated the minimum requirements of physical facilities and teaching resources in all

schools at secondary level to enhance students’ achievement in examinations.

There appears to be an oversupply of non-biology teachers in the schools. These non-

biology teachers may be viewed as contributing to low teacher-student ratio in the class. The

tendency is that appropriate biology concepts and principles will not be passed on to the

students thereby constituting an obstacle to academic achievement in examinations. Teachers

in low achieving schools complain that biology syllabuses are inordinately long and there is

not sufficient time to cover the syllabus adequately (Gilbert, 1999). This is often the way for

skipping practical work, even where equipment is available for teacher demonstration or

group work on the basis that practical activity is reinforced by memory-oriented matrix

examination that tests learned information and not practical skills (or problem solving skills

in practical context). It has to be pointed out once again here that not a single low achieving

school has a standard laboratory (Gilbert, 1999).

Improvisation is the use and or production of “look-alike” to facilitate instruction.

Akinmoyewa (1992) noted that improvisation is the art of designing a replica of something to

make it function or play the role of the real thing; using available materials. Improvisation is

also defined as the act of using materials or equipment obtained from local environment

designed either by the teacher or with the help of local personnel to enhance instruction.

Improvisation is a way of widening enquiry or a challenge to curiosity, creativity and

productive application of intellect. It is an act of using aid or production of similar or near

similar instructional materials to facilitate learning. Also Eshiet, (1996) defined

improvisation as the sourcing, selection and development of relevant instructional elements

of the teaching-learning process in the absence of or shortage of standard or accredited

teaching learning elements for a meaningful realization of specified educational goals and

objectives. In the content of this research work, improvisation in science teaching refers to

33

the act of using alternative materials and resources to facilitate instruction and efficient

learning where there is a lack or shortage of some specific first hand teaching aid.

The National Policy on Education NPE (2004) devoted section ten of the policy on

education service which according to the document is meant to facilitate the implementation

of educational planning and objectives and promote the efficacy of education. The objectives

include among others, to enhance teaching and improve the competence of teachers, to make

learning more meaningful for children, to reduce educational costs and to develop and

promote an effectiveness of innovative materials in schools. The government recognizes the

important role of instructional materials in the teaching and learning process and has made

arrangement of how instructional materials will be provided under the Universal Basic

Education Scheme UBE.

The cost of effectively teaching science is so high that the nation, Nigeria, may not be

able to afford at least in this period of economic depression, an adequately equipped

laboratories and provision of adequate instructional materials for the teaching of science. The

teaching and learning of science can never be improved if the teaching materials particularly

the non-available ones that can be improvised are not properly used. Various studies have

confirmed that the proper use of instructional materials will positively enhance teaching and

learning process, (Nzewi and Nwosu 2009; Okebukola 1986; Ajayi 2002; Bassey 2002). It

therefore, becomes imperative for educators (teachers) to improvise aids and materials for the

teaching learning process.

In a case, for instance, where there is inadequate or total absence of a standard of

universally accepted materials or equipment for teaching, the student with the assistance of

the teacher will have to produce locally, a substitute of the standard material which will help

in teaching and learning of science. This proves help to develop creativity and spirit of

resourcefulness among the teachers and the students. It was in view of this that the

34

researchers deem it necessary to study improvisation of laboratory equipment in Nigerian

Secondary Schools.

Because scientific knowledge can be used to control our environment, man must be

innovative in order to be able to make use of this scientific knowledge. In other words,

unless this scientific knowledge is geared towards practical application in solving our

environmental problems or inadequacies, they become meaningless. Science is the outcome

of the methods of observation, and testing which are deliberately adopted to secure a settled

and assured subject matter. So far, for science to be progressive in utilization of these

scientific methods there is need that students should be fully involved through some practical

aspects (improvisation). In the history of the race of science, it grew gradually out from

useful social occupation, Dewey (1944). Physics according to him developed slowly out of

the use of tools and machine, which occurred in the course of searching for means of

accomplishing practical ends. Chemistry also grew out of processes of dyeing, bleaching and

metalworking. Therefore, with the above illustration, it is seen that science is all about

creativity and the utilization of the materials and resources around our environment to solve

man’s problem of endless want. This will reduce our over dependent on imported technology,

which has fairly succeeded in sustaining people lives but largely has failed to educate the

people. Subsequently, many practices which turned away from their local practices which

have sustained their culture before and have accepted the imported culture which in many

cases has limited their innovative ideas. However, through improvisation, the students are

being taught how to regain their culture in a scientific way by using sophisticated methods

through a modified practice. This scientific method include: Identification of problem,

definition of problem, formulation of appropriate hypothesis, collection of necessary data,

analysis of data and drawing of necessary conclusion. Physics education unlike other

35

academic subjects involves practical demonstrations of various skills. This implies that

material will be needed to accomplish indispensable in physics education administration.

Improvisation is the making of substitutes when the real equipment or material is not

adequate or available (Okebukola, 2002). It is the art of providing and using alternative

materials or resources in the absence of the real or factory made one. It is also defined as

the art of using materials or equipment obtained from local environment or produced by the

teacher, and with the assistance of the local personnel to enhance instruction. In other to

teach by inquiry method or use activity based oriented form of instruction, improvisation is

required since instructional materials seem not to be adequate (Okebukola, 2002; Ikwuanusi,

2007). Generally, improvisation of instructional materials is an attempt to adapt and make use

of local resources in the teaching/learning process when the ready- made materials are not

available or are in shortfall or not within the reach of users. The teacher and the students

could produce the improvised instructional materials. According to Nzewi and Nwosu

(2009), improvisation in the context of biology can be seen as the process of using alternative

resources for enhancing biology teaching in the absence of the real ones. The production of

the alternative resources is initiated by the teacher and done either by him or the local

craftsmen (e.g. carpenters, blacksmiths, wielders, etc.). The teacher may use the students for

improvising some of the needed materials or equipments.

Improvisation is a technique of originating a very new tool, instrument, materials,

device or modifying existing ones for serving a particular purpose. Ahmed (2010) defined

improvisation as the process of making equipment and materials by you or by engaging the

services of others in the absence of real or manufactured ones. Improvisation of instructional

materials in secondary schools for teaching/learning purposes cannot be over-emphasized. To

be able to promote quality instruction in our school system, there is the need to pay attention

36

to improvisation of instructional materials in the teaching/learning process with all the

seriousness it deserves.

Fajola (2008) however noted that improvisation demands adventure, creativity,

curiosity and perseverance on the part of the teacher, such skills are only realizable through

well-planned training programme on improvisation. Fajola (2008) looked at improvisation

from the level of creativity involved. These levels involve substitution and construction.

Substitution in improvisation simply implies the techniques whereby an already local

material is used in place of a piece of equipment that is not available whereas construction

involves making of a new instrument to serve in place of the unavailable original one where

substitution is not possible. Ogunleye (2002) however asserted that improvisation provides a

cognitive ‘bridge’ between students abstract and real experience of teaching and learning.

Ahmed (2010) claimed that instructional materials ensure that the learners see, hear, feel,

recognize, and appreciate as they learn utilizing almost all the five senses at the same time.

The place of skills acquisition as a factor in development of a nation can never be

compromised. No matter the quality and quantity of the natural resources of any nation, there

is still need for self-reliance. This is possible through the possession of necessary knowledge,

skills, and work attributes. Self-reliance demands that the teacher should be skilled in the

subject area he/she has studied. This will enable the teacher acquire the skills necessary for

doing productive work to facilitate effective teaching and learning process. In biology

teaching and learning, guided inquiry method of teaching is advocated for (Nwagbo, 2010).

This is to promote learning by doing and skill acquisition for further use and achievement of

self-reliance. For Etiubon and Udofia, 2009, self-reliance involves optimal utilization of local

resources with well coordination of sustainable development. In other to teach by inquiry

method or use activity based oriented form of instruction, improvisation is required since

instructional materials seem not to be adequate (Okebukola, 2002; Ikwuanusi, 2007).

37

Improvisation is a teacher-oriented activity meant to effectively carry out the

teaching/learning process successfully. Ayodele (2002) identified two main constraints

militating against the successful improvisation of Science equipments. These are the technical

and the human factors respectively .while the technical factors relate to the question of degree

of accuracy and precision that is possible with the improvised equipment, the human factor

relates to the teachers’ skill in developing the resources while providing the appropriate

learning experience to the learners. In addition, Maduekwe (2006) reported lack of adequate

professional training as a major problem militating against the effective use of local resources

for Science teaching. (Isola, 2010) then stressed the need for a definite well-planned training

programme of improvisation for teachers. Isola (2010) suggested regular meaningful

workshop on improvisation technique for Science teachers to improve and update their

competence. The use of teacher produced improvised instructional materials and exposure of

students to resources available in their immediate environment for instruction at this level

brings students to real world of activities and may help students gain scientific skills.

The environment of the school as well as the homes of teachers provide rich sources

of materials and a resourceful teacher can on his/her own or with the help of the students

and other members of the society, improvise these materials for teaching/learning purpose.

The use of improvised instructional materials for science teaching has been long advocated

(Olumorin, 2004). For Olumorin (2004), the production of instructional materials had

undergone several reviews and processes by experts from various fields. These experts have

developed and produced materials in line with the needs of their area of specialization and the

resources available to them in their locality. In the area of biology, many problems

encountered from the use of appropriate instructional materials for teaching and learning has

been probably because of high cost of factory produced/ imported materials, scarcity of such

38

products in the country and above all the attitude of teachers towards improvised instructional

materials in the teaching/learning process have as well compounded the issue.

According to Abolade (2004) and Olumorin (2004), some of the factory produced/

imported instructional materials have also been discovered to be based on foreign ideas and

culture. It is against this background that the need to fashion out ways by which local

resources can be used for developing instructional materials becomes necessary. In this work,

locally, sourced instructional materials/aids that could be improvised are charts, posters,

evaporating dish (from tin lids), round bottomed flask (from used electric bulbs), filter funnel

(from wide mouthed glass containers), chromosome DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) model

(from maize glued with plasticizer), rainguage (from a plastic funnel on top of a gas jar or tin

corked) and a host of others (National Education Research and Development Council

(NERDC) 2009).

Factors to be considered in planning improvisation

There are certain factors to be considered when planning improvisation. They are:

1. Who will be making the materials teacher, students, or both?

2. The time, effort and skills required both by the teacher and by the students.

3. The knowledge of the basics; the material could require the use of a range of scientific

principles, applications and techniques and the teacher should fairly well be

acquainted with them.

4. The steps involved.

5. The objectives and goals: the teacher needs to identify and focus on the ultimate

objectives, which learning behavior he/she wants to inculcate in the students and if

improvisation can achieve it.

