exploring pressure injuries in the critical ...jill cox phd, rn, apn-c, cwocn [email protected]...
TRANSCRIPT
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Jill Cox PhD, RN, APN-c, CWOCNj i l [email protected] [email protected]
EXPLORING PRESSURE INJURIES IN THE CRITICAL CARE
POPULATION
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Describe current clinical challenges in pressure injury risk assessment in the critical care population.Describe current pressure injury risk
factors that confront the critical care population.Describe current clinical challenges in
pressure injury prevention in the critical care population.
OBJECTIVES
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FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE
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Circa 1955
CRITICAL CARE UNITS-PAST
"Special unit saves lives"
Circa 1980
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27% of all hospital admissions involve ICU stay
2.5 times more costly than other hospital admissions
ICUs led by critical care specialists (intensivist)
CRITICAL CARE UNIT- PRESENT
HCUP, 2014
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SNAPSHOT OF CRITICAL CARE PATIENTS: UNITED STATES
Mortality Risk: 10-29%• MOSF• C-V Event• Sepsis
Average LOS:3.8 days
Diagnoses:Acute Respiratory FailureAcute MIIntracranial hemorrhageC-V procedureSepticemia
Common Comorbidities:DMC-V DiseaseObesity
Patients are sicker and surviving once fatal acute illnesses!
Monitoring EquipmentPharmaceutical AgentsInvasive linesTreatment Modalities
Source: SCCMCDC
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Why study pressure injuries in ICU patients?
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Sickest patients in our healthcare systemHighest Prevalence RatesGround Zero for PI development among hospitalized patients.
CRITICAL CARE POPULATION
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SNAPSHOT OF CRITICAL CARE PATIENTS
WITH PRESSURE INJURIES
Top ComorbiditiesDiabetes
C-V Disease
Top DiagnosesTop ICU DiagnosesRespiratory Failure
Cardiac Related EventsTrauma
Sepsis/Septic Shock
Average LOS≥ 9 days
Mortality/Severity Of Illness
APACHE II: 9.5-22(8%-40%) mortality
risk
Treatment Associated Factors
Mechanical VentilationVasopressor Agents
Immobility
Age60-73 years
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Pressure Injury Characteristics
Epidemiology:5%- 45%
Highly Variable!
Most Common Stages:Stage 2
Recent studies:DTPI
Location:Sacrococcygeal
Days into the ICU Admission HAPI developed:
First Week
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t
A PRESSURE ULCER TOOK DOWN SUPERMAN!!
EVERY MONTH IS ICU PRESSURE ULCER AWARENESS MONTH!
DID YOU KNOW……..
94% of patients admitted into the ICU are at risk for pressure ulcers ( as measured by the Braden Scale)
Compliance to PI Risk Assessment
Tracked compliance to PI prevention strategies
Purchased critical care beds with low air loss surfaces in 2007 and again in 2015.
Pressure Injury Prevention Awareness Campaigns
OUR JOURNEY (2006-PRESENT…….)
STILL HIGH PI RATES!
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Can we truly capture PI risk in critical care patients using current risk assessment tools?What are the risk factors contributing to
PI development that need greater consideration in the critical care population?Do current prevention strategies mitigate
PI risk or could these risk factors be non-modifiable?
QUESTIONS
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Risk Assessment in the Critical Care
Population
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Braden Scale- United StatesJackson-Cubbin Scale: EuropeWaterlow Scale: Europe
CURRENT RISK ASSESSMENT SCALES USED IN THE ICU SETTING
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Bergstrom et al (1987): 60 ICU patientsConclusions from initial study:The critical cut-off point at which the patient
could be judged to be at risk for pressure sore formation was a Braden Scale score ≤ 16.Less tendency to overpredict than Norton
scale
BRADEN SCALESEMINAL WORK IN THE ICU
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Most widely used RAS in the U.S.Provides uniformity to risk assessmentStructured reminders for staffDefined risk factorsEasy to complete
ATTRIBUTES
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Sensitivity: what % of patients who developed a PI were classif ied as at r isk?
Specificity: what % of al l patients who remained PI free were classif ied as not at r isk?
Predictive Value of Positive Test(PVP): How well does the scale prospectively predict who wil l develop a PI?
Predictive Value of a Negative Test : (PVN): How well does the scale prospectively predict who wil l not develop a PI?
Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve (ROC): Balance of Sensit ivity/Specificity
ELEMENTS OF PREDICTIVE VALIDITY
ICU Studies: Braden Scale
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Total Braden Scale Score: Mixed in ICU StudiesLow Specificity/Low PVP = High False
Positive Rate
IS THE BRADEN SCALE PREDICTIVE IN THE CRITICALLY ILL POPULATION?
OverpredictionNeed to consider PI prevention strategies in place with assessment of RAS Predictive Validity!
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PREDICTIVE VALIDITY-SUBSCALESSensory
Perception
Activity
Moisture
Mobility
Nutrition
Friction /Shear
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Are we capturing true risk in this population?Are RAS better than clinical judgment?Survey of Critical Care Nurses: My clinical judgment is better than any assessment scale for risk for pressure ulcers available to me. (n = 330) 25% agreed; 45% disagreed; 30% neither agree/disagree (Cox & Schallom, 2017)
Studies are mixed(NPUAP, 2014)
Can we measure PI risk using a more efficient method?
QUESTIONS TO PONDER IN PI RISK ASSESSMENT IN CC PATIENTS
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Pressure Injury Risk Factors in Critical Care: What do we know today?
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Cardiovascular Disease Diabetes Mellitus
Perfusion(hypotension)
Age Length of ICU admission
Vasopressor Agents
Mechanical Ventilation
TOP 7 PRESSURE INJURY RISK FACTORS
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CATEGORIES
ComorbiditiesC-V Disease
DM
Iatrogenic Factors
VasopressorsMechanical Ventilation
Demographic Variables
AgeProlonged ICU
admission
Intrinsic Factors
Hypotension
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Age: #1Most frequently reported predictor.Mean age across studies:55-69: all patients60-73: PI + patients
Older, but not elderly!
Length of Stay: #2PI free: 3-14 daysPI Positive: 9-24 days
Factor of time? Proxy for overall
severity of illness?
Time to PI development:First week of ICU stay
RISK FACTORS-DEMOGRAPHIC
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Diabetes MellitusPrevalence of DM on the rise!Microvascular changes:capillary damage from oxidative stress/free radicals, poor perfusionMacrovascular changes:PAD, CAD, CVA
Cardiovascular Disease
CAD risk with DM Atherosclerotic
plaques
RISK FACTORS-COMORBIDITIES
IMPAIRED TISSUE OXYGENATION ANDPERFUSION
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Hemodynamic instability- a primary reason for ICU admission!
Defined: Systolic < 90 mmHg; MAP < 60-70 mmHg; or in systolic BP of 40 mmHg
Poor perfusion- circulation shunted from periphery to preserve vital organs affecting tissue tolerance
RISK FACTORS: INTRINSIC HYPOTENSION
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Increase MAP to improve tissue oxygenation and perfusion
Administered in profound hypotension unresponsive to fluids- shock states
Side effects: Inadequate perfusion of the extremities, mesentery, kidneys
Empirical Evidence:Vasopressor agents predictive (no specific agents)Norepinephrine and Vasopressin Predictive
RISK FACTORS: IATROGENIC/CARE RELATED
VASOPRESSOR AGENTS
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VASOPRESSIN: Second line agent for
refractory vasodilatory shock states (i.e. septic shock)
Given with another vasopressor agent
Does the addition of a second line agent create a “tipping point” that accelerates pressure injury risk?
Is it the pharmacodynamics of the vasopressors?
Is it the hypotension that necessitates the use of the agent?
Is it the overall burden of illness experienced by the critically ill patient who needs vasopressors?
Is it the perfect storm?
New vasopressor agent-Angiotensin II (Giapreza)
VASOPRESSOR AGENTSPRESSURE INJURY CONSIDERATIONS
Caveat: Can’t terminate these agents to mitigate PI risk!
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Respiratory Failure: most common ICU admitting diagnosis.Indications: Spontaneous respirations cannot sustain life impaired tissue oxygenation and perfusion.
Considerations in PI Risk: ?Reflection of overall
burden of illness ? Proxy for immobility ?Related to
Shear- continuous HOB
This is a life saving modality: non-negotiable to mitigate PI risk
RISK FACTORS: IATROGENIC/CARE RELATED
MECHANICAL VENTILATION
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Non-modifiable
Not included in current formal PI Risk Assessment
WHAT ARE TWO COMMON ATTRIBUTES OF THESE RISK FACTORS?
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Ability to prevent some pressure injuries may be
diminished in this population.
Strong potential for unavoidable pressure injuries
exists in the critically ill population.
