extended essay sample 3 - philpot education · extended essay sample 3.1 title: ... drastically to...
TRANSCRIPT
Extended essay Sample 3.1
Title:
RiseoftheKhmerRouge
Researchquestion:“TowhatextentwereforeigninfluencesthemaincauseintheKhmerRouge’sriseinpower
inCambodiain1975?”
Wordcount:3.980
2
Tableofcontent
Introduction 3
HistoricalBackgroundofForeignInfluenceinCambodia 4
CercleMarxiste 5
VietnameseAlliance 8
PoliticalTurmoil 9
ChineseAmbitions 11
AmericanInvolvement 12
Assessment 14
Conclusion 15
Bibliography 17
Appendix 22
3
Introduction
TheCommunistPartyofKampuchea,subsequentlyreferredtointhisessayastheKhmer
Rouge,weretherulingpartyofCambodiabetween1975and1979.ThepartywasledbyPol
Pot(SalothSâr),NuonChea,IengSary,SonSen,andKhieuSamphan1andundertheirrule,
thestatewasrenamedDemocraticKampuchea.2Thisinvestigationwillfocusmainlyonthe
influencesofforeignpowersontheriseoftheKhmerRougeregimeinAprilof1975.The
researchoftherisetopoweroftheKhmerRougeissignificantbecausetothisveryday,
therearestillon-goingtrialstoprosecuteleadersoftheregimeforcrimesagainsthumanity.
DuringtheperiodofKhmerRougedominance,theCambodianpopulacewerearrested,
tortured,andexecuted.EventsthathaveshapedandchangedSouthEastAsiahavegreatly
influencedmylifeasIgrewup.Thisfuelsmyon-goinginterestintheinfluencesofforeign
powersoncatastrophiceventssuchastheKhmerRouge.
Initially,theKhmerRougeregimeseemstobesolelyinfluencedbyFrenchcolonialismand
Frenchcommunism.Withfurtheranalysisintovariouscontributingideologies,thisisnotthe
case.Thescopeofthisessaywillfocusonthevariousotherinternationalinfluencesandhow
thoseinfluencesbroughttopoweragroupwhowouldsubsequentlykillapproximately1.7
millionciviliansinjustfouryears.3
1"KhmerRougePage."Cambodia.CambodianInformationCentre,15Aug.1995.Web.10Jan.2013.<http://www.cambodia.org/khmer_rouge/>.2SokUdom,Deth.TheRiseandFallofDemocraticKampuchea.N.p.:n.p.,Winter2009.PDF.3"TheCGP,1994-2012."CambodianGenocideProgram.YaleAssistancetoDocumentationCenterofCambodia,1995-2005,2010.Web.17Jan.2013.<http://www.yale.edu/cgp/>.
4
HistoricalBackgroundofForeignInfluenceinCambodia
Fromthe15thto19thcentury,Cambodiawasanationthatunderwentseveraldrastic
changesintermsofterritorialloss,colonialism,andpoliticalturmoil.Despitebeingsituated
betweenSiam(Thailand)andVietnam,twonationsthatweregraduallyincreasinginpower,
Cambodia’sprosperityduringthe16thcenturydidnotprovideenoughcompetitivefooting
withthesetwonations.CambodiawascontrolledandprotectedbySiamuntilthe
VietnameseannexationoftheMekongDeltaduringthe17thcentury.4Vietnam’ssuccessful
attemptofinvasionallowedCambodiatobreakfreefromSiamesecontrol,intoVietnamese
control.AsaresultofVietnamesecontrol,akingdominCambodiawasestablishedunderfull
Vietnamesesuzerainty.5
ThereigningmonarchofCambodiafrom1860to1904,KingNorodomI,struggledtobring
anendtotheutilizationofCambodiaasvassalterritoryforSiamandVietnam.Constant
struggleforliberationfromthecontroloftwodominatingnationsledtoCambodiasigninga
protectiontreatywithFrance.CambodiacametorelyheavilyonFrenchprotectionto
preventVietnameseinvasionontheireasternfrontiers.AfterthetreatybetweenFranceand
Cambodiawassigned,Cambodiastruggledtomaintainitsautonomy.Cambodianmonarchy
heldverylittlepower,maintainedmerelyforculturalreasons.In1941,NorodomSihanouk,
aninexperiencedmonarchfromaweakCambodianhousewasbroughttopowerbyFrance
tobeutilizedasaFrenchpoliticalpawn,withthebeliefthathewouldnotbedefiantto
Frenchwill.6DuringWWII,theJapaneseallowedFrenchcolonialismtoprevailbut
encouragednationalisminCambodia,throughtheJapanesepolicyof“AsiaforAsians”
designedtoridSoutheastAsiaofWesterninfluence,replacingitwithJapanesehegemony.7
Fromearlyon,theseedsofCambodiannationalismweresownbyaforeignpower–Japan.
AfterWWII,theFrenchreturnedtoCambodiatoreinstateitsruleintheregion.Cambodia
wasmadeanautonomousstatewithintheFrenchUnion,butFranceretaineddefacto
4Nelson,Phil."Indochina."Flagspot.,26Aug.2005.Web.<http://flagspot.net/flags/vn-inchn.html>.5"HistoryofCambodia."HistoryofCambodia.N.p.,2004.Web.17Jan.2013.<http://www.historyofnations.net/asia/cambodia.html>.6Becker,Elizabeth,andSethMydans."NorodomSihanouk,CambodianLeaderThroughShiftingAllegiances,Diesat89."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimes,14Oct.2012.Web.10Jan.2013.<http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/15/world/asia/norodom-sihanouk-cambodian-leader-through-shifting-allegiances-dies-at-89.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0>.7"UsefulNotes:ImperialJapan."TVTropes.TVTropesFoundation,n.d.Web.<http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/UsefulNotes/ImperialJapan?from=Main.ImperialJapan>.