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6. Motivating and involvement level of the class especially if kids are to be involved in

making it. The teacher needs to motivate the class, raise their curiosity and admire

their creativity. There should be proper interacted and constant feedback.

7. The teacher innovativeness, creativity and resourcefulness: to be considered also, are

the teacher’s management and co-ordination skills.

8. Collection of materials and tools required sometimes, one might need to buy some

tools and materials too, hence some monetary funding.

9. The durability of the materials used.

10. Working and storage space to make and store the materials. Also to be considered are

when the materials (standardized materials) are easily and cheaply available, you may

be better off buying them than improvising.

It is worthy to note that these definitions above presuppose that an improvised

instructional material must necessarily serve the purpose for which it is intended. It is

not just providing a piece of material or resource as substitute of what is not available.

According to Landu, (2000) some guiding principles for improvisation include:

1. Should be simple, readily replicable and durable

2. Cost of production should be relatively low.

3. Should foster development of desirable skills and interest in the learner

4. Should seek to illustrate and provide answer to specific scientific problems or

principles.

5. Should not differ significantly in quality and reliability from conventional types: the

improvised materials are determined by what is to be taught and the importance attached to

the learning of the lesson. In addition, the learners’ previous knowledge must have been

considered. For example, a mathematics teacher cannot effectively teach the principles of

logarithms if the students have no knowledge of indices Mbajiorgu (2003).

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Therefore, mastery of biology concepts cannot be fully achieved without the use of learning

materials. Researchers such as Ogunleye, (2002); Okebukola, (2002); and Obioha, (2006)

reported that there were inadequate resources for the teaching of science subjects in

secondary schools in Nigeria. They further stated that where there were little resources at all,

they are not usually in good conditions, while the few that were in good conditions were not

enough to go round those who needed them. It is based on this that the researcher decided to

carry out research work on improvisation, its significant and importance and how to find

solution to its inadequacy.

Teachers’ professional commitment, creativity, mechanical skills, initiative and

resourcefulness were considered as the human factors. It is found that many of the science

teachers were aware of possibility of improvisation but many exhibited poor attitudes towards

improvisation. They also noted that very few teachers practice improvisation while majority

depends on imported equipments and claim that improvisation is time consuming and fund

depleting. The author also noted that students too, possessed little or no interest in

improvisation.

In an ideal world, all science students would be taught in small classes held in well

equipped laboratories: This is because the place of practical activities in science classes

cannot be over emphasized. Yet those materials required for teaching of science are very

much in short supply. As Adipere (2010) lamented “there is a total or practical absence,

inadequacy of the science teaching resources, grossly inadequate finances/funds, most

especially for the purchase of science instructional materials, galloping inflation, rising

enrolment of students, general downward trend in the nation’s economy, poor maintenance

culture and at times attitudes of some school heads towards science and science materials call

for alternative efforts at making science teaching and learning what is supposed to be.

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With all these multi-various problems, it seems, as the best available option is the

improvisation of materials by the classroom teachers. These materials are designed and

constructed by the teachers/students with what they think can be good substitute for a

particular science teaching. Through improvisation, minimizing and saving costs can

improve the economy. Improvisation serves as an alternative to unavailable, delicate and

costly or damaged apparatus. It is a way of widening inquiry, curiosity, creativity, productive

and intellectual ability. It also serves as means of local application of the universality of

science. It reduces the bad attitude of some teachers dodging topic due to the absence of

imported instructional materials. Improvisation helps in retaining students’ attention. It

makes learning to be more permanent Adipere, (2010). According to Adipere, materials that

are too big or too small to be seen can be made available in the classroom use through

improvisation. Original or real materials that are dangerous can be improvised.

Improvisation also helps to solve the problem of providing materials for all the students. It

helps in the supplementing of verbal description and explanation with observable and or

touchable and can be manipulated objects (Folorunso, 2004). Above all, improvisation is an

activity of a resourceful science teacher that enables him to use substitutes for expensive and

unavailable materials in the course of teaching. It also helps to provide a cognitive ‘bridge’

between abstraction and reality to students. It fills the vacuum that otherwise have existed in

teaching and learning process.

There are a number of problems associated with improvisation of science instructional

materials. There are two basic types of problems or factors namely technical and human

factors. Some technical factors challenge the degree of accuracy and precision that can be

achieved with the improvised materials and equipment vis-à-vis the factory produced one.

This problem is more crucial at the secondary and tertiary levels where experiments that are

more sensitive and observations are carried out. Other technical factors relate to the

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problems of use. Such questions as whether or not it is easy or difficult, longer or shorter

messy or clean and convenient or inconvenient etc, using the improvised materials when

compared with the use of standard materials are used.

Human factors are problems associated with the teachers’ professional commitments,

creative ability, technical skill, ingenuity and competence. The question here according to

Ivowi, (2006) is whether the teacher is will to abandon all practical work if the ready-made

equipment and material is not available? Can he think of adequate substitutes for at least

some of the pieces of apparatus? Is he willing to weigh the instructional material values of

pieces of apparatus both in terms of range of instructional outcomes (e.g. the degree of

accuracy required) and especially range of possible alternatives and costs. The problem of

commitment is very serious because improvisation requires creative imagination. If a teacher

is not committed to improvising his instruction, he will creatively think of substitute for

equipment and materials and how to organize them. Another aspect of human factor can

precipitate when a teacher becomes sensitive to ambience often displayed by government

policies and actions. The researcher also observed that the attitudes of heads of schools are

not encouraging as they expect science teachers to improvise out of their hard-earned salary

without compensating or reimbursing them in return. Teachers have limited their innovative

ideas, but through improvisation, the students are been taught how to imbibe science culture.

These scientific methods include; identification of problem, definition of problem,

formulation of appropriate hypothesis, collection of necessary data, analysis of data and

drawing of necessary conclusion.

In the absence of things needed to be imported, we must find substitutes. There must

be resourcefulness in every body’s life. In particular, science teachers must look for

alternative ways of pursuing a task. The skill to improvise might include an effective use of

locally made materials especially inexpensive materials produced by teachers. Truly

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improvised equipment is that, which is made by the teacher or even the school carpenter or

local blacksmiths from a nearby village. An equipment made by carpenter or blacksmiths are

regarded as locally manufactured equipment, but if teacher receives aid from any of these

skilled people to design or construct a desired equipment, or does the construction entirely by

himself for use in a teaching situation, then, he posses the skill of improvisation.

A resourceful teacher is the one who runs around to get extra materials, uses battery

instead of electricity or even finds other ways of operating without electricity. The ability to

improvise needs professional commitment, creative ability, technical skill, ingenuity and

competence. These are the skills required in teaching Biology and indeed for subsequent

technological development. Digging back into the history of science and biographies and

autobiographies of scientists, we found out that, many scientists had to make their own

apparatus from their own resources and available materials around them.

Therefore, for the teacher to teach Biology and achieve technological excellence,

he/she must be ready to realize our local ingenuity and explore it further through research. In

addition, local skills and traditional practices, which have sustained people for life, should not

be downgraded but must be channeled and upgraded rationally.

Theoretical Framework

Jerome Bruner’s Learning Theory

Bruner introduced the concept of learning by discovery. Bruner is of the view that

learning is effectively engaged in if the learner is giving the opportunity to discover facts by

him/herself. Bruner argues that mere presentation of information will not enhance effective

solution of a problem. The theory stresses cognitive effectiveness. Because of this, some

referred to Bruner’s theory of learning as Bruner’s theory of cognitive development. Bruner

believed that learning by discovery begins when science teacher purposefully (i.e.

intentionally) create (present) a problem and present it to the students by introducing some

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inconsistencies (i.e. contradictions) among source of information which are giving in the

process of instruction. According to Bruner such inconsistencies lead to intellectual

discomfort that will stimulate (i.e. motivate) the students to initiate individual discoveries

through cognitive restructuring (i.e. internal reorganization).

The intellectual discomfort created by the inconsistencies makes the learner to attempt

to bring order out of this confusion by engaging in mental processes i.e. discovery activities

which involve observation, hypothesizing, measuring, stating problem, data collection,

classifying, inferring, etc. Through mental processes, the student can generate facts from

his/her desperate experiences. Experiences gained during the mental processes enable the

students to sense the disparity.

According to Bruner there are two forms of discovery processes which are:

Assimilation: This occurs when a student recognizes a new situation that is familiar to one of

the elements in the existing structure of knowledge (i.e. cognitive structure) and he/she easily

assimilates it.

Accommodation: This occurs when a new situation (i.e. a new knowledge) is incompatible

to the existing structure of knowledge (i.e. cognitive structure) the learner first restructures

(i.e. reorganizes) his/her cognitive framework (i.e. cognitive structure) in order to be able to

accommodate the new knowledge.

Bruner believes that the students should find out information on their own using

mental processes. The theory places great emphasis on the three types of human activity for

learning i.e. the three information processing systems which are:

• Physical activity (motor activities) called Enactive representation.

• Imagery called Ionic representation.

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• Symbolic activities

The three activities coexist with each other and for this reason; the attainment of one does not

mean the total abandonment of the others.

At enactive stage, the child manipulates the learning materials directly by neuro

muscular activities. At ionic stage, the child deals with mental images of objects, but does not

manipulate them directly. At symbolic stage the child uses language. The interpretation of the

above is that when a child, say at secondary school level shows deficiencies in his/her

learning capacity especially in symbolic representation, it could be that he/she was deficient

in early stages (i.e. enactive and ionic stages) which he/she skipped. It is therefore necessary

to fill in the missing gap by providing concrete support that will make up for the deficiency.

Discovery learning, when encouraged in science instruction also aids problem solving

because learning by discovery starts with problem solving (Aknmoyewa, 1992). Discovery

learning also stimulates creativity in the student, which is one of the major objectives of

science teaching/learning.

Application of Jerome Bruner’s Theory of Learning to Science Teaching/Learning:

The science teacher should intentionally create or present problems to students either in form

of apparent contradiction or inconsistency among sources of information which are giving in

the process of instruction. Encouraging discovery learning in science class by science

teachers will result into aiding problem solving. One of the major objectives of science

teaching is creativity. Therefore, discovery learning encourages creativity. Students should be

taught concepts in such a way that they have applicability beyond the situation in which they

were learned. Retention of science concepts are aided by knowledge acquired through

discovery learning. Teachers must encourage students to make intuitive guess more

systematically. Bruner supported a radical reorganization of the curriculum across all levels

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of education. Bruner advocated the fundamental structure of curriculum to begin with simple

contents and later graduated to complex contents. That means that learning should proceed

from simple to complex, from concrete to abstract, and from specific to general. Teaching

should be inductive. Bruner supported the spiral nature of curriculum as we have in our

present science curriculum at all levels of education. Bruner’s Constructivist Theory asserts

that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas based upon their

current knowledge. Instruction can be made more efficient by providing a careful sequencing

of materials to allow learners to build upon what they already know and go beyond the

information they have been given to discover the key principles by themselves.