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Despite best practice PIs do occur!!Some situations favoring an unavoidable PI: Hemodynamic instability with repositioning Significant cardiopulmonary compromise impaired tissue
oxygenation and poor tissue perfusion Shock states Initiation of l ive-saving modalities when: PI prevention strategies would be contraindicated
OR Take priority over PI prevention
All situations applicable to the Critical Care Population!
UNAVOIDABLE PRESSURE INJURIES
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Unavoidable pressure injuries can only be determined if PI prevention strategies are consistentlyin use!
UNAVOIDABLE PRESSURE INJURIES
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If the heart and lungs can fail, why not skin? A hypoperfusion state that leads to tissue death
that occurs simultaneously to a critical illness. Pressure-related injury concurrent with acute
illness as manifested by hemodynamic instability and/or major organ system compromise.
OR IS IT ACUTE SKIN FAILURE IN THE CRITICALLY ILL?
Problem: No clear cut diagnostic criteria to validate acute skin failure or distinguish acute skin failure from a pressure injury. More work to be done!
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PRESSURE INJURY STAGES
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Partial-thickness loss of skin with exposed dermis. (NPUAP,2016)
Considerations: Top down
development May be a friction
component May be related to
moisture Factors that impair
tissue tolerance
PRESSURE INJURY STAGES
Stage 2
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Intact or non-intact skin with localized area of persistent non-blanchable deep red, maroon, purple discoloration or epidermal separation revealing a dark wound bed or blood filled blister. NPUAP,2016)Rate: 9-12% nationally
Tissue ischemia/tissue deformationReperfusion InjuryShear injury- HOB
elevation(MV;EN)Hypoperfusion
statesHypotensionShock states
DEEP TISSUE PRESSURE INJURYRATES RISING!
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PRESSURE INJURY PREVENTION PRACTICES
IN CRITICAL CAREWHAT’S THE EVIDENCE?
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A change in position of the lying or seated individual performed at regular intervals with the purpose of redistributing or relieving pressure and enhancing comfort.” (NPUAP, 2014)
Reposition all individuals at risk of, or with existing pressure injuries, unless contraindicated
Strength of the Evidence= A
REPOSITIONING
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REPOSITIONING: CRITICAL CARE
Can critically ill, hemodynamically unstable patients be repositioned
safely?
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:REPOSITIONING HEMODYNAMICALLY
UNSTABLE PATIENTS• Study in 4 ICUs in the U.S. (Mitchell et al, 2017)(AHRQ QI)(n=4075)
• Studied frequency of inability to turn and reasons for not turning. Outcomes: 1 out of 6 deemed too unstable to be turned developed a PI after 8 hours. Clinical situations that resulted in inability to turn: hypoxia, BMI > 50, 2+ organs failing, vasopressors, hemodynamic instability, surgical procedure precluded turningConclusion: Fewer than expected clinical situations resulted in inability to turn.
• Evidence Review (Krapfl et al, 2017)
• Insufficient evidence at this time to conclude that incremental repositioning of hemodynamically unstable patients deemed to unstable to turn reduced PI rates in ICU population.
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REPOSITIONING TECHNIQUE
• Photo courtesy of Tod Brindle MSN, RN ET CWOCN and Linda Currie MSN, RN, ACNS-BC, CCRN-CSC Virginia Commonwealth University Medical Center
Team approach: adequate staff to assist
• Turning Trials every 8⁰• Secure all lines• Slow incremental turns to allow
for the adjustment of the body to gravitational changes
• 15° Pause15 seconds• 30° Pause15 seconds• 45° Pause 15 seconds
• Completion of turn and nursing tasks.
• Returned to 30° position using incremental shifts, wedges, pillows.
• Hemodynamics monitored for 10 minutes to determine if measures stabilize and patient recovers.
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WHAT IS THE OPTIMAL TURNING FREQUENCY FOR CRITICAL CARE
PATIENTS?• Prospective, observational study: average time to turn in the
ICU 4.85 hours (Goldhill et al, 2008)
• Prospective, observational study: mean time to repositioning for all ICU = 2 hours(+/- 30 minutes); Respiratory patients positioned more frequently in semi-Fowlers; Obese patients positioned most frequently in supine position. (Tayyib et al , 2013)
• RCT: No significant difference in PI rates when turning frequency to 4 hours vs. 2 hours in mechanically ventilated ICU patients on alternating pressure pad. Increase in adverse events noted with more frequent repositioning. (Manzano, et al 2014)
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Investigate efficacy of a wireless patient monitoring system for optimizing delivery of patient turning and subsequent reduction of HAPUs
• Pragmatic, open-label, two-arm, prospective, RCT in two ICUs
• 1,226 patients (671 treatment & 555 control).