5
control.8Cambodiaasanationwasnotproperlypreparedforaparliamentarydemocracy
andtheFrenchrefusedtogiveanygenuinepowertotheNationalAssembly.9
CercleMarxiste
AmongthefiveleadingmembersoftheKhmerRouge,PolPot,IengSary,KhieuSamphan,
andSonSenreceivedscholarshipstostudyinParis.Theexperienceexposedthefuture
KhmerRougeleaderstoMarxism-Leninism10,between1949to1951PolPotandIengSary,
joinedtheFrenchCommunistParty(PCF).AtthetimethePCFwasconsideredtobethe
tightest,mostorthodoxMarxist-LeninistofWesternEuropeanCommunism.11TheKhmer
studentpopulationofParismadeuptheKhmer’sStudentAssociation(KSA),theKSAstarted
asanon-politicalassociationbutaftertheBerlinFestivalitspoliticalperspectiveshifted
drasticallytotheleft.12WithintheKSAaneworganizationwascreated,theCercleMarxiste,
consistingof30Khmerstudents.TheCercle,comprisingofasecretivenetworkofcells
subsequentlydiscoveredStalinism,providingthestudentswithasenseofbelonginganda
goal.13ThoughtheywereexposedtoMarxism,theirinterpretationofitwasheavilyinduced
byBuddhism.14TheKhmerstudentsincludingPolPotstudiedvariousworksofStalinsuchas
his1912essayMarxismandtheNationalQuestionandTheHistoryoftheCommunistParty
(Bolshevik).The1938workbyStalinontheaftermathoftheGreatTerrorcanbeconsidered
avitalinformativeinfluencetothecourseoftheregime.15
TheHistoryoftheCommunistParty(Bolshevik)emphasizedonsixbasiclessons,like‘the
needtostayclosetothemasses’andnottobecome‘dizzywithsuccess’.16Thoughwhat
stoodoutmostfortheKhmerCommunistswereStalin’sfourprecepts,focusingonthe
8"CambodiaHistory."HistoryofCambodia.N.p.,n.d.Web.19Jan.2013.<http://www.lonelyplanet.com/cambodia/history>.9"Cambodia:WorldWarIIandItsAftermath."EncyclopediaBritannicaOnline.EncyclopediaBritannica,n.d.Web.12Dec.2012.<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/90520/Cambodia/52486/World-War-II-and-its-aftermath>.10"PolPot."MoreorLess.N.p.,24Sept.2001.Web.10Nov.2012.11Guiat,Cyrille."Introduction."Introduction.TheFrenchandItalianCommunistParties:ComradesandCulture.London:FrankCass,2003.Xvii.Print.12Short,Philip."CityofLight."PolPot.London:JohnMurray,2004.62.Print.13Ibid.,65.14Wessinger,Catherine.Millennialism,Persecution,andViolence:HistoricalCases.Syracuse,NY:SyracuseUP,2000.282.Print.15Short,Philip."CityofLight."PolPot.London:JohnMurray,2004.67.Print.16"HistoryofTheCommunistPartyoftheSovietUnion(Bolsheviks)."Marxists.N.p.,n.d.Web.05Jan.2013.<http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1939/x01/ch11.htm>.
6
importanceofcorrectleadership,‘withoutwhichthecauseoftheproletarianrevolutionwill
beruined.’17StalintaughtthatMarxism-Leninismwasnotaphilosophy,butaguideto
action.TheHistoryalsoprovidedtheCambodianCommunistswithotherinvaluablelessons
ontheimportanceofrevolutionariesutilizingbothlegalandillegalformsofstruggleinorder
togainpower.Stalin’smessagesconstantlyurgedCommuniststoalwaysbeonthe
defensive.18
ThoughStalinismprovidedtheKhmerstudentswithasenseofdirection,Mao’sspeechOn
NewDemocracyinJanuaryof1940,deliveredtoruralworkersinYan’anprovidedan
intricateoutlineforrevolutionincolonialorsemi-colonialstates.19Maotaughtthat
revolutionsinsemi-colonialstateshadtooccurintwostages,firstademocraticrevolution
mustoccur,initiatedbyanallianceofdifferentclassesthenasocialistrevolutionmust
occur.20Maoexplains,‘theuniversaltruthofMarxism,mustbecombinedwithspecific
nationalcharacteristicstoacquireadefinitiveform…tobeuseful,andinnocircumstances
canitbeappliedobjectivelyasamereformula.Marxistswhomakeafetishofformulasare
simplyplayingthefool.’21TheKhmerstudentsneveracceptedMarxismasaresultofits
theoreticalinsightsbututilizeditinattemptstoexpeltheFrenchfromCambodia.
ThoughMaowasflexibleoncombiningnationalculturewithcommunism,onethinghe,like
Stalinremainedinflexiblein,co-operationtotheCommunistParty.WithMaoandStalin,
revolutionswereranbytheindustrialproletariat,Maoinsisted,‘therevolutioncannot
succeedwithoutthemodernindustrialworkingclass.’22Theconceptofanindustrialworking
class,modernorotherwisewasnon-existentinCambodia.23TheCerclehadoneoption,a
national-basedrevolutionforwhichanentirelydifferentmodelwasneeded,amodelPolPot
17HistoryoftheCommunistPartyoftheSovietUnion(Bolsheviks)ShortCourse.NewYork:International,1939.391-402.Print.18"WWII:BehindClosedDoors."PBS.PBS,n.d.Web.10Nov.2012.<http://www.pbs.org/behindcloseddoors/in-depth/stalins-spies.html>.19Short,Philip."CityofLight."PolPot.London:JohnMurray,2004.70.Print.20Zedong,Mao."TheChineseRevolutionandtheChineseCommunistParty."TheChineseRevolutionandtheChineseCommunistParty.1940.Marxists.2004.Web.19Nov.2012.<http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-2/mswv2_23.htm>.21Mao,Tse-tung.N.d.MS.Marxists.Web.19Nov.2012.<http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-3/mswv3_02.htm>.22Schoenhals,Michael.China'sCulturalRevolution,1966-1969:NotaDinnerParty.Armonk,NY:M.E.Sharpe,1996.231.Print.23Short,Philip."CityofLight."PolPot.London:JohnMurray,2004.72.Print.