In relation to the present study: Effect of Students’ Produced Improvised Instructional

Materials on Senior Secondary Students Achievement in Biology, the application of Bruner’s

constructivist theory to learning will help the students to have a focused attention on the

principles they learn and also increase and sustain students’ attitude to learning environment.

Secondly, Bruner’s theory of learning by discovery and his theory of cognitive development

suggested that instructions at all level should be geared towards the learning maturational

development or cognitive operation. Bruner’s theory is directly related to the present study:

effect of students’ produced improvised instructional materials. This is because effective use

of students’ produced improvised materials involves the learner actively working on his own

to find solutions to problems. So, Bruner’s theory is in support of the present study.

Piaget’s Theory of learning

Piaget’s cognitive theory of learning refers to the stage theory of cognitive

development. According to Piaget, children develop knowledge by inventing or constructing

reality out of experience and thus mix their observation with their ideas about how the world

works. Piaget observed that people of the same age level (especially children) have a similar

47

line of reasoning. For instance, children of the same age level have similar line of reasoning

or thinking. Children may make the same type of mistakes. They may have the same

reasoning process. This indicates that cognition develops stage by stage. Piaget used the

terms ‘Assimilation’ and ‘Accommodation’ to explain his views.

Assimilation: Assimilation means a process of interpreting actions or events in relation to

one’s schemas. This refers to a means of fitting reality into one’s existing structures of

knowledge. The term ‘schemas’, for Piaget, refers to a well defined sequence of physical and

mental actions.

Accommodation: This is the modification of existing schemas to fit reality. The organism is

capable of learning when it can modify its schemas. As the organism continues to

accommodate, it continues to learn. Piaget believes that cognition develops from age to age

and from level to level. According to Piaget, the driving force for cognitive development is

equilibration. By equilibration, Piaget means balancing assimilation and accommodation to

adapt to the demands of the environment.

Piaget believes that for people to learn, they must assimilate and accommodate. Piaget

opined that at each stage of development, people use a distinctive underlying logic or

structure of reasoning to guide their thinking. Piaget identified four stages of cognitive

development – sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational and formal operational to

explain cognitive development from infancy to adolescence. However, we should be

concerned with the ‘formal operational stage’. This stage occurs within the adolescence stage.

At this stage, the young individual can start to think more abstractly. This stage of cognitive

learning is characterized by ability to manipulate abstract as well as concrete objects, ideas,

and events. At formal operational stage, the young individual acquires more ability to deal

with abstractions and may engage in hypothetical reasoning based on logic. At the

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adolescence stage, individuals can easily carry out practical experiments and demonstrations.

Formal operational stage offers the ability for the individual to use abstract symbols for

representational purposes. For instance, the individual, if taught, could understand that H2O is

water and may abstractly understand why it represents water.

Piaget’s theory of intellectual development holds that cognitive development takes

place from active interaction of the child with his environment. This means that the basis of

learning is the child’s own ability as he interacts with his physical and social environment.

Piaget is of the opinion that a child must act on the objects in his environment for him to

learn. This means that he should be actively involved not be passive. The active involvement

of the child may be in form of direct manipulation, visual observation or through mental or

internal transportation or change. Piaget believed that mental activity, which is involved in

cognitive organization, is a process of adaptation, which is divided into two opposing but

inseparable processes of assimilation and accommodation. Accommodation means to modify

self to fit the new materials, while assimilation means to modify the materials to fit the self.

The Piagetian theory places the child as the principal agent in the teaching/ learning situation.

This being the case, the teacher’s job is to provide the individual with situations that

encourage experimentation and manipulation of objects and symbols.

The theory has direct implication on the researcher’s study: effect of students’

produced improvised instructional materials on academic achievement of students in Biology.

In the first place, the Piagetian theory of intellectual development holds that cognitive

development takes place from active interaction of the child with his environment. This is

why the researcher advocates the use of students’ produced improvised instructional

materials, because it is a student- centered, activity oriented- teaching strategy in which the

teacher acts as a facilitator of learning, guiding the students through a series of activities and

problems, which will enhance achievement by learners.

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Secondly, Piaget’s theory emphasized active participation of the child which students’

produced improvised instructional materials encourages. This is because when students are

allowed to produce their own instructional resources, the students may likely understand the

subject matter better as they pass from the known to the unknown and in an increasing order

of difficulty. A child must master a step before proceeding to the next one and in doing so,

the learner is actively involved in the learning process. Moreover, there are a lot of activities

which the learner is expected to carry out by himself, making the learner very active in the

learning process.

Review of Related Empirical Studies

Several studies have been conducted on the use of improvised instructional materials

and resources for science teaching. There has been little or no study done on students’

produced improvised instructional materials for science teaching. Onasanya and Omosewo

(2010) carried out a study on the effect of using standard instructional materials and

improvised instructional materials on Secondary School Students’ Academic Performance in

Physics in Ilorin, Nigeria. The sample consisted of selected Secondary Schools in Ilorin

Metropolis of Kwara State. The research employed a quasi-experimental design of the pretest-

posttest non-randomized control group design. Two hypotheses were designed and tested at

0.05 level of significance. From the analysis, the following findings were made (1) there was

significantly difference between the students taught with standard instructional materials and

those thought with improvised instructional materials, i.e., mean scores on the posttest (t =

4.09, df 14, p = 0.05), (2) there was no significant difference between the post test scores of

the experimental group and control group. This shows that the improvised instructional

materials in the comparison of the male mean scores of experimental and control groups were

the same entry level with regard to academic ability (t = 1.23, df = 7, p = 0.05). The

implications of improvised instructional materials were discussed. Recommendations for the

50

improvement of standard instructional and improvised instructional Aids in teaching of

physics and suggestions for further studies were made.

Adeyemi and Olaleye (2010) investigated the effect of students’ involvement in the

production of instructional materials on their academic performance in Biology. A pre-test –

posttest control Group Quasi- Experiment design was used. Intact class of one hundred and

twenty (120) students of SS2 class was used. A sample of sixty (60) students’ constituting the

experimental Group were taught using produced models while the control group of sixty (60)

students used already prepared pieces of bones. Data was collected using Biology

Achievement Test for Instructional Materials (BATIM) and were analyzed using ANCOVA.

A significant difference existed between students taught Biology using produced models and

those taught Biology using already prepared bones. The Scheffe tests carried out to determine

the direction of significance show that the difference in means of students’ achievement

between those taught Biology using produced models and those taught using already prepared

bones were significant. The need for teachers to ensure practical experience in the teaching of

Biology was the major recommendation of the study. Based on the finding that students’

involvements in the production of instructional materials impacted on their academic

performance in Biology, therefore the present study assumed the usability of the improvised

instructional materials. This study is related to this present student in terms of the independent

variables but differs in the subject area used for study and location.

Achor, (2011), investigated the relative efficacy of the use of improvised and

manufactured analogue voltmeters in secondary school physics. A pre-test –posttest control

Group Quasi-Experimental design was used. This is because random selection of students was

not done; rather, intact class was used. Senior Secondary (SS) two class was selected for use

being the most stable class quite unlike the SS1 that is freshly being introduced to the subject

or SS3 that is preparing for external examination. The (standardized) improvised and

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manufactured equipments were used to teach experimental group 1 and 2 students on how to

take measurements of voltage respectively while the control group was taught using

alternative to practical (i.e. conventional method). Data was collected using Physics

Achievement Test on Voltage Measurements (PATVM) were analyzed using ANCOVA. A

significant difference existed between students taught voltage measurements using

manufactured voltmeter, improvised voltmeter, and conventional method. The Scheffe tests

carried out to determine the direction of significance show that the difference in means of

students’ achievement between those taught using manufactured and conventional method as

well as those taught using improvised analogue voltmeters and conventional method were

significant. However, the difference in means between the two experimental groups was not

significant. The need for teachers to ensure practical experience as well as use of improvised

models in the absence of the manufactured ones to teach physics was the major

recommendations of the study. The aspect of standardization of the improvised instructional

resources was completed and reported elsewhere. Based on the finding that improvised

resources compare favorably with the manufactured ones, the present study assumed the

usability of the improvised instructional materials.

Aremu (1998) carried out a study on the effect of improvised instructional materials

on students’ achievement in science. The researcher expressed that learning is an activity that

takes place in a contact and not in a vacuum. The researcher reiterated that student with

teaching aids do not have a bank mind but a consolidated and developed library of

knowledge. Furthermore, the result of first research hypothesis revealed that those who were

taught with standard instructional materials performed equally better with those who were

taught with improvised instructional materials. This could be because the improvised

materials are also of high quality and standard. It can be deduced now that no significant

difference exist between student taught with standard instructional materials and those taught

52

with improvised instructional materials during students exposure to the treatment conditions.

In other words, students acquire more information through many instructional materials so as

to bring deeper understanding of the topics under consideration. The analysis of scores

between the post test of male students taught with standard instructional materials and male

students taught with improvised instructional materials as outlined in the serial number four

in the table revealed that the hypothesis was rejected because the calculated correlation

coefficient is greater than that of the table value.

Ugbe and Dike, (2012) carried out a study on the comparative effect of using

improvised freefall apparatus and bomb calorimeter in teaching the concept of enthalpy in

Nigeria Senior Secondary Schools Chemistry. The purpose of the study was to determine the

effectiveness of using improvised freefall apparatus and bomb calorimeter in teaching the

concept of enthalpy. The study was in response to the call for the deployment of materials

within the learners’ immediate environment as a means of finding a solution to persistent

shortage of learning resources for the teaching of Chemistry in Nigeria Secondary Schools. A

total of 93 Senior Secondary two (SS2) chemistry students were involved in the study. This

number was made up of 48 females and 45 males from four secondary schools in Calabar

Educational Zone of Cross River State of Nigeria. A pretest – posttest control group design

was used for the study. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to analyze the data.

From the finding, it was observed that improvised freefall apparatus as a resource for

teaching the concept of enthalpy was more effective in enhancing students’ academic

performance in chemistry as compared to bomb calorimeter. The result also showed an

insignificant difference existing between the performance of male and female students when

taught the concept of enthalpy using freefall apparatus.

Muhammad (2000) carried out a study on the effects of using improvised weighing

balance in solving linear equation problems and attitude of student towards mathematics in

53

junior secondary school in Niger State, Nigeria. The study sought to determine the effects of

using improvised instructional material (weighing balance) in solving linear equation and

attitude of students toward mathematics in Junior Secondary Schools in Niger State. The

study adopted a pre-test, post-test control group quasi-experimental design. Six out of 224

junior secondary schools in the state were sampled from the three educational zones of the

state. Two hundred and ten students were used for the study. Linear Equation Performance

Test (LEPT) and Student Mathematics Attitude Scale Test (SMAST) are used as instrument

for the research. T-test, group mean, and percentage mean scores were used for data analyses.