Design
Findings• 43% increase in q 2-hour
repositioning compliance• HAPU rates: Treatment = 0.7%
Control = 2.7%
A decreased PI rate of 73% (OR=0.27, 95% CI [0.10, 0.75], p=0.01) (Pickham et al, 2018).
EVALUATING OPTIMAL PATIENT-TURNING PROCEDURES FOR
REDUCING PRESSURE INJURIES
Purpose
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SUPPORT SURFACES?
• RCT: No significant difference in PU rates in ICU patients on 2 different types of viscoelastic foam. (Ozyurek et al,2015)
• Prospective Observational: Lower incidence of PU in critically ill patients on LAL support surfaces with microclimate management as compared to integrated power air redistribution beds (Black et al,2012)
• Quasi-experimental: Alternating pressure mattresses were more effective than alternating pressure air overlays in preventing PU in mechanically ventilated ICU patients.(Manzano et al, 2013)
• Pilot RCT: Lower PU rates in ICU patients placed on an active alternating pressure surface versus a manually inflatable static low pressure mattress. (Melbrain, 2010)
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Turning/Positioning Devices
PI RatesTime/Staff
UtilizationStaff Compliance Improved turning
anglesPowers, 2016Hal l e t a l , 2016
Conformational Positioners
Buttock PIs Patient comfort ease of
positioning obese pts.
Brennan et a l , 2014
DO ASSISTIVE DEVICES REDUCE PRESSURE INJURIES IN THE
CRITICALLY ILL?
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Continuous Pressure Mapping
(Beherndt et al, 2014)
Real time visual feedback regarding body positioningPI rates
Non-invasive Perfusion Enhancement System
(Bharucha et al, 2018)Goal: avoid prolonged
vascular compression to the sacrum to improve tissue
perfusion
Sacral PI as compared to alternating pressure surface
DO ASSISTIVE DEVICES REDUCE PRESSURE INJURIES?
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OTHER CLINICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN REPOSITIONING
Increase Nurses’ Knowledge of Proper
TechniquesPresence of WOC
Nurse (Anderson et al, 2015)
Staff Education(Tayib et al, 2016)
Human Resource Considerations
Turn Teams (2 trained PCAs) (Still et al, 2013)
RN to verbally cue staff (Harmon et al 2016)
HOB elevation: a competing strategy?HOB elevation > 30 ⁰ No increase in PIs
(Schallom et al 2015, Grap et al , 2018)
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More research needed to determine optimal turning frequencies, positioning techniques and support surfaces.Do progressive mobility programs
decrease PI occurrence in the ICU population?
There will always be critically ill patients that are too unstable to be turned- Document it!
REPOSITIONING-POINTS TO PONDER
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Strengthening evidence to support this modality in ICU patients.Implementation Considerations:Strict criteria needed to determine eligible
patients to decrease overuse, misuse and associated costs.Standardized Protocols for assessment
parameters, dressing change intervals, discontinuing dressings.
More rigorous studies needed to fully understand the role of prophylactic dressings in PI reduction in this population.
PRESSURE INJURY PREVENTION IN THE ICU
PROPHYLACTIC DRESSINGS
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Due to insufficient evidence to support of refute the use of specific additional nutrit ional interventions in critical care patients , specif ic addit ional nutr i t ion interventions are not recommended for routine use in the populat ion .(NPUAP, 2014 Strength of evidence = C)
There is currently no clear evidence of a benefit associated with nutrit ional interventions for either the prevention or treatment of pressure ulcers. Further tr ials of high methodological qual i ty are necessary.Cochrane Review, 2014
Difficult to measure nutritional status in CC patients
WHY? Critical illness alters common nutritional markers inaccurate diagnosis of malnutrition. Fluid shifts erroneously
influence body weight
Markers associated with inflammation, also associated with nutrition
NUTRITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
UNDERSTUDIED thus UNDERAPPRECIATED!
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Early feedings ideally within the first 24-48 hours after admission.
Preferred route for feeding= enteral route (lower infection rates)
Use of a feeding algorithm
NUTRITIONAL GUIDELINESICU
A.S.P.E.N. / SCCM GUIDELINES-2016
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Legal Implications
Regulatory/Financial Implications
Quality Indicators
Challenges in Practice Today
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Present on Admission Indicator
The Hospital-Acquired Condition (HAC) Reduction Program: pay-for-performance program
Mandatory State Patient Safety Reporting Requirements
N.J. “Stage III or IV pressure ulcers acquired after admission… to a health care facility.”