7
foundinTheGreatRevolutionbytheRussiananarchist,Kropotkin.Thebook’scontentshad
undeniableparallelstotheconditionsofCambodiaatthetime.24
TheFrenchRevolutionof1789sharedmoresimilaritiestoconditionsinCambodiathan
RussiaandChina.Kropotkin’saimssetoutinTheGreatRevolutionposedasinspirational
ideastoPolPot.
TheRevolutionwaspreparedandmadebytwogreatmovements.Onewasthe
currentofideas–atideofnewideasonthepoliticalreorganizationoftheState–
whichcamefromthebourgeoisie.Theother,thecurrentofaction,camefromthe
popularmasses–thepeasantsandlaborers…Whenthesetwomovementsjoined
togetherforwhatatfirstwasacommongoal–whenforatimetheylenteachother
mutualsupport–theRevolutionoccurred…thephilosopherspreparedthewayfor
thedownfalloftheancientrégime…Itwasnecessarytopassfromtheorytoaction,
fromanidealconceivedbytheimaginationtoitspracticalimplementationbydeeds.
What[we]muststudytoday,aboveeverythingelse,arethecircumstances,which
permittedtheFrenchnation,ataparticularmomentinhistory,tomakethatleap–to
begintomakethatidealareality.25
CambodiainthetwentiethcenturywasFranceduringtheeighteenth.Thoughparallels
betweenthetwonationswerenotapparenttothoseinCambodia,thesimilaritiescriedout
totheKhmerstudents.“PrimeMinisterPolPotandIwereprofoundlyinfluencedbythespirit
ofFrenchthought–bytheAgeofEnlightenment,ofRousseauandMontesquieu”26,explains
KhieuSamphân.ItwasRobespierre’sradicalismthatdrewinsomeofthefuturemembersof
theKhmerRouge.SuongSikoen,whowouldlaterbecomeoneoftheclosestaidsofIeng
Sarywasquotedsaying:
“Robespierre’spersonalityimpressedme.Hisradicalisminfluencedmealot.Hewas
incorruptibleandintransigent...Ifyoudosomething,youmustdoitrightthroughto
24Ibid.,74.25Kropotkin,PetrAlekseevich,andN.F.Dryhurst.TheGreatFrenchRevolution,1789-1793.NewYork:Vanguard,1927.1-2.Print.26Short,Philip."CityofLight."PolPot.London:JohnMurray,2004.73.Print.
8
theend.Youcan’tmakecompromises...Youmustalwaysbeonthesideofthe
absolute–nomiddleway,nocompromise.Youmustneverdothingsbyhalves…”27
ThoughKropotkinpraisedtheFrenchRevolution,tohimtheRevolutionneverwentfar
enough.Kropotkinhadamoreaggressiveoutlookonrevolution,“mustneverstophalfway,
forthenitwillsurelyfail…Rather,oncearevolutionhasbrokenout,itmustdeveloptoits
furthestlimits.Atitshighestpoint,countervailingforceswillcombineagainstit…anditwill
beforcedtoyield…Reactionwillsetin…Buttheendresultwillbebetterthatwhatwent
before.”28ThoughKropotkin’swork,TheGreatFrenchRevolutioncontainedmuchmore
viableinformation,threeofhiscorenotionsstuckwithPolPot.29Thesecorenotionsinclude,
arevolution’sneedforanalliancebetweenintellectualsandthepeasantrythatarevolution
oncestarted,mustbecarriedouttotheveryend,andegalitarianismmakesupthebasisof
communism.30
Afterfailinghisexamsthreesuccessiveyears,PolPot’sbursarytostudyinFrancewascut-
off.31OnJanuary13,1953,PolPotarrivedbacktoCambodia.Duringthattime,several
studentsstudyinginFrancewereinformedoftheterminationoftheirbursaries.32Asthe
KhmerstudentsreturnedtoCambodia,theyweregreetedtoacountryunderVietMinh
control.
VietnameseAlliance
During1953,theKhmerVietMinhwereoneofthemostpromisingresistancegroups;itwas
atthetimetheonlyrebelgroupwithinternationalconnections.Theseinternational
connectionsoriginatefromitsalliancewithVietnam.Decisionshadtobemadeonwhether
thefutureKhmerRougewouldattempttoseizepowerfromwithinbyworkingwiththeViet
MinhorbyfightingagainstthembyjoiningforceswiththeSonNgocThanhledKhmer
Issarak.ThedecisiontojoinforceswiththeVietMinhposedtobethebestoptionforthe
27 Suong, Sikoeun. Interview. Phnom Penh Post [Phnom Penh] 15 Nov. 1996: n. pag. Print 28 Kropotkin, Petr Alekseevich, and N. F. Dryhurst. The Great French Revolution, 1789-1793. New York: Vanguard, 1927. 646 and 738-9. Print. 29Short, Philip. "City of Light." Pol Pot. London: John Murray, 2004. 74. Print. 30Adams, Matthew S. "Kropotkin: Evolution, Revolutionary Change and the End of History." Anarchist Studies 19.1 (2011): 56. Print.31Rakower, Michael C. "The Khmer Rouge: An Analysis." To Oppose Any Foe: The Legacy of U.S. Intervention in Vietnam. By Ross A. Fisher, John Norton Moore, and Robert F. Turner. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic, 2006. 209. Print.32Short, Philip. "Initiation to the Maquis." Pol Pot. London: John Murray, 2004. 89. Print.