The findings established positive effects of using weighing balance in solving linear equation

and students’ attitude towards mathematics. Finally, some recommendations such as

Mathematics teachers especially those teaching in Junior Secondary Schools should link

theories with practical, to enable the students get proper concepts of mathematics and be

discourage rote learning and cramming of procedures of obtaining solutions without proper

understanding and Government should sponsor teachers for workshop, seminars and further

studies to make them be mathematics teachers who can think mathematically as well as

develop improved skills and competencies for effective teaching of the subject and in-turn, be

able to foster mathematics mindedness in the students.

Ibrahim (2012) investigated the effects of improvised and conventional instructional

materials on pupils' academic achievements and attitude to Basic Science. Experimental

design using pretest and posttest was adapted. Random sampling was used to select the 3

schools out of 10 co-educational primary schools in Wase Supervisory Zone of Wase LGA

Plateau State. The sample of 120 primary 5 pupils was selected through the use of table of

random numbers. The selected schools were randomly assigned to experimental group I,

experimental group II and control group. The experimental group I was exposed to

improvised materials and experimental group II was taught with conventional instructional

54

materials. The control group was taught with lecture method. The instruments used for data

collection were Basic Science Achievement Test (BSAT) and Basic Science Attitude

Questionnaire (BSAQ) with reliability co-efficient of 0.73 and 0,83 respectively. Three

hypotheses were tested at P≤0.05 level of significance using Analysis of variance (ANOVA),

t-test and Wilxocon Signed Rank Test. The findings showed that pupils taught with

improvised and conventional materials have no significant difference in their mean scores but

showed significant difference with the control group. In addition, no significant difference in

the pupils' attitude before and after exposure to improvise and those exposed to conventional

instructional materials. Based on this finding, it was recommended that Basic Science

teachers should be trained through workshops on how to effectively design and used

improvised materials in teaching Basic Science.

The researcher learnt from the study that despite the importance of the use of

improvisation to enhance the academic achievement of students, it appears that many still do

not use improvised equipment even in the absence of the manufactured materials and

equipment. While some argue that improvisation, which makes use of local and sometimes

substandard materials, would lead to substandard science teaching, others however argue that

in a situation where the manufactured materials are not available, a validated improvised

model could be used. In the light of this argument, the following pertinent questions readily

come to mind: Are improvised materials not able to serve the same purpose as the

manufactured materials? Moreover, would improvised materials not enhance achievement

better than the conventional method of teaching? The present investigation is an attempt to

address these questions with particular reference to the effect of students’ produced

improvised instructional materials on academic achievement of secondary school students.

55

Summary of Literature Review

It is a well-known issue today that science influence man in all aspects of life

including feeding, clothing, shelter, health care communication, transportation, space

exploration, as well as leisure (Elechi, 2010). The relevance of science in development of the

nation cannot be over emphasized. Science is a major subject taught in schools all over

Nigeria and any nation that hopes to develop must not neglect the teaching of science in its

schools. One of such science subject is Biology. Biology remains one of the basic sciences

whose teaching and learning is universally known to be efficient and successful, if taught

with adequate instructional materials and method. Resources for Biology teaching and

learning are either in shortfall or lacking in schools due to insufficient fund. This has led to

low achievement of students in Biology. There is therefore the need for improvisation of

instructional resources and equipment for effective Biology teaching and learning in schools.

Generally, improvisation of instructional materials in science teaching particularly

biology is an attempt to adapt and make use of local resources in the teaching/ learning

process, when the readymade materials are not available or are in short fall or not within the

reach of the users and students produced improvised instructional materials are those

materials produced by the students which serves the same purpose with the standard material.

Theoretically, Bruner discovery theory and Piaget’s cognitive theory of learning where

reviewed but this study is anchored on Piaget’s cognitive theory which is referred to as stage

theory of cognitive development. According to Piaget, children develop knowledge by

inventing or constructing reality out of experience and thus mix their observation with their

ideas about how the world works based on Piaget’s theory, this study is built to find out the

effect of student’s produced improvised materials on student’s academic achievement in

biology. From the reviewed studies, despite the importance of the use of improvisation to

enhance the academic achievement of students, it appears that many teachers still do not use

56

improvised equipment even in the absence of the manufactured materials and equipment.

While some argue that improvisation, which makes use of local and sometimes substandard

materials, would lead substandard science teaching, others however argue that in a situation

where the manufactured materials are not available, a validated improvised model could be

used. Based on the finding that improvised models compares favorably with the

manufactured one, the present study will assume the effect of students produced improvised

instructional materials.

57

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHOD

This chapter discusses the method and procedure that we will be employed in the

study. It is presented under the following sub-headings: Design of the study, area of study,

population of the study, sample and sampling technique, instrument for data collection,

validation of instrument, reliability of instrument, experimental procedure and method of data

analysis.

Design of the study

The design for the study is quasi-experimental design. Specifically the study applied

non-equivalent control group design. A quasi-experimental design is a type of

experimental design that does not provide for full control of extraneous variables,

primarily because of the lack of random assignment of subjects to groups (Ali, 2006).

Quasi-experimental design is considered appropriate for the study because intact classes were

used to avoid disruption of normal class lessons. The pre-test was used to partial out initial

differences in the two groups and to control selection bias, which is a trait to internal validity.

The study design is illustrated in the figure below

Fig. 1

Group 1 O1 X1 O2

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Group 11 O1 X1 O2

Where O1 =Pre - test

X1 = treatment for Exp. Group

58

X2 = Control group

O2 = Post Test

Area of study

This study was conducted in public secondary schools in Potiskum Local Government

Area of Yobe State. There are 12 public secondary schools in the local government area and

within the 12 schools are 3 are co-educational schools.

Population of the study

The population of the study consists of all the 2034 SS II Biology students from the 3

co-educational schools in Potiskum LGA of Yobe State (Yobe State Teaching Service Board,

2011/2012 academic records). SS I was used because the topics taught fell under the SS I

Biology curriculum. Co- educational schools were used because the researcher wants to find

out if students’ improvised instructional materials would have any influence on the

achievement of students in Biology based on their gender. Also, SS I students are not in final

examination class, so they are more favorably disposed to be involved in the study.

Sample and Sampling Technique

The sample size of this study is 140 students from two intact classes in public co-educational

schools in Potiskum Local Government Area of Yobe State. To produce the sample, simple random

sampling technique will be used to select two schools from Potiskum LGA. Two intact classes from

the two co – educational schools were randomly selected by balloting to represent the experimental

and control groups. The experimental group was taught using students improvised instructional

material and the control group was taught using conventional materials.

Instrument for data collection

59

The instrument for data collection for this study is Biology Achievement Test (BAT).

Some items for the BAT was constructed by the researcher and some were adopted from

West African Examination Council (WAEC) and it consists of thirty (30) multiple choice

questions, based on the Secondary School Biology Syllabus in Ecology. The BAT was

developed from the above topics by first constructing the blue print for the different content

specified above. The objective of the topics in SS I biology curriculum served as a guide for

developing the questions. The items in the BAT were structured to cover lower order

questions. The test blue print is presented in table (See Appendix B page 86). The Biology

Achievement Test will be used to assess the students’ achievement in biology.

Validation of Instrument

The thirty-item Biology Achievement Test (BAT), which consists of section A and B

items, was face and content validated by three experts, two from Science Education

Department and one from the Department of Arts Education all in Faculty of Education,

University of Nigeria Nsukka. These experts scrutinized the instrument in terms of: clarity of

instruction to the subject, proper wording of the items, appropriateness and adequacy of the

items for the study, structure and adequate timing. The comments and recommendations of

these experts helped to modify the items in the instrument.

Reliability of the instrument

The reliability of BAT was determined using Kuder-Richardson 21, by administering

the instrument to 30 SS I biology students in two different schools in Nsukka Education

Zone, a reliability coefficient of 0.87 was determined.

60

Experimental Procedure

The researcher trained the research assistants which comprised of the classroom

teachers of the schools that were used for the study. The researcher trained the biology

teachers using the lesson plans prepared by the researcher. The teachers were trained on how

to guide the students in the experimental group in constructing students’ improvised

instructional material, which were used for teaching the students in the experimental group

while the teachers for the control group used the conventional material. Students in the

treatment and control group will receive the same instruction using the same length of time

(period). Each of the school was taught using double periods every week for six weeks. After

the training, the researcher assessed the research assistants (teachers) by allowing them to

demonstrate what they have been taught in the training for 30 minutes. Student’s improvised

instructional materials were used to teach the experimental group while the conventional

instructional materials were used to teach the control group. The class teacher or research

assistants will carry on with the experiment based on the earlier discussion. Pretest was

administered to the students before the commencement of the experiment. The researcher

also monitored the assistants during the experiment. The regular biology teachers were used

during the instruction, two instructional materials were employed, namely the use of

improvised and conventional instructional materials. Intact classes were used in both schools.

Students in the treatment and control group received the same content area of instructional

materials using the length of time, students in each school were taught double periods a week

and each of the content lasted for 80 minutes, and six weeks was used for the study. At the

end of the experiment, the subjects for both the treatment and control groups were given the

BAT by their teachers after which the researcher collected the scripts and both the treatment

and control groups were scored and their scores were used for the analysis.

61

Control of Extraneous Variables

The following measures was taken to control the extraneous variables likely to

adversely affect the conduct of the experiment and the results obtained thereof.

Teachers Variables: Teacher variables: to control the error that might arise as a result of

teacher difference on the students’ achievement. The researcher trained the biology teacher of

the schools that were chosen for the study using the lesson plan prepared by the researcher.

One of the teachers was in charge of the experimental group and one for the control group.

The researcher assessed the research assistants by allowing them to demonstrate what they

have been taught at the training. This was done to control the differences that may arise as a

result of teacher’s variable.

Pre-test Sensitization

Since the same items were used for pre-testing and post-testing, students may be very

familiar with the test instrument thereby introducing error into the study. To minimize pre-

test sensitization therefore, the test items were reshuffled after the pre-test.

School variables: Co-educational schools were used because gender is a variable in the study.

Subject Interaction: two schools that were used for the study are far from each other to avoid

interaction and contamination. Schools similar in many characteristics were used for both the

experimental and control groups. Intact groups were used for the study to avoid the disruption

of the administrative set up of the school.

Inter Group Variable: To eliminate the error of non-equivalence arising from non-

randomization of the students, the researcher used Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) for

data analysis.

Method of data collection

Treatment and control groups were used for the experiment. At the end of the treatment

session posttest was administered to the students. Data collected from both the treatment and

62

control groups were used for analysis according to the research questions and hypotheses.