What about PIs that occur or worsen for which acute care clinicians believe they have little external control and cannot mitigate pressure injury development?
Financial/Regulatory
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QUALITY
The National Database of Nursing Quality Indicators® (NDNQI®)Hospital acquired pressure injuries are nurse sensitive quality indicators, linking PI occurrence to the quality of care delivered by nurses.
Is PI development a Nurse Sensitive Indicator or Patient Sensitive Indicator?
Are acquired PIs only a reflection of nursing care?
Potentially inflates the reported PI rate artificially, coupled with possible negative connotations regarding the nursing care delivered.
Currently even PIs which may have been unavoidable are counted in NDNQI reporting
PROBLEM
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LEGAL IMPLICATIONS/PUBLIC PERCEPTION
Over 17,000 lawsuits filed related to pressure injuries annually, second only to wrongful death, and more common than patient falls.37
What about nurses and other caregivers who find themselves involved in litigation over HAPIs that were not the result of suboptimal care?
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CONCLUSIONS
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PI risk in the ICU population is multifactorial and complex!
Some PIs cannot be prevented in the ICU population!
Evidence base surrounding many PI prevention strategies is weak!
WHAT WE KNOW
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Improve Pressure Injury Risk Quantification in the ICU population.
Substantiate the label of the “Unavoidable Pressure Injury” in the
acute care setting
Continue to improve our evidence base surrounding PI risk factors and
PI prevention
WHAT WE STILL NEED TO DO
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LOOKING TOWARDS THE FUTURE:THE ICU IN 2050
Halpern et al, 2018
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THANK YOU!QUESTIONS?
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1 . So c ie t y f o r C r i t i c a l Ca r e Me d i c i n e . C r i t i c a l c a r e s t a t i s t i cs . h t t p : / /www. s c cm.o rg /Commun ica t i on s /Pag es /C r i t i c a lCa reS ta t s .as px
2 . Ba r r e t t ML , Sm i t h MW , E l i xh a u s e r A , Ho n ig ma n L S , P in e s J M. U t i l i za t i o n o f I n te n s i ve Ca r e Se r v i c e s , 2 0 1 1 . He a l t h c a re Co s t a n d U l t i za t i o n P r o j e c t . 2 0 1 4
h t t p : / / hcu p-u s .ah rq .g o v / re por t s / s ta tb r i e f s / sb 1 85-Ho sp i t a l - I n ten s i ve -Ca re -Un i t s -2 0 11 . j s p 3 . Na t i o n a l P r e s s ure U l c e r Ad v i s o r y Pa n e l , Eu r o p e a n P r e s s ure U l c e r Ad v i s o r y Pa n e l a n d
Pa n Pa c i f i c P r e s s u re I n j u r y A l l i a n c e . P r e ve n t i o n a n d T r e a tmen t o f P r e s s ure U l c e r s : C l i n i c a l P r a c t i c e G u id e l i n e . Em i l y Ha e s le r ( Ed ) . Ca m b r i dg e Me d ia : O s b orn e Pa r k , W e s te rn Au s t ra l i a ; 2 0 1 4
4 . Be r g s t rom, N , B r a d e n , B , L a g u zza , A , Ho lm a n , V . T h e B r a d e n s c a le f o r p r e d i c t i n g p r e s s u re s o r e r i s k . Nu r s Re s , 1 9 8 7 ; 3 6 ( 4 ) : 2 0 5 - 2 10 .
5 . Be r g s t rom, N , De m u th , B r a d e n , B : A c l i n i c a l t r i a l o f t h e B r a d e n Sc a le f o r p r e d i c t i ng p r e s su re s o r e r i s k . Nu r s i n g C l i n i c s o f No r t h Am e r i c a ; 1 9 8 7 ; 2 2 ( 2 ) ; 4 1 7 -4 2 8 .
6 . A ld e r d e n , J , Cu m m in s , M. Pe p p e r , G , e t a l . M id r a n g e B r a d e n s u b s c a le s c o r e s a r e a s s o c ia te d w i t h i n c r e a se d r i s k f o r p r e s s u re i n j u r y d e ve lo p me nt c r i t i c a l c a r e p a t i e n t s . JW OCN, 2 0 1 7 ; 4 (5 ) : 42 0-4 28 .