9
futureKhmerRougeleaders,astheyfeltthatitwouldpreventtheunnecessarycasualtiesof
Cambodiancitizens.33
Forthenextninemonths,Cerclememberssubmitted,withresentmenttoVietnamese
orders.PolPotandotherCerclemembersintroducedthemselvesaspartofthePCF,coming
toaidinthestruggleforindependence.ThoughtheyintroducedthemselvesasCommunists,
thereweredifficultiesingainingthetrustoftheVietMinh,mainlycomprisedofVietnamese
andonlyafewCambodians.ThePariseducatedCambodiansfeltlikepuppetstothe
Vietnamese,astheytookallthedecisionsandlefttheCambodianswithinsignificanttasks.34
“Afterawhiletheyletmework….Iwasthedeputymessofficer.Themessofficer
himselfwasVietnamese.TheCambodianswereonlythereinname”35–FutureKhmer
RougeLeaderSalothSâr(PolPot)
ThoughPolPotsawthatthemovementwasentirelycontrolledbytheVietnamese,itdidn’t
necessarilyfuelanyanti-Vietnamesesentiments.PolPotfeltthatthemovementonitsown
shouldbemoreindependentandself-reliant;hefeltthatagoodrelationshipwithVietnam
wasvitalandoftentookvaluablelessonsfromthemthatwould,inthefutureaidinhisrise
topower.TheVietnamesecommunistswereverytalentedintheartofgainingmass
support;theyhadanintricatesystemof‘armedpropagandateams’36whoworkedcloselyon
theinfiltrationofCambodianhamlets.
PoliticalTurmoil
SihanoukgainedcontroloftheCambodiangovernmentinJuneof1952.37Hecampaignedfor
internationalsupportbytouringseveralnationswithhis“RoyalCrusade”.38Thestrugglefor
independencewasasuccessbytheendof1953,astheFrenchwerereadytocompromiseto
Cambodia’sterms.
33Short,Philip."InitiationtotheMaquis."PolPot.London:JohnMurray,2004.90.Print.34Ibid.,9635Pot,Pol.InterviewbyCaiXimei.May1984.36Short,Philip."InitiationtotheMaquis."PolPot.London:JohnMurray,2004.99.Print.37"Cambodia-HISTORY."Mongabay.Mongabay,n.d.Web.1Nov.2012.<http://www.mongabay.com/reference/country_studies/cambodia/HISTORY.html>.38Carvin,Andy."BeforetheHolocaust:Sihanouk'sRisetoPower."EdWeb.N.p.,1999.Web.1Nov.2012.<http://www.edwebproject.org/sideshow/history/sihanouk.html>
10
InreachingapoliticalsettlementtotheFirstIndochinaWar(FrenchIndochinaWar)atthe
GenevaConferencein1954.Sihanouk’sgovernmentbecamerecognisedastheonlylegal
authoritywithinCambodia,39preventingVietMinhfromgaininganyregionalpowerin
CambodiaastheydidinLaos.40
Duringthelate1960s,oppositiontoSihanouk’sruleincreased.41Thailandandformer
SouthernVietnamposedasbiggestthreatstothesurvivalofCambodiaasaprosperous
nation-state.42ThailandandSouthernVietnamwerecloseallieswiththeUSA,which
Sihanoukdisliked.43Sihanoukenforcedneutralityininternationalaffairsinattemptstogain
freedomtocontrolissueswithinCambodia.44DuetosuspicionofAmericaninvolvementin
twoSouthVietnamese-backedplotsagainsttheCambodianstatein1959and
encouragementinanti-AmericanismbytheFrenchpresident,CharlesdeGaulle,Sihanouk
brokeoffrelationswiththeUnitedStatesin1965.45AfterendingrelationswiththeUSA,
SihanoukarrangedsecretagreementswiththeVietnamesecommunists.Theagreements
madewiththeVietnamesecommunistsenabledthestationingofcommunisttroopson
Cambodianterritoryinoutlyingdistricts,undertheconditionthatCambodiancivilianswere
leftundisturbed.46
InMarchof1970,duringSihanouk’stourofEurope,theSovietUnion,andChina,anti-
VietnamesedemonstrationseruptedinPhnomPenh.47OnMarch12,SirikMatakcancelled
39"TheSihanoukYears."CambodiaHeritageTravel.CambodiaHeritageTravel,2008.Web.26Jan.2013<http://www.cambodiaheritagetravel.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=71:the-sihanouk-years&catid=37:cambodia-history&Itemid=44>.40"VietnamWarTimeline."DepartmentofEnglish,UniversityofIllinois.Web.23Jan.2013<http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htm>.41"Cambodia(Kampuchea)."UppsalaUniversitet.UppsalaConflictDataProgram,n.d.Web.26Jan.2013.<http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=27>.42Kislenko,Arne."ANotSoSilentPartner:Thailand'sRoleinCovertOperations,Counter-Insurgency,andtheWarsinIndochina."TheJournalofConflictStudies.N.p.,Summer2004.Web.12Jan.2013<http://journals.hil.unb.ca/index.php/jcs/article/view/292/465>.43"CambodiaHistory."HistoryofCambodia.LonelyPlanet,n.d.Web.16Jan.2013<http://www.lonelyplanet.com/cambodia/history>.44UnitedStates.CentralIntelligenceAgency.NationalSecurity.PrinceSihanoukandtheNewOrderinSoutheastAsia.ByJohnM.Taylor.FreedomofInformationAct:CentralIntelligenceAgency,May2007.Web.16Jan.2013<http://www.foia.cia.gov/CPE/ESAU/esau-25.pdf>.45Tighe,Paul,andDanielTenKate."NorodomSihanouk,FormerKingofCambodia,Diesat89."Bloomberg.BloombergL.P.,15Oct.2012.Web.15Oct.2012.<http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-10-15/norodom-sihanouk-former-king-of-cambodia-dies-at-89.html>.46"NorodomSihanouk(KingofCambodia)."EncyclopediaBritannicaOnline.EncyclopediaBritannica,n.d.Web.15Oct.2012<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/418437/Norodom-Sihanouk>.47"Lon Nol Ousts Prince Sihanouk." History.com. A&E Television Networks, n.d. Web. 18 Oct. 2012<http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/lon-nol-ousts-prince-sihanouk>.
11
Sihanouk’stradeagreementwithNorthernVietnam;theportofSihanoukvillereceivedan
ordertobeclosedofftotheNorthVietnamesebyLonNol.48Animpossibleultimatumwas
issued:allPAVN(NorthVietnameseArmy)andVietCongforcesweretoevacuatefrom
Cambodiawithin72hoursorweretofacemilitaryaction.49OnMarch16,whenitwasclear
thatthedemandsofLonNolhadnotbeenmet,civiliansgatheredoutsidetheNational
AssemblyinPhnomPenhtoprotestagainstthepresenceofVietnamesetroops.SirikMatak,
afterlisteningtoatape-recordedpressconferencefromParisinwhichSihanoukthreatened
toexecutehimandLonNolashereturnedtoPhnomPenh,convincedLonNoltodeposethe
prince.50OfalltheCommunistparties,theChineseweretheonlyoneswillingtosupport
SihanoukfortheyhadaseparateplanforCambodia.51
ChineseAmbitions
IntheSino-SovietBorderClashof1969,Chinafounditselfinaborderskirmishwiththe
SovietUnion.52ChinahadafearthatintheeventofNorthVietnamesevictory,aunited
Vietnammightfollowsuitwithapro-Sovietandanti-Chinesepolicies.Needingaproxyto
exertleverageonHanoi,Chinabeganplayingadoublegame.53ZhouEnlai,thefirstPremier
ofthePeople’sRepublicofChinawaspubliclycommittedtorestoringthemonarchyin
Cambodia54;atthesametimehewasalsoincreasingChinesesupportfortheCambodia
communist,theKhmerRouge.
DuringSihanouk’sexile,theRoyalGovernmentofNationalUnionofKampucheawasformed
andSihanoukalliedwithcommunistforcesofChina,NorthVietnam,andthePathetLao.55
ThroughChinesepressure,theKhmerRougewereincludedintothisnewlyformed
48Matak,SisowathSirik."OpenLettertoPrinceSihanouk."LettertoPrinceSihanouk.27Aug.1973.KIMedia.KIMedia,4Aug.2011.Web.26Oct.2012<http://ki-media.blogspot.nl/2011/08/open-letter-to-prince-sihanouk-by.html>49"LonNol."KhmerView-LonNol.N.p.,2012.Web.26Oct.2012<http://www.khmerview.com/Lon-Nol.html>.50Marlay,Ross,andClarkD.Neher.PatriotsandTyrants:TenAsianLeaders.Lanham,MD:Rowman&Littlefield,1999.165.Print.5152Burr,William."TheSino-SovietBorderConflict,1969:USReactionsandDiplomaticManeuvers."TheNationalSecurityArchives.N.p.,12June2001.Web.,26Oct.2012<http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB49/>.53Marlay,Ross,andClarkD.Neher.PatriotsandTyrants:TenAsianLeaders.Lanham,MD:Rowman&Littlefield,1999.165.Print.54Ibid.,167.55Carvin,Andy."BeforetheHolocaust:TheCoup."BeforetheHolocaust:TheCoup.N.p.,1999.Web.1Nov.2012.<http://www.edwebproject.org/sideshow/history/coup.html>.
12
government-in-exile.DespiteSihanouk’shistorywiththeKhmerRouge,hisChinese-fuelled
coalitionbecamelesssignificantcomparedtohishatredtowardsLonNol,referringtohimas
a“completeidiot”.56AlthoughSihanoukhadsupportfromthepeasantry,theywereinno
positiontoriseupagainstLonNol’sarmy.TheKhmerRougeseizedthisopportunitytooffer
Sihanoukfullsupport.
AmericanInvolvement
Sihanouk’sexileinChinaallowedLonNoltoseizepowerinCambodiamarkingthebeginning
ofadownwardspiral.LonNolmisguidedlythoughtthatmilitaryaidfromtheUSAwould
helpintheexpulsionofVietnamesecommunisttroopsanddefeattheKhmerRouge.LonNol
wasunabletoavoidbecomingthepuppetoftheUSAastheycontrolledhisbudget.57Inthe
summerof1971,LonNol’sarmylauncheditslastoffensiveasitprogressivelylostcontrolof
thecountrysideforthefollowingfouryears.58
TheUnitedStatesofAmerica’smainfocusintheregionwastoremoveallVietnamese
Communistinfluencesfromthearea.59InajointcoalitionwithSouthVietnam,theUSleda
groundinvasionofCambodiainMayandJuneof197060,whichfailedtoserveitspurposeof
evictingtheVietnameseCommunistsfromCambodia.Thefailedeffortstoevictthe
VietnameseCommunistsfromtheregionledtotheUSPresidentRichardNixonescalatingair
attackstowardsCambodiatodestroythemobileheadquartersoftheViet-Congandthe
NorthVietnameseArmy.NixondemandedanincreaseinbombsonCambodiaandplacedan
ordertoutilizethebombsdeeperintothecountry.ThebomborderstowardsCambodia
ignoredallpromisesbyNixonmadetotheCongressthatUSplaneswouldremainwithin30
kilometresoftheVietnameseborder.61PresidentNixon’s“MadmanTheory”wasthe
56Sihanouk,Norodom."IntervistaconLaStoria."InterviewbyOrianaFallaci.June1973:16.Print.57Hersh,SeymourM.ThePriceofPower:KissingerintheNixonWhiteHouse.NewYork:Summit,1983.175.Print.58Ibid.59Owen,Taylor,andBenKiernan."BombsOverCambodia."TheWalrusOct.2006:67.CambodianGenocideDatabases(CGDB).Web.20Sep.2012<http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf>.60Ibid.61Ibid.
13
centrepieceofhisforeignpolicy.62TheUSportrayedthebombardmentofCambodiaasa
symptomofNixon’sallegedinstability.
“IcallittheMadmanTheory,Bob.IwanttheNorthVietnamesetobelieveI've
reachedthepointwhereImightdoanythingtostopthewar…"forGod'ssake,you
knowNixonisobsessedaboutCommunism...”63–NixontoWhiteHouseChiefofStaff,
H.R.Haldeman
Forthenextthreeyears,underNixon’sorders,theUScontinuouslydroppedbombsdeep
insidetheCambodianborders.Atfirst,thebombingsweretargetedtoremovetheNorth
VietnameseArmyfromthearea,laterthebombingcampaignswereutilizedtodefendthe
LonNolregimefromgrowingthenumberofCambodiancommunistforces.64Thelastphase
ofthebombingsoccurredfromFebruarytoAugustof197365.Thebombingsfocusedon
stoppingtheKhmerRouge’sadvanceintoPhnomPenh.TheUnitedStates’fearoftheKhmer
RougetakingoverledtoanunprecedentedB-52bombardmentthatheavilyfocusedonthe
populatedareasaroundPhnomPenhbutleftfewregionsofthecountryunscathed.66
UntilCongresscutthefundingforthewarandforcedanendtothebombingsonAugust15,
1973,itwasbelievedthatapproximately2,756,941tonnesofordnanceweredroppedin
230,516sortieson113,716sitesinCambodiafromOctober4,1965toAugust15,1973.67
TheUSbombardmentofCambodiamerelytemporarilydelayedtheKhmerRouge’sabilityto
seizepowerofCambodia.Arguably,theUSbombingsofCambodiacreatedevenmorechaos
andgavetheKhmerRougeevenmorepowerthanitwouldhavehadiftheUSrefrained
fromthebombardment.TheKhmerRougeweredrivenoutoftheirbaseareasasaresultof
thebombings,butthisjustencouragedthemtosetupnewbasesinotherpartsofthe
country.Vastareasofthecountrysidetobecomeuninhabitablewhichcausedarapid
62Simon,Harvey.TheMadmanTheory.Bethesda,MD:Rosemoor,2012.Print.63Haldeman,H.R.,andJosephDiMona.TheEndsofPower.NewYork:Times,1978.122.Print.64Owen,Taylor,andBenKiernan."BombsOverCambodia."TheWalrusOct.2006:67.CambodianGenocideDatabases(CGDB).Web.20Sep.2012<http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf>.65Ibid.66Thayer,Nate."KhmerRouge,CambodianGovernmentSufferMemoryFailureinCourt:ThisMightHelp."'NateThayer'N.p.,8Dec.2011.Web.12Jan.2013.<http://natethayer.typepad.com/blog/khmer-rouge-tribunal/>.67Owen,Taylor,andBenKiernan."BombsOverCambodia."TheWalrusOct.2006:63.CambodianGenocideDatabases(CGDB).Web..20Sep.2012<http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaBombing_OCT06.pdf>.
14
increaseofrefugeesintoPhnomPenh,whichposedasaproblemtotheill-equippedLonNol
regime.Manychildrenwereorphanedduetotheintensebombardment,manywandering
groupsofCambodianchildrenturnedtoanewfatherfigure,theKhmerRougeleader,Pol
Pot.68
“Everytimeaftertherehadbeenbombing…Terrifiedandhalfcrazy,thepeoplewere
readytobelievewhattheyweretold.Itwasbecauseoftheirdissatisfactionwiththe
bombingthattheykeptonco-operatingwiththeKhmerRouge,joiningupwiththe
KhmerRouge,sendingtheirchildrenofftogowiththem....Sometimesthebombsfell
andhitlittlechildren,andtheirfatherswouldbeallfortheKhmerRouge.”69–Chhit
Do,FormerKhmerRougeOfficer
Assessment
NationalisminCambodiahasalwaysbeenstimulatedbyforeigninfluences.Siamand
Vietnam’scontinuousconflictoverCambodianterritorycausedCambodiatofallintoFrench
protectorate.FrenchcolonialismwastheammunitionforKhmerRougeleaders,givingthem
purpose,astheysoughttoridCambodiaofcolonialism.TheFrenchpreventedtheNational
AssemblyfromhavinganyrealgoverningpowerinCambodia,leadingtoanationdivided,
unabletomakemajordecisions.Instillingnationalisticsentimentswithinthenationwasnot
required,asitwasalreadyexistent,encouragedbytheJapanese.AsFranceandJapan
carriedonwiththeirimperialisticambitions,thepathforKhmerRougesuccesswas
unintentionallypaved.
TheleadersoftheKhmerRougestudieddifferentCommunistwritingsofMao,Stalin,
Kropotkin,andMarx.TheKhmerRougeleadersweredrawntothesewritingsforits
potentialofliberationinCambodia,notforitsphilosophy.TheKhmerRougeleaderspulled
differentaspectsofthesuccessofMaoandStalin,manifestingitintotheirownrendition,
towardpower.ThoughtheformsofCommunismasexecutedbyMaoandStalinwerenot
exactlyapplicabletosituationofCambodia,PolPotfoundinspirationinamoresuitable
model.HeavilyinfluencebyKropotkin,PolPotandotherKhmerRougememberscreated
parallelsbetweentheirnationalsituationandtheFrenchRevolution.Theysawtheneedto
68Ibid.69Do,Chhit.InterviewbyBrucePalling.BangkokPost1979:Print.
15
overthrowthemonarchy,theemphasisonradicalismandcompleteexecutionoftheirgoals.
ForeignideologyprovidedtheKhmerRougewithaconcretebasisforthebeginningoftheir
rule.
TheKhmerRougewereopportunists,takingadvantageofanychancetheygotthatwould
potentiallyleadthemtoapathofgreaterpower.Thisledtoanunlikelyalliancewiththe
VietnamesecontrolledKhmerVietMinhinwhich,thefutureKhmerRougeleadersbecame
subordinatesoftheneighboringrace.InsteadofallyingwithSonNgocThanh’smovement,
theyworkedwiththeVietMinhdisassemblingitfromwithin,graduallyshiftingthepowerto
theirhands.ThealliancewithVietMinhposednotonlysignificantintermsofthechanging
thebalanceofpowerbut,providedtheKhmerRougewithlessonsonpropagandathatthey
wouldutilizetolurepopularsupportandindoctrinateasenseofhatredtowardsforeigners.
TheChinesewereresponsibleforshapingtheKhmerRougeintoalegitimategovernmental
force,bypushingPolPottowardsanalliancewithSihanouk.Forminganevenfurther
divisionwithinthenationascitizenswereforcedtochoosesides.Havingthesupportofa
majorpowerlikeChinaprovidedtheKhmerRougewithenoughforcetoguaranteethem
success,aslongastheycontinuedonmakingtherightdecisions.
Americanbombingsbetween1970and1973,leftnotonlyareasofCambodiabarren,but
instilledseverehatredandangerwithinthepeopleaffected.TheKhmerRougeplayedon
thishatredandutilizedpropagandatechniquespickedupfromtheiryearswiththeViet
Minhtoinducesupportfortheirregime.TheUSbombingsoftheregionintendedtoridthe
areaofCommunistsresultedintheexacerbationofthesituation.Peopleweredrawntothe
KhmerRougeastheLonNolregimereliedontheUS.Inturn,CommunisminCambodia
becamemoreappealingthaneverbefore.
Conclusion
1975sawthestartofoneofthebiggestpostWWIIhumancatastrophesinSoutheastAsia,
onewhichwouldrivalthecatastrophesoftheKoreanandVietnamWars.Whatfirstbegan
asattemptstoridaCambodiaofFrenchcolonialismresultedinadownwardsspiralofa
nationfartoofamiliarwiththeeffectsforeigninfluences.TheKhmerRougeregime
16
massacredapproximately1.7millionCambodiancivilians,withinfouryears.Wereforeign
influencesthemaincauseintheriseoftheregime?
TheKhmerRougeexecutedtheirregimebasedonaselectionofvariousforeignideologies,
thepotentconcoctionofCommunistideologyinadditiontoexternalattemptsofits
suppressionallowedfortheoutburstofoneofthemostnotablegenocidesinhistory.In
assessingthereasonbehindthecreationoftheKhmerRouge,it’sclearthatforeign
influencesweretherootofnationalisticambitionsintheKhmerRougeandCambodia.The
chain-reactionsofeventsthattookplaceinCambodia,aidedbyforeignnationsinsupport
andprotestagainsttheKhmerRougegreatlyinfluencedtheirriseinpower.Theunintended
effectsoftheUSbombingsmeanttosuppresstheregimebecamethefinaltrigger,driving
theKhmerRougeintopower.TheKhmerRougecouldnothavegainedpowerwithout
foreigninfluences,forwithoutit;therewouldhavebeennobasisoftheirregime.
17
Bibliography
PrimarySources
• Owen,Taylor,andBenKiernan."BombsOverCambodia."TheWalrusOct.2006:
CambodianGenocideDatabases(CGDB).
• Do,Chhit.InterviewbyBrucePalling.BangkokPost1979:Print.
• Sihanouk,Norodom."IntervistaconLaStoria."InterviewbyOrianaFallaci.June1973:
Print.
• Kropotkin,PetrAlekseevich,andN.F.Dryhurst.TheGreatFrenchRevolution,1789-
1793.NewYork:Vanguard,1927.Print.
• Pot,Pol.InterviewbyCaiXimei.May1984.
• HistoryoftheCommunistPartyoftheSovietUnion(Bolsheviks)ShortCourse.New
York:International,1939.Print.
• Zedong,Mao."TheChineseRevolutionandtheChineseCommunistParty."The
ChineseRevolutionandtheChineseCommunistParty.1940.Marxists.2004.Web.19
Nov.2012.http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-
works/volume-2/mswv2_23.htm
• Matak,SisowathSirik."OpenLettertoPrinceSihanouk."LettertoPrinceSihanouk.
27Aug.1973.KIMedia.KIMedia,4Aug.2011.Web.26Oct.2012http://ki-
media.blogspot.nl/2011/08/open-letter-to-prince-sihanouk-by.html
• UnitedStates.CentralIntelligenceAgency.NationalSecurity.PrinceSihanoukandthe
NewOrderinSoutheastAsia.ByJohnM.Taylor.FreedomofInformationAct:Central
IntelligenceAgency,May2007.Web.16Jan.2013
http://www.foia.cia.gov/CPE/ESAU/esau-25.pdf
• "HistoryofTheCommunistPartyoftheSovietUnion(Bolsheviks)."Marxists.N.p.,
n.d.Web.05Jan.2013.
http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1939/x01/ch11.htm
18
SecondarySources
• Thayer,Nate."KhmerRouge,CambodianGovernmentSufferMemoryFailurein
Court:ThisMightHelp."'NateThayer'N.p.,8Dec.2011.Web.12Jan.2013.
<http://natethayer.typepad.com/blog/khmer-rouge-tribunal/>.
• Simon,Harvey.TheMadmanTheory.Bethesda,MD:Rosemoor,2012.Print.
• Haldeman,H.R.,andJosephDiMona.TheEndsofPower.NewYork:Times,1978.
Print.
• Hersh,SeymourM.ThePriceofPower:KissingerintheNixonWhiteHouse.NewYork:
Summit,1983.175.Print.
• Marlay,Ross,andClarkD.Neher.PatriotsandTyrants:TenAsianLeaders.Lanham,
MD:Rowman&Littlefield,1999.Print.
• Adams,MatthewS."Kropotkin:Evolution,RevolutionaryChangeandtheEndof
History."AnarchistStudies19.1(2011):Print.
• Rakower,MichaelC."TheKhmerRouge:AnAnalysis."ToOpposeAnyFoe:The
LegacyofU.S.InterventioninVietnam.ByRossA.Fisher,JohnNortonMoore,and
RobertF.Turner.Durham,NC:CarolinaAcademic,2006.209.Print.
• Schoenhals,Michael.China'sCulturalRevolution,1966-1969:NotaDinnerParty.
Armonk,NY:M.E.Sharpe,1996.231.Print.
• Guiat,Cyrille."Introduction."Introduction.TheFrenchandItalianCommunistParties:
ComradesandCulture.London:FrankCass,2003.Xvii.Print
• Wessinger,Catherine.Millennialism,Persecution,andViolence:HistoricalCases.
Syracuse,NY:SyracuseUP,2000.Print.
• Short,Philip.PolPot.London:JohnMurray,2004.Print.
• SokUdom,Deth.TheRiseandFallofDemocraticKampuchea.N.p.:n.p.,Winter2009.
PDF.
• Burr,William."TheSino-SovietBorderConflict,1969:USReactionsandDiplomatic
Maneuvers."TheNationalSecurityArchives.N.p.,12June2001.Web.,26Oct.2012
http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB49/
19
• Carvin,Andy.N.p.,1999.Web.1Nov.2012.
http://www.edwebproject.org/sideshow/history/coup.html
• "LonNolOustsPrinceSihanouk."History.com.A&ETelevisionNetworks,n.d.Web.
18Oct.2012http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/lon-nol-ousts-prince-
sihanouk
• "LonNol."KhmerView-LonNol.N.p.,2012.Web.26Oct.2012
http://www.khmerview.com/Lon-Nol.html
• "Cambodia-HISTORY."Mongabay.Mongabay,n.d.Web.1Nov.2012.
http://www.mongabay.com/reference/country_studies/cambodia/HISTORY.html
• Burr,William."TheSino-SovietBorderConflict,1969:USReactionsandDiplomatic
Maneuvers."TheNationalSecurityArchives.N.p.,12June2001.Web.,26Oct.2012
http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB49/
• "TheSihanoukYears."CambodiaHeritageTravel.CambodiaHeritageTravel,2008.
Web.26Jan.2013
http://www.cambodiaheritagetravel.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=art
icle&id=71:the-sihanouk-years&catid=37:cambodia-history&Itemid=44
• "VietnamWarTimeline."DepartmentofEnglish,UniversityofIllinois.Web.23Jan.
2013http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/vietnam/timeline.htm
• "Cambodia(Kampuchea)."UppsalaUniversitet.UppsalaConflictDataProgram,n.d.
Web.26Jan.2013.http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=27
• Kislenko,Arne."ANotSoSilentPartner:Thailand'sRoleinCovertOperations,
Counter-Insurgency,andtheWarsinIndochina."TheJournalofConflictStudies.N.p.,
Summer2004.Web.12Jan.2013
http://journals.hil.unb.ca/index.php/jcs/article/view/292/465
• "CambodiaHistory."HistoryofCambodia.LonelyPlanet,n.d.Web.16Jan.2013
http://www.lonelyplanet.com/cambodia/history
• Tighe,Paul,andDanielTenKate."NorodomSihanouk,FormerKingofCambodia,Dies
at89."Bloomberg.BloombergL.P.,15Oct.2012.Web.15Oct.2012.
http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-10-15/norodom-sihanouk-former-king-of-
cambodia-dies-at-89.html
20
• NorodomSihanouk(KingofCambodia)."EncyclopediaBritannicaOnline.
EncyclopediaBritannica,n.d.Web.15Oct.2012
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/418437/Norodom-Sihanouk
• Bekken,John."PeterKropotkin'sAnarchistCommunism."SpunkLibrary.N.p.,n.d.
Web.19Nov.2012.http://www.spunk.org/texts/writers/kropotki/sp000065.txt
• "PolPot."MoreorLess.N.p.,24Sept.2001.Web.10Nov.2012.
http://www.moreorless.au.com/killers/pot.html
• "WWII:BehindClosedDoors."PBS.PBS,n.d.Web.10Nov.2012.
http://www.pbs.org/behindcloseddoors/in-depth/stalins-spies.html
• Nelson,Phil."Indochina."Flagspot.,26Aug.2005.Web.http://flagspot.net/flags/vn-
inchn.html
• "HistoryofCambodia."HistoryofCambodia.N.p.,2004.Web.17Jan.2013.
http://www.historyofnations.net/asia/cambodia.html
• "UsefulNotes:ImperialJapan."TVTropes.TVTropesFoundation,n.d.Web.
http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/UsefulNotes/ImperialJapan?from=Main.Imp
erialJapan
• "CambodiaHistory."HistoryofCambodia.N.p.,n.d.Web.19Jan.2013.
http://www.lonelyplanet.com/cambodia/history
• "Cambodia:WorldWarIIandItsAftermath."EncyclopediaBritannicaOnline.
EncyclopediaBritannica,n.d.Web.12Dec.2012.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/90520/Cambodia/52486/World-War-
II-and-its-aftermath
• "KhmerRougePage."Cambodia.CambodianInformationCentre,15Aug.1995.Web.
10Jan.2013.http://www.cambodia.org/khmer_rouge/
• Becker,Elizabeth,andSethMydans."NorodomSihanouk,CambodianLeader
ThroughShiftingAllegiances,Diesat89."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimes,
14Oct.2012.Web.10Jan.2013.
http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/15/world/asia/norodom-sihanouk-cambodian-
leader-through-shifting-allegiances-dies-at-89.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0
21
• "TheCGP,1994-2012."CambodianGenocideProgram.YaleAssistanceto
DocumentationCenterofCambodia,1995-2005,2010.Web.17Jan.2013.
http://www.yale.edu/cgp/