Method of Data Analysis

Mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions while

Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of

significance.

63

X

CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

This chapter presented results of data analysis based on five research questions and

five null hypotheses that guided the study. Results were presented individually in tables for

the five research questions and collectively in a table for the five hypotheses.

Research Question 1: what is the effect of student’s improvised instructional on students’

mean achievement scores in biology?

Table 1: Mean ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) on effect of student’s improvised

instructional on students’ mean achievement scores in biology

MATERIAL N PRETEST POSTTEST GAIN SCORE

X 1 SD1 X 2 SD2 X

Improvised 67 10.57 4.4 24.76 21.76 11.19

Conventional 73 7.97 3.86 18.51 7.45 10.54

Table I showed that the mean scores for student taught biology using improvised

instructional materials was 21.76 while that of the students taught with the conventional

material was 18.51. Meanwhile the gain score for students taught using improvised

instructional material is 11.19 while that of students taught with conventional material is

10.54. Students taught using improvised instructional materials therefore, performed better

than students taught using conventional material in Biology.

64

X

X

Research Question 2: what is the influence of gender on students’ mean achievement scores

in Biology when taught using student’s improvised instructional material?

Table 2: Mean ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) on the influence of gender on students’

mean achievement scores in Biology when taught using student’s improvised instructional

material

GENER N PRETEST POSTTEST GAIN SCORE

X 1 SD1 X 2 SD2 X

MALE 81 9.96 4.35 20.11 5.87 11.19

FEMALE 59 8.19 3.87 20.00 7.23 11.81

Table 2 revealed achievement mean score of 20.11 for male students, while female

students had achievement mean scores of 20.00. Male students therefore, slightly performed

better than their female counterparts in Biology.

Research Question 3: what is the influence of location on students’ mean achievement scores

in Biology when taught using student’s improvised instructional material?

Table 3: Mean ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) on the influence of location on students’

mean achievement scores in Biology when taught using student’s improvised

instructional material

LOCATION N PRETEST POSTTEST GAIN SCORE

X 1 SD1 X 2 SD2 X

URBAN 70 10.50 4.35 19.71 6.15 9.21

RURAL 70 7.93 3.72 20.41 6.77 12.48

Table 3 revealed achievement mean score of 19.71 for urban students, while rural

students had achievement mean scores of 20.41. However, urban student had gain score of

9.21 while rural students had 12.48. Therefore rural students performed better than urban

students in biology.

65

X

Research Question 4: what is the interaction effect of method and gender on students’ mean

achievement scores in Biology when taught using student’s improvised instructional

material?

Table 4: Mean ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) on achievement scores by mode of method

and gender

MODE IMPROVISED CONVENTIONAL

N X SD N X SD

Pretest Male 55 10.95 4.24 26 7.88 3.90

Female 12 8.83 3.93 47 8.02 3.88

Posttest Male 55 21.56 4.26 26 17.04 7.52

Female 12 22.67 6.27 47 19.32 7.37

Total

Observed mean 21.76 4.65 18.51 7.45

Table 4, revealed mean score of 21.56 for male students who were taught with students

improvised instructional materials, while their female counterparts had mean scores of 22.67.

Male students who were taught with conventional had mean scores of 17.04 while their

female counterparts had mean score of 19.32. The results do not suggest ordinal interaction

effect between mode of method and gender on students’ achievement in biology. This was

because at all the levels of gender, the mean scores were higher for student’s improvised

instructional material.

66

X

Research Question 5: what is the interaction effect of method and location on students’ mean

achievement scores in Biology when taught using student’s improvised instructional

material?

Table 5: Mean ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) on achievement scores by mode of method

and location

MODE IMPROVISED CONVENTIONAL

N X SD N X SD

Pretest Urban 47 11.51 4.13 23 8.43 4.13

Rural 20 8.35 3.70 50 7.76 3.86

Posttest Urban 47 21.67 4.34 23 15.43 7.12

Rural 20 21.65 5.43 50 19.92 7.23

Total

Observed mean 21.76 4.65 18.51 7.45

Data in table 5 showed mean score for students in urban area taught using student’s

improvised material was 21.67 while for the students in the rural area taught using student’s

improvised material was 21.65. The mean score for students in urban area taught with

conventional material was 15.43 and those students in rural area taught with conventional

materials was 19.92. Those data suggests ordinal interaction effects between modes of

method and location on students’ achievement in Biology. This was because at all the levels

of location, the mean scores were higher for student’s improvised instructional material

compared to conventional materials with lower mean scores; but the difference between the

two mean scores for student improvised instructional materials.

Hypotheses

The five hypotheses were tested using Analyses of Covariance. Summary of the analyses for

the five hypotheses is shown in table 6.

67

Table 6: Analyses of Covariance of students achievement scores by improvised and

conventional instructional materials.

SOURCES OF SUM OF DF MEAN F SIG

VARIATION SQUARES SQUARE

Covariates model 1550.852 8 193.856 5.987 .000

Intercept 4397.342 1 4397.342 135.811 .000

Pretest 468.147 1 468.147 14.459 .000

Method 186.706 1 186.706 5.766 .018

Gender 69.301 1 69.301 2.140 .146

Location 213.85 1 213.851 6.605 .011

Method x Gender 6.494 1 6.494 .201 .655

Method x Location 59.124 1 59.124 1.826 .179

Gender x Location 17.938 1 17.938 .534 .458

Method x Gender x

Location 121.523 1 121.523 3 .753 .055

Error 4241.570 131 32.378

Total 62153.00 140

Corrected Total 5792.421 139

Ho1: there is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students taught

biology using students’ improvised instructional material and those taught using

conventional materials.

Data in table 6 showed that there is a significant main effect for mode of instruction

on students achievement in biology f (1, 139) =5.766, p<.018. The null hypothesis therefore,

was rejected indicating that there is significant difference in the mean achievement score of

students taught biology using students’ improvised instructional materials and those taught

using conventional instructional materials. The mean achievement score for students’

improvised instructional material was 24.76, while that for conventional material was 18.51.

The difference was in favour of students’ improvised instructional materials. The student’s

instructional materials therefore, were superior to conventional material in Biology

instruction.

68

Ho2: there is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of female and male

students taught biology using student’s improvised instructional materials and those

taught using conventional instructional material.

Table 6 revealed non significant main effect of gender on students achievement in biology f

(1, 139) = 2.140, p> .146. The null hypothesis was therefore, not rejected indicating that

there is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male and female

students in biology.

Ho3: there is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of urban and rural

students taught biology using student’s improvised instructional materials and those

taught using conventional instructional material.

Table 6 revealed significant main effect of location on students achievement in biology f (1,

139) = 6.605, p> .011. The null hypothesis was therefore, rejected indicating that there

is significant difference in the mean achievement scores of urban and rural students in

biology.

Ho4: the interaction effect of method and gender on students’ mean achievement scores in

biology is not statistically significant.

Data in table 6 indicated non significant interaction effect of method and gender on students

achievement in biology f (1, 139) = .201, p>.655. The null hypothesis was therefore, not

rejected. The interaction effect of method and gender on students mean achievement

scores in Biology was, therefore, not statistically significant.

Ho5: the interaction effect of method and location on students’ mean achievement scores in

biology is not statistically significant.

69

Data in table 6 indicated non significant interaction effect of method and location on students

achievement in biology f (1, 139) = 1.826, p>.179. The null hypothesis was therefore,

not rejected. The interaction effect of method and location on students mean

achievement scores in Biology was, therefore, not statistically significant.

Summary of Findings

a. Students taught using improvised instructional materials performed better than

students taught using conventional material.

b. Male students did not perform better than their female counterparts in Biology when

taught using student’s improvised instructional material.

c. Rural students performed better than urban students in biology when taught using

student’s improvised instructional material.

d. The results do not suggest ordinal interaction effect between mode of method and

gender on students’ achievement in biology when taught using student’s improvised

instructional material. This was because at all the levels of gender, the mean scores

were higher for student’s improvised instructional material.

e. The result suggests ordinal interaction effects between modes of method and location

on students’ achievement in Biology when taught using student’s improvised

instructional material. This was because at all the levels of location, the mean scores

were higher for student’s improvised instructional material compared to conventional

materials with lower mean scores.

f. there was significance difference in the mean score of students taught using students

improvised instructional material and those taught using conventional instructional

materials

g. there was no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male and

female students in biology

70

h. there was significant difference in the mean achievement scores of urban and rural

students in biology

i. The interaction effect of method and gender on students mean achievement scores in

Biology was not statistically significant.

j. The interaction effect of method and location on students mean achievement scores in

Biology was not statistically significant.

71

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

In this chapter, the findings of the study based on the five research questions and five null

hypotheses that guided the study are discussed. The conclusion, educational implications,

recommendations, limitations of the study, suggestions for further research and summary of

the whole study are also presented.

Discussion of Results

Discussion of the findings is presented under the following subheadings:

a. effect of students’ improvised instructional materials and conventional materials on

students’ mean achievement scores in Biology

b. influence of gender on students’ mean achievement scores in biology when taught

using student’s improvised instructional material

c. influence of location on students’ mean achievement scores in biology when taught

using student’s improvised instructional material

d. interaction effect of methods and genders on students’ mean achievement scores in

biology when taught using student’s improvised instructional material

e. interaction effect of methods and locations on students’ mean achievement scores in

biology when taught using student’s improvised instructional material

Effect of student’s improvised instructional materials on students’ means

achievement scores in Biology

Students taught using improvised instructional materials performed better than

students taught using conventional material did. When the students generated instructional

72

materials, they seemed to understand their own materials better than the ones produced for

them (conventional). Consequently, those exposed to students’ improvised instructional

materials performed better in biology than those that were taught with conventional

instructional material. The students’ improvised instructional materials were more effective

because the students produced these materials and during the production process, their

interests were captured which lead to maximizing comprehension of the subject matter. Even

though students’ improvised instructional materials may not be aesthetically pleasing to the

eyes than the conventional, they were very effective in stimulating students’ knowledge

comprehension. This finding is in line with the observations of Ehikioya (2000), Olagunjo

(2000), Abolade (2004), Olagungu (2000), Mbajiorgu (2003), Onasanya and Omosewo

(2010), Adeyemi and Olaleye (2010) who found out that students’ improvised instructional

material affects students’ achievement that conventional materials.

Influences of gender on students’ mean achievement scores in biology when taught

using students improvised instructional material

Results showed that male students did not perform better than their female

counterparts in Biology did. The different socialization processes of male and female persons

in which the male persons are expected to explore their environment while the female ones

are to conform or maintain their existing environment notwithstanding; female students

significantly perform better than male students. The finding did not support Onasanya and

Omosewo (2010) who found out that improvised instructional materials in the comparison of

the male mean scores of experimental and control groups were the same entry level with

regard to academic ability. In addition to this, the studies by Ogunleye (2002) show that

science achievement depends on gender. Nevertheless, Nwosu (2001) found that students’

acquisition of science process skills are not gender specific. Also, the studies by Ogunleye &

Babajide (2011); Agommuoh & Nzewi, (2003) lend credence to non-significant gender effect

73

in science achievement. In addition, influence of gender on students’ conceptual change has

been equally investigated. However, Madu (2004), and Agomuoh (2010) found that gender

influences students’ conceptual shift in favour of the male.

Influences of location on students’ mean achievement scores in biology when taught

using students improvised instructional material

The finding of the study showed that rural students performed better than urban

students in biology did. This could be as a result of the fact that students in the rural areas

have more advantage of having pools of natural resources around them, which helped that to

be more conversant with some of the improvised instructional materials, thereby improving

their academic achievement more that the students in the urban area. This finding is

supported by the findings of Bosede (2010) and Ezeudu (2003) show that locations have no

effect on students’ academic achievement. Contrary to the finding of this study, Onah (2011)

and Owoeye (2002) found out that students in urban school perform better in science than

their counterpart in the rural schools.

Interaction effects of methods and genders on students’ mean achievement scores in

Biology when taught using student’s improvised instructional material

The results do not suggest ordinal interaction effect between mode of method and

gender on students’ achievement in biology. This was because at all the levels of gender, the

mean scores were higher for student’s improvised instructional material. This finding is in

line with the findins of Miriogu (2012), Madu (2004), and Agomuoh (2010) who found no

interaction effect of gender and instructional treatment. Nevertheless, the result of the study

contradicts with the finding of Baser (2006) who found out that gender significantly interacts

with the instructional treatment.

74

Interaction effects of methods and location on students’ mean achievement scores in

Biology when taught using student’s improvised instructional material

The result suggests ordinal interaction effects between modes of method and location on

students’ achievement in Biology. This was because at all the levels of location, the mean

scores were higher for student’s improvised instructional material compared to conventional

materials with lower mean scores. This findings is supported by the finding of Odo (1999)

found an interaction effect between location and instructional treatment. However, Momoh

(2001) and Miriogu (2012) have contrary reports on interaction effect of school location and

instructional treatment.

Conclusion

From the results obtained in the study on the effects of students improvised

instructional materials on students’ achievement in Biology, it was found that students taught

biology using improvised instructional materials performed better than students taught using

conventional material; male students did not perform better than their female counterparts in

Biology; rural students performed better than urban students in biology; The results do not

suggest ordinal interaction effect between mode of method and gender on students’

achievement in biology. This was because at all the levels of gender, the mean scores were

higher for student’s improvised instructional material; the result suggests ordinal interaction

effects between modes of method and location on students’ achievement in Biology; this was

because at all the levels of location, the mean scores were higher for student’s improvised

instructional material compared to conventional materials with lower mean scores; there was

significant difference in the mean score of students taught using students improvised

instructional material and those taught using conventional instructional materials; there was

no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male and female students in

75

biology; there was significant difference in the mean achievement scores of urban and rural

students in biology; The interaction effect of method and gender on students mean

achievement scores in Biology was, therefore, not statistically significant. The interaction

effect of method and location on students’ mean achievement scores in Biology was,

therefore, not statistically significant.

Educational Implications

The findings of this study have implications for science education particularly in

teaching biology in secondary schools. The implications of this study border on development

of more virile instructional materials for teaching biology. The study revealed that it was

students taught using improvised instructional materials performed better than students taught

using conventional material; male students did not perform better than their female

counterparts in Biology; rural students performed better than urban students in biology; The

results do not suggest ordinal interaction effect between mode of method and gender on

students’ achievement in biology. This was because at all the levels of gender, the mean

scores were higher for student’s improvised instructional material; the result suggests ordinal

interaction effects between modes of method and location on students’ achievement in

Biology; this was because at all the levels of location, the mean scores were higher for

student’s improvised instructional material compared to conventional materials with lower

mean scores; there was significant difference in the mean score of students taught using

students improvised instructional material and those taught using conventional instructional

materials; there was no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male and

female students in biology; there was significant difference in the mean achievement scores

of urban and rural students in biology; The interaction effect of method and gender on

students mean achievement scores in Biology was, therefore, not statistically significant. The

76

interaction effect of method and location on students’ mean achievement scores in Biology

was, therefore, not statistically significant.

In addition, the findings of this study have implications for biology teachers. With

these findings on the efficacy of students’ improvised instructional materials on students’

achievement in biology, it has become obvious that the current conventional instructional

materials recommended by the Ministry of Education are inadequate to meet the needs of the

student and consequently need to be reviewed. This will, without doubt, enhance students’

achievement in science, particularly in biology. The use of students’ improvised instructional

materials rendered effectiveness irrespective of the student’s gender.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, and their implications, the following

recommendations are made.

a. The teaching of Biology in secondary school should be conducted in a manner that

students will effectively understand and learn the concept taught. It should be

practical as the use of improvised instructional materials has play greater role in

students’ achievement.

b. Teacher should try to improvise instructional materials and encourage students to do

the same. This will gives students enough understanding of Biology concepts as the

child’s local environment will be use to source for the materials.

c. There should be cordial relationship between policy makers and schools for the

provision of essential resource materials, like laboratory, glass wares, reagents,

microscope, burner, etc.

77

d. It is suggested that regular meaningful workshop on improvisation technique for

Science teachers should be conducted to improve and update their competence in

teaching.

e. At the local education authority level, effort should be made from time to time to

organize workshops for Biology teachers on improvisation and needs for the use of

instructional materials. This is to compliment the efforts of the Millennium

Development Goals (MDGs) for re-training of Science teachers.

Limitations of the Study

The generalizations made with respect to this study are however subject to the

following limitations:

1. Since different teachers were used for different groups, it could be assumed that they

might not have been of equal attributes in terms of cognitive, personality and affective

functioning. This might have introduced error in the study.

2. There was also the problem of absenteeism among the students. The fact that some

students skipped classes may have influenced their performance.

3. The study is only restricted to only SSI students in secondary schools in Potistum

Education Zone of Yobe State. This will make the scope of generalizations fairly

narrow.

Suggestions for Further Study

Based on the findings and limitations of this research, the following topics are

suggested for further research.

• Similar studies should be conducted in biology to find out the effects of improvised

and conventional instructional material on students’ achievement among varied ability

levels and their retention.

78

• Similar study should be carried out using other science subjects

Summary of the Study

The study investigated the effects of students’ improvised instructional materials on

students’ achievement in biology. Five research questions and five null hypotheses guided the

study. The study employed a non-equivalent quasi-experimental research design. The sample

for the study comprised 140 SSI in Potiskum Education Zone of Yobe State. The instrument

for data collection in this study is Biology Achievement Test (BAT). Two intact classes were

assigned to treatment and control group. Data were analyzed using mean, standard deviation

and the Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA).

The results revealed that students taught using improvised instructional materials

performed better than students taught using conventional material; male students did not

perform better than their female counterparts in Biology; rural students performed better than

urban students in biology; The results do not suggest ordinal interaction effect between mode

of method and gender on students’ achievement in biology. This was because at all the levels

of gender, the mean scores were higher for student’s improvised instructional material; the

result suggests ordinal interaction effects between modes of method and location on students’

achievement in Biology; this was because at all the levels of location, the mean scores were

higher for student’s improvised instructional material compared to conventional materials

with lower mean scores; there was significant difference in the mean score of students taught

using students improvised instructional material and those taught using conventional

instructional materials; there was no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of

male and female students in biology; there was significant difference in the mean

achievement scores of urban and rural students in biology; The interaction effect of method

and gender on students mean achievement scores in Biology was, therefore, not statistically

79

significant. The interaction effect of method and location on students’ mean achievement

scores in Biology was, therefore, not statistically significant.

Based on the findings and implications, it was recommended that teaching of Biology

in secondary school should be conducted in a manner that students will effectively

understand and learn the concept taught. It should be practical as the use of improvised

instructional materials has play greater role in students’ achievement; Teacher should try to

improvise instructional materials and encourage students to do the same. This will gives

students enough understanding of Biology concepts as the child’s local environment will be

use to source for the materials; There should be cordial relationship between policy makers

and schools for the provision of the essential materials as resource materials, like laboratory,

glass wares, reagents, microscope, burner, etc; and at the local education authority level,

effort should be made from time to time to organize workshops for Biology teachers on

improvisation and needs for the use of instructional materials in teaching and learning. This is

to compliment the efforts of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for re-training of

Science teachers. It was suggested that further research can be carried out on this topic using

true experimental research design.

80

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88

APPENDIX A

Lesson Note for 2nd

week

Subject - Biology

Class - SSI

Topic - Ecological concepts

Time - 80 minutes

Specific Objectives - By the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. Define Ecology.

2. List at least 5 ecological concepts.

3. Explain at least 5 of the ecological concepts.

4. Explain the relationship that exists between some biotic and abiotic factors in the

ecosystem.

Instructional materials:

Text-books, charts and chalkboard, thermometer, instructional materials such as

pooter, secchi disc, wind vane, and rainguage

Entry Behaviour

The teacher takes the students' outside the classroom. The teacher asks them to list in their note books things they can see around them. The teacher asks them to look up in the sky and write down what that portion of the earth is called.

Instructional procedure

Teacher's activities Students’

activities

Strategies

Step I The teacher introduces the lesson by explaining to the students thus:

In nature, living things do not

live in isolation. There is inter-

dependence between plants and

animals and their environment.

Ecology is the branch of

biology devoted to the study of

such interactions in nature. The

teacher then asks the students

to define ecology. The teacher

The student attempts the definition thus; Ecology is the study of the inter-relationship between living organisms and their external environment.

The teacher has already

Explanation

89

gives corrections where

necessary.

tried to define Ecology.

Step II

Ecological concepts. The

teacher explains to the students

that there are some ecological

concepts they have to master in

the study of ecology. The

brings out the chart where she

listed the concepts. These

include Environment,

Biosphere, Lithosphere,

Population, Community,

Ecosystem, Biome,

Atmosphere, Habitat, Niche,

and species, Biotic and Abiotic.

Using a Flow- chart, the

teacher rolls out the concepts

one after another. She

discusses each of the concepts

with the students e.g.

Environment. This is the total

surroundings of an organism.

Then teacher asks the students to mention these things listed when they went outside the classroom. As the students mention those examples the teacher and students discusses them. Atmosphere is the part of the earth occupied by air. The teacher and students discusse other concepts listed in the flow- chart.

The students list these concepts into their note books.

The students ask questions for clarity, where they are not cleared.

The students mention trees, houses, atmosphere stones, grasses, goat, birds, cars etc.

Explanation

90

Step III

Relationship that exist between concepts. The teacher explains to the students that relationship exist between concepts. The teacher and students discuss the relationships. Here the teacher uses prompts in form of cues eg. Is a person’s habitat his environment? If so, what of the climate? Give reasons for your answer.

The teacher explains to the students that these examples of the climate affect the living organisms and they all make up the environment of the organism.

The teacher then list out the list out the instruments for measuring ecological factors

The students answers the teacher’s questions.

The climate is also the environment of the organism because rainfall, wind, temperature, light, etc are all part of the climate.

Questioning.

Questioning

Discussion with

examples.

Evaluation

The teacher evaluates the students by asking them questions thus

1. Define Ecology

2. List out in your book 5 ecological concepts and explain 3 of them.

3. Explain one relationship between organisms in a community.

Take Home Assignment - Make notes on ecological concepts

Lesson note for 3rd

week

Subject - Biology

91

Class - SSI

Topic - Ecological factors - Types

Time - 80 minutes

Specific Objectives - By the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. Mention the types of ecological factors.

2. Make a concept map of ecological factors.

3. State 3 factors common to both aquatic and terrestrial habitats.

4. State at least 3 factors peculiar to each of the habitats.

Instructional materials:

Text-books, charts and chalkboard, thermometer, instructional materials such

as pooter, secchi disc, wind vane, beakers, insect sweep net, quadrat and

rainguage

Entry behaviour

The students can explain the relationship between living and non-living

things and their

environment. They can also explain ecological concepts.

The teacher reminds the students about the interrelationship between living and non-living things, and their environment.

She now explains to them that it is this living and non-living things that are referred to as ecological factors.

Instructional procedure

Teachers activities Student's

activities

Strategies

Step I

The teacher introduces the lesson by showing a chart of concept map of the types of ecological factors to the students. The teacher points at the map and explains generally.

The teacher and students discuss the types of ecological factors. These factors are divided into biotic and abiotic factors.

The teacher asks the students to explain with examples the biotic and abiotic factors. As the students give the answers, the teacher writes on the

The students listen and observe the map.

The students explain that biotic factors are those living things in the environment of

Illustrations

and

explanations

Questioning. Explanation with examples

92

chalkboard.

The teacher asks questions

thus; how does the climate

affect the ecosystem? The

teacher and students discuss the

effect of those physical factors

mentioned by the student. What

happens to a newly cultivated

land when there is a normal

temperature, rainfall and light

intensity?

When the crops in the farm

yield favourably, what is the

reaction of the farmer? Make a

relationship with your answers.

The teacher goes on to explain

the chemical and edaphic

factors using the same method

plants and animals.

The abiotic factors are the non-living factors e.g. climate and edaphic factors.

The climatic factors

are made up

physical and

chemical factors.

Examples of

physical factors are

rainfall,

temperature, light,

wind, pressure,

humidity. This

determines the type

of plants and

animals that will

exist in an

ecosystem.

Cueing

questions and

discussions

giving examples,

project.

Step II Biotic factors. The teacher asks the students to explain biotic factor.

The teacher points out to the students that biotic factors include green and non-green plants, animal and man.

She then asks the student to mention one of the physiological processes in plant in relation to food. What is photosynthesis? What is the importance of photosynthesis to man and other animals? What is the importance of the climatic factors to the process of photosynthesis? In the absence of the climatic factors (as was mentioned by the students) what will happen to the plants and animals? What are the

This includes plants, animals including man.

The students ask questions, add their own contributions to the discussion. The students answer photosynthesis.

The students define photosynthesis as the process whereby green plants manufacture organic material from carbondioxide and water using light energy and chlorophyll. The students answer that rainfall, light, carbon IV oxide are necessary for the process of

Questioning

and

Explanation.

questioning

Discussion

giving

examples

Questioning

93

other effects on the animals and plants? The teacher then explains to the students that man is a powerful destroyer of the ecosystem. She then asks what the activities of man in the ecosystem are. As the students answers the questions, the teacher writes on the chalkboard the answer and they discuss them one after the other.

The teacher uses the students improvised material for a clearer explanation

photosynthesis. Other effects are that in the absence of light, water and carbon IV oxide photosynthesis will not take place. The students answer the questions and discuss with the teacher.

Discussions

Step III Ecological factors common to

aquatic and terrestrial habitats.

The teacher explains to the

students that there are abiotic

factors that are common to both

habitat such as; she ask them to

mention them and where they

fail she helps to do the

correction. The teacher and the

student discuss them.

The teacher then asks the students to write in their notes factors that are peculiar to aquatic habitat and those peculiar to terrestrial alone. As the students write in their note books the teacher goes round the class to correct.

The teacher ask the students to list various ecological measuring instruments

Listening

Note books

Step IV Evaluation

The teacher evaluates the students by asking them questions thus

1. Mention the ecological

factors

2. State 3 factors common for

94

both aquatic and terrestrial habitats.

3. State 3 climatic factors that determine the type of vegetation in an area.

Assignment

Make a relationship between biotic and abiotic factors.

APPENDIX

Lesson note for 4th

week

Biology

SSI

Soil - types and its effects

on vegetation

80 minutes

Specific Objectives - By the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. Explain soil formation

2. Mention types of soil

3. State the water retention ability of each type of soil

4. State the effects of soil on vegetation.

Instructional materials: Thermometer, instructional materials such

aspooters, secchi disc, windvane, beakers, rainguage, quadrates, insect

sweep nets, tapes, different types of soil samples, water, funnels different

types of measuring cylinders.

Previous Knowledge:

The students can explain the abiotic factors with soil as one of the examples

Instructional procedure

Subject

Class

Topic

Time

95

Teacher's activities Students’

activities Strategies

Step I The teacher explains to the students' that soil is formed from rocks by weathering processes. These are chemical, physical and biological means of breaking down of rocks into small particles, which make up the soil. She shows the students the samples of the soil. She goes further to explain that the soil is composed of organic and inorganic materials. Organic materials are water, air and soil organisms, while the inorganic are the product of weathering.

The students looked at the samples of the soil and feel them.

Explanation

Step

II

Types of soil.

The teacher goes further to explain that there are 3 types of soil; sandy, clayey, and loam soil. Sandy soil is coarse, very porous and water drains away quickly. Clayey soil is fine grained and heavy. Poor draining ability and water log easily.

Loam: mixture of sand and clay particles, a good crump structure, which drains well, yet retains sufficient water.

As the teacher explains this, she illustrates the water retention ability of each type of soil.

The students listen and ask questions where they are not cleared.

The students observe and do the same.

Illustration.

Step

III

The effect of each type of soil on vegetation

The teacher explains the result of each of the experiment

The students listen

Explanation

96

done.

Sandy soil drains very quickly and retains little water for crop growth. Therefore requires fertilizer to grow crops. Due to its low nutritive content and low water retention property. It can only support the growth of grasses.

Clay soil: it has poor draining ability, drains very slowly and retain large amount of water. It can only support the vegetation that can withstand water logged e.g. rice.

Loam soil retains water and also rich in nutrients, it can support tropical rain forest. It is the best soil for agriculture.

The teacher list some of the materials for measuring specific abiotic factor

The students write

the points in their

notebooks

demonstration

Step

IV

Evaluation

(1) Mention the three types of soil.

(2) State how the soil is

formed.

(3) Explain the water

retention of each type of

soil.

(4) Which of the soil is the

best in support of

agriculture?

97

Assignment

Get the three samples of soil, plant maize grains, bean seeds in them and write your observation.

Specific Objectives - By the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. Define Ecosystem

2. Make an aquatic and terrestrial food chain

3. Make a food web

4. Explain with examples trophic levels

5. State the importance of autotrophs in an ecosystem.

Instructional materials:

Charts, textbooks, thermometer, instructional materials such aspooters, secchi disc,

windvane, beakers, rainguage, quadrates, insect sweep nets, tapes, different types

of soil samples, water, funnels different types of measuring cylinders.

Previous knowledge

The student can now state the importance of soil to vegetation.

Lesson note for

5th

week

Subject -

Class -

Topic -

Time -

APPENDIX

Biology

SSI

Functioning Ecosystem, Food chain, food web,

trophic levels

80 minutes

98

Instructional procedure

Teacher's activities Students’ activities Strategies

Step I

The teacher explains to the students that ecosystem is a community of organisms interacting with one another and with their non-living surroundings or environment. The organisms are grouped into 2. The autotrouphs and heterotrophs.

Autotrophs are organisms that produce their food and they are called producers or green plants. They belong to the trophic level. She goes further to explain that these autotrophs are of 2 types photosynthetic and chemosynthetic autotrophs.

She then asks the students to define photosynthesis.

The teacher corrects them where they make mistakes. She explains chemosynthesis. She goes further to explain that there are aquatic and terrestrial producers. Examples of aquatic producers are phytoplanktons while terrestrial producers are green plants.

Hetetrophs are organisms that cannot manufacture their food but depend directly on autotrophs for their food. These groups are called consumers. They may be holozoic, saprophytic, and parasitic. The teacher explains each one after the other.

The students listen.

Photosynthesis is

the first

process

where green plants

manufacture their

food in presence of

chlorophyll, Co2,

water.

The students listen and ask questions where they did not understand

Explanation

demonstration

Step II Consumers

These are animals that feed on plants or other animals e.g. Cow, goat, tiger, man, dog etc.

Consumers are divided into three main groups - primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers represented thus, 1°, 2°, and 3°,

The students listen explanation

99

respectively. She goes further to explain that the primary consumers feed directly on producers and they are called the herbivores eg cow, goat, sheep. The 2° and 3

0 may feed on plants

and other animals. Those that feed on only animals are called carnivores, eg tiger, lion, cat, dog while those that feed on both plants and animals are called omnivores eg man

Step III Food chain

The teacher explains to the students that food chain is the transfer of food energy from producer to other organisms in a habitat. She reminds them that all food chain must start with the producer or autotrophs ie green plant. She then show the students the charts where there are examples of aquatic and terrestrial food chain. Aquatic food chain;

Plankton - tilapia - watersnake -

Terrestrial - food chain

Grass - grasshopper - lizard -

snake.

She stresses that the arrow show

direction of energy transfer.

Food web;

Food web is a complicated form of food chain which is made up of two or more interconnected food chains in an ecosystem. She now presents a chart with aquatic and terrestrial food web. Using the charts, the teacher explains the food web- stressing that the green plants must start either with the food chain or food web.

The students listen and ask questions where necessary

The students listen and write down on their notebooks. They ask questions where it is not clear to them.

Explanation

Illustration

Question

Step IV Trophic level.

The teacher explains that trophic levels are the feeding level in a

The students listen and write the definitions in their

100

food chain. It also shows the energy flow from one organism to another in an ecosystem. The teacher goes further to explain food pyramid, pyramid of number, pyramid of biomass and pyramid of energy. She shows the charts where they are drawn.

note books

The students draw them in the note books

Use of

Illustration

Evaluation: The teacher asks the student question;

1. Define ecosystem

2. What organism starts either a food chain or a food web?

3. What is trophic level?

4. What is the importance of autotrophs in an ecosystem?

Assignment

Make an aquatic and terrestrial food chain and food web showing the trophic levels of each organism.

Lesson note for 6th

week

Subject - Biology

Class - SSI

Topic - Major biomes of the world: Nigerian biotic communities

Time - 80 minutes

Specific Objectives - By the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. Mention the major biomes of the world.

2. Mention the major Nigerian biotic communities.

3. Describe at least the 3 major Nigerian communities.

4. List the measuring instrument for measuring different types of

ecological factor.

101

5. Mention the location of tropical rain forest in Nigeria.

Instructional materials:

Charts, textbooks, thermometer, instructional materials such as pooters,

secchi disc, wind vane, beakers, rainguage, quadrates, insect sweep nets,

tapes, different types of soil samples, water, funnels different types of

measuring cylinders.

Previous knowledge

The students can now state some interactions among the components of the

ecosystem.

Instructional procedure

Teacher's activities Students’ activities Strategies

Step I Major biomes of the world. The teacher explains to the students that the 2 major biomes of the world include; tropical rainforest, savanna, desert, shrub, alfropine and swamp.

1st biomes consist of habitats of

different sizes each with its own conditions and a community of organisms. We are going to pay particular attention to Nigerian biotic communities. These include tropical rainforest, guinea savanna, Sudan savanna and swamps.

Tropical rainforest

The teacher explains to the students

that the region has a high amount of

rainfall with mean annual rainfall

over 1,250mm. The mean monthly

temperature is 350°c, has low light

intensity, high humidity, still air

and amp floor. The trees have

unbark, broad leaves, unbranched

trunks with buttress root. The trees,

flower and set fruits in wet and dry

The students listen

The students listen and copy into their note books

Explanation

102

seasons. The common trees found

there are iroko, mahogany, silk

cotton, oil palm, mango tree etc.

they form canopies. Animals found

there are snails, millipedes,

centipedes, squirrels, snakes toads,

etc

Location: tropical rainforest are

found in southern states e.g. Lagos,

Oyo, Edo, Delta, Akwa Ibom,

Cross River, Abia, Imo,

Anambra, Enugu etc.

Explanation and note copying

Step II Savanna or grass land

The annual rainfall in this area is

less than 125cm and is seasonally

distributed. It has high

temperature and high light

intensity. The vegetation is

grassland with some shrubs and

trees. There are types of savanna

which are; Guinea, Sudan and

Sahel savanna Guinea savanna The

teacher explains to the students that

this region joins the forest area and

is composed of open woodland with

tall trees. The abiotic factors are

wind, dryness, high temperature

and frequent fires. The plants have

hairy leaves with waxy surfaces.

They shade their leaves to conserve

water. The trees have thick corky

barks that insulate them from fire

damage.

Afzella africana, Butryospermam,

Parekia, Aadropogan etc are

common plants found there. The

animals found there are Termites,

Rodents, Grasscutters, Giraffes,

Lions, Hyenas, Deers, Rats, Guinea

Fowls, Leopard etc.

Sudan savanna

The region is found between the guinea and sahel savanna. It is dry than the guinea zone, has lower amount of rainfall with more severe day environment. Plants found in this area are Acacia, and grasses.

Explanation

103

Animals are Termites and grasscutter etc. Sahel savanna. This region is close to the desert area. Annual rainfall is less than 250mm. Have high winds, intense dryness, high temperatures and frequent fires. Plants are short trees with small leave thorns e.g. Eupherbic, Acacia, date palms etc. Animals are termites, lion, hyenas, leopard, giraffes etc. The region is located in the poorer state on Nigeria.

The students ask

question where they

are not cleared

Step

III

Swamps and mangrove

This can be found in coastal regions of the country e.g. Delta, River, Niger states. It has brackish water and the forest is dominated by the mangrove trees. It has a fluctuating salt content, the soil is saturated with water and lacks Oxygen and readily washed away by the sea.

The plants found in this region are red and white mangrove trees, coconut palm, aquatic weeds etc. animals are Tilapia, crabs, molluscs, star fishes, oyerster, mosquitoes, birds etc.

The teacher make a list of all the

materials measuring and collecting

samples in the ecosystem

The students ask questions where they are not cleared. They also copy notes and the improvise some of these materials mentioned by the teacher for instruction by constructing materials that can serve the same purpose in the absent of the standardized materials.

Question and answer

Step IV Evaluation

The teacher asks questions thus;

1. Mention the major biomes of the world.

2. How many biotic communities do we have in Nigeria? Mention them.

3. Mention three materials for measuring the abiotic factors in the

ecosystem.

4. mention three uses of a quadrat?

Assignment

Find out the biotic community your school area belongs to.

104

Mention the plants and animals that make you belief your school belong to

the biome mentioned

105

APPENDIX B

Table I: Test Blue Print (Table of Specification)

Content

development

Knowledge Comprehension Application total

Ecological

concepts,

components

of ecosystem

2(1,2) 2

Ecological

factors

5(2,12, 14,24, 30) 2(7,26) 7

Soil: types

and

vegetations

2(4,13) 2(23,25) 2(17,22) 6

Functioning

ecosystem

7(8,9,10,11,21,2,29) 4(3,18,19,27) 11

Major

biomes of the

world

1(15) 2(5,16) 1(6) 4

Total 13 9 3 30

106

APPENDIX C

BIOLOGY ACHIEVEMENT TESTS IN ECOLOGY (BATE)

Name of Student: …………………………… Class ………………………… Sex ……………

School: …………………………………………………………………………………………….

TICK (√) THE CORRECT OPTION IN THE FOLLOWING ECOLOGY QUESTION

SECTION A

1. Ecology is best define as the study of

a. The characteristics of an environment

b. The interrationships between living organisms and their environment

c. Living organisms in a particular habitat

d. The habitat and wildlife

2. The term ecosystem refers to

a. Different groups of green plant in a particular habitat.

b. Living member of a habitat

c. Living organisms interacting with the physical environment

d. Members of a particular plant and animal living in a habitat

3. An important of food web is that living organism

a. Use web to collect food

b. Can live on their own

c. Have to form a web

d. Depend on one another for their existence

4. Soil factors in an ecosystem are referred to as

a. Biotic

107

b. Climatic

c. Edaphic

d. Topographic

5. In savanna trees, thick corky bark is an adaptation for,

a. Absorbing water

b. Conservation of water

c. Enhancing transpiration

d. Resistance to bush fire

6. Which of the following is not classified as a terrestrial habitat?

a. Forest

b. Guinea savanna

c. Afro Alpine

d. Littoral zone

7. The activities of an organism which affect the survival of another organism in a habitant

can be described as

a. Biotic factor

b. Climatic factor

c. Abiotic factor

d. Physiological factor

8. Changes in energy flow between organism in a habitat can be represented by

a. Pyramid of biomass

b. Pyramid of number

c. Pyramid of energy

d. Food chain

9. During which of the following processes is food for animal produced

108

a. Photosynthesis

b. Respiration

c. Nutrition

d. Digestion

10. Natality is a factor affecting population density because it involves

a. Increase in population due to immigration

b. Increase in population due to emigration

c. The number of matured female in the population

d. The number of all the young ones produced in the population

11. The number of individual in a habitat in relation to the unit space available to each

organism is referred to as

a. Birth rate

b. Density

c. Mortality

d. Dispersion

12. A hydrometer is used for measuring

a. Relative humility

b. Light intensity

c. Turbidity

d. Wind

13. Which of the following is used for the collection of small insects from the soil, leaf litters

and crevices

a. Pooter

b. Quadrat

c. Sweep net

109

d. Drag net

14. Which of the following is a pollutant

a. Oxygen

b. Water vapour

c. Carbon monoxide

d. Hydrogen

15. Which of the following best describe a marine habitat ?A large body of water :

a. Which has no distinctive colour or teste

b. With high concentration of salt

c. With little suspended material

d. Which sustain no animal

16. The following are features of Northern Guinea except

a. Presence of tall trees with thick bark

b. Bare soil with very few trees

c. Presence of five – resistant trees

d. Predominance of woody trees

17. Which of the following is the underlying principle in the adoption of biological control of

pest?

a. The relative population of plant and animals

b. The predator – prey relationship in the ecological community

c. The relationship between plant and animals

d. Knowledge of agricultural practices by the farmer

18. The following conditions form the basis of competition in a habitat except?

a. Food

b. Space

110

c. Body structure

d. Reproductive mate

19. In food chain the position occupied by an organism is called

a. Trophic level

b. Energy level

c. The feeding level

d. The habitat level

20. Which of the following processes is not due to interaction between the biotic and abiotic

component of an ecosystem?

a. Soil nutrient depletion

b. Condensation

c. Decomposition

d. Osmosis

21. The entire habitat of an organism can be described as its

a. Ecological community

b. Ecological niche

c. Habitat factor

d. Abiotic factor

22. Which of the following is the correct method of collecting soil organism?

a. Heating the soil

b. Placing a highest electric bulb over the soil in a funnel

c. Aerating the soil

d. Pouring

23. The factor that determine the type of vegetation a particular habitat will support is related

to the following

111

a. Nature of the soil particle

b. Dept of the water table

c. Amount of rainfall

d. Mineral content of the soil

24. Which of the following statements is not true about population

a. Member of the population may be of the same species

b. Members of the population may be of the same species but do not interact

c. Size of a population may be limited by space

d. Some of the species can form another population elsewhere

25. The following are effects of over grazing except?

a. Depletion of the useful fodder crop

b. Epidemic of cattle disease

c. Soil and wind erosion of pasture land

d. Migration of the herdsmen

26. Predation is an example of a factor in an ecological system referred to as

a. Edaphic

b. Abiotic

c. Abiotic

d. Biotic

27. A chemosynthetic autotroph uses energy from------------ to produce their food

a. Chemical reaction

b. Sunlight

c. Solar energy

d. Radiation

28. Which of the following is not a �eterotrophy?

112

a. Fungi

b. Mistletoe

c. Dodder

d. Grass

29. A complex form of food chain is called?

a. Ecosystem

b. Food web

c. Community

d. Niche

30. Which of the following is not a biotic factor in an ecosystem?

a. Mango

b. Fungi

c. Man

d. Temperature

113

Pooter

Windvane

Rainguage

Secchi Disc

CC CC

APPENDIX D