7 . Hyu n , S , Ve r m i l l i o n , B e t a l . P r e d i c t i ve Va l i d i t y o f t h e B r a d e n Sc a le f o r p a t i e n t s i n i n t e n s i ve c a r e u n i t s Am e r i ca n J o u r n a l o f C r i t i c a l Ca r e 2 2 ( 6 )4 ;51 4-5 20 .
8 . Co x , J . P r e d i c t i ve p o we r o f t h e B r a d e n Sc a le f o r p r e s s u re s o r e r i s k i n a d u l t c r i t i c a l c a r e p a t i e n t s . JW OCN, 2 0 1 2 ; 3 9 ( 6 ) : 6 1 3 - 6 21 .
9 . T e s c he r , A , B r a n d o , A e t a l . A l l a t r i s k p a t i e n t s a r e n o t c r e a ted e q u a l . An a l ys i s o f B r a d e n P r e s s ure U l c e r R i s k Sc o r e s t o I d e n t i f y Sp e c i f i c R i s k s . JW OCN, 2 0 1 2 ; 3 9 ( 3 ) ; 2 8 2 -2 9 1 .
1 0 . G a r c i a -Fern a nd ez , P , Ag r ed a , J , Ro d r i q ue z T o r re s , M. R i s k a s s e s sme nt s c a le s f o r p r e s su re u l c e r s i n i n t e n s i ve c a r e u n i t s : a s ys t emat i c r e v i e w w i t h m e ta -an a l ys i s . Eu r o p e an W o un d Ma n a g e ment As s o c ia t i o n , 2 0 1 3 ; 1 3 ( 2 ) , 7 - 1 3 .
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11. Cox, J , & Schal lom, M. Pressure in jur ies in cr i t ica l care: a survey of cr i t ica l care nurses . Cr i t ica l Care Nurse. 2017; 37(5) 46-56.
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18. Ef te l i , E. Gunes, U. A prospect ive , descr ip t i ve s tudy of r isk factors re la ted to pressure u lcer development among pat ients in in tens ive care un i ts . Ostomy Wound Management 2013; 59(7) : 22-27 .
19. O’Br ien , D, Shanks , A, Ta lsma, A, Brenner, P, Ramachandran S. In t raopera t ive r isk factors assoc ia ted wi th postopera t ive pressure u lcers in cr i t ica l l y i l l pat ien ts : a re t rospect ive observa t ional s tudy. Cr i t Care Med: 2013; 42(1) 40-47.
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4 2 . Ma lb r a i n , M, He n d r i k s , B e t a l . A p i l o t o f r a n d omizs e d c o n t ro l l e d t r i a l c o m p ar i n g r e a c t i ve a i r a n d a c t i ve a l t e r na t i ng p r e s s u re m a t t re sse s i n t h e p r e ve n t i o n a n d t r e a tme n t o f p r e s su re u l c e r s a m o n g m e d i c a l I CU p a t i e n t s . J T i s s V ia b i l i t y ; 2 0 1 0 ; 1 9 ; 7 - 1 5 .
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4 4 . Po we r s , J T wo m e t ho ds f o r t u r n i ng a n d p o s i t i o n i n g a n d t h e e f f e c t o n p r e s s u re u l c e r d e ve lo p m ent JW OCN: 2 0 1 6 , 4 3 ( 1 ) 4 6 - 5 0 .
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4 7 . P i c k h a m, D , Be r te , N , e t a l . E f f ec t o f we a r a b le p a t i e n t s e n s o r o n c a r e d e l i ve r y f o r p r e ve n t i ng p r e s su re i n j u r i e s i n a c u t e l y i l l a d u l t s : a p r a g mat i c r a n d omize d c l i n i c a l t r i a l . I n t J Nu r sS t u d ; 2 0 1 8 ; 4 2 ( 3 ) ; 2 1 7 - 2 25
4 8 . An d e r s on , M, G u t h r i e , P e t a l . Un i ve r s a l p r e s su re u l c e r p r e ve n t i o n b u n d le w i t h W OC n u r s e s u p p o r t . JW OCN;2 01 5 ; 4 2 ( 3 ) 2 1 7 - 2 25
4 9 . T a yy ib , N , Co ye r , F , L e w is , P . Re g i s te red n u r s e s a t t i t u de s t o wa r d p r e ve n t i o n s t ra teg ie s a n d p e r c e i ve d f a c i l i t a to r s a n d b a r r i e r s t o e v i d e n c e im p le m en ta t i o n . JW OCN;2 01 6 ; 4 3 ( 4 )3 69 -37 4